0  ■diversion  of  Water  from  the  Great  Lakes 

and  Niagara  River 


LETTER  FROM 
THE  SECRETARY  OF  WAR 

TRANSMITTING 

WITH  A  LETTER  FROM  THE  CHIEF  OF  ENGINEERS,  REPORTS 
BY  COL.  J.  G.  WARREN,  CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS,  AND  THE 
BOARD  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  RIVERS  AND  HARBORS,  OF  AN 
INVESTIGATION  AUTHORIZED  BY  PUBLIC  RESOLUTION  NO.  8, 
SIXTY-FIFTH  CONGRESS,  OF  THE  SUBJECT  OF  WATER 
DIVERSION  FROM  THE  GREAT  LAKES  AND  THE  NIAGARA 
RIVER,  INCLUDING  NAVIGATION,  SANITARY,  AND  POWER 
PURPOSES,  AND  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  SCENIC  BEAUTY 
OF  NIAGARA  FALLS  AND  THE  RAPIDS  OF  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

(Including  plates  1-57.) 


LOS  ANGELES 


iS56 


LIBRARY 
GO\/T.  PUBS.  SERV. 


WASmNQTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1921 


Diversion  of  Water  from  the  Great  Lakes 
and  Niagara  River 


LETTER  FROM 
THE  SECRETARY  OF  WAR 

TRANSMITTING 

WITH  A  LETTER  FROM  THE  CHIEF  OF  ENGINEERS,  REPORTS 
BY  COL.  J.  G.  WARREN,  CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS,  AND  THE 
BOARD  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  RIVERS  AND  HARBORS,  OF  AN 
INVESTIGATION  AUTHORIZED  BY  PUBLIC  RESOLUTION  NO.  8, 
SIXTY-FIFTH  CONGRESS,  OF  THE  SUBJECT  OF  WATER 
DIVERSION  FROM  THE  GREAT  LAKES  AND  THE  NIAGARA 
RIVER,  INCLUDING  NAVIGATION,  SANITARY,  AND  POWER 
PURPOSES,  AND  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  SCENIC  BEAUTY 
OF  NIAGARA  FALLS  AND   THE   RAPIDS   OF   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

(Including  plates  1-57.) 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

192: 


COMMITTEE  ON  FOREKiN  AFl  AIIIS. 
House  of  Representatives. 


SIXTT-SIXTH  CONGBESS. 


STEPHEN  G.  rOETER, 

JOHN  JACOB  ROGERS,  Massachusetts. 
HliNR"^'  ^V.  TEMPLE,  Pennsylvania. 
AMBROSE  KENNEDY,  Rhode  Island. 
KDWARD  E.  BROWNE,  Wisconsin. 
MERRILL  MOORES,  Indiana. 
WILLIAM  E.  MASON,   Illinois. 
WALTER  H.  NEWTON,  Minnesota. 
L.  J.  DICKINSON,  Iowa. 
ERNEST  R.  ACKERMAN,  New  Jersey. 
FRANK  L.  SMITH,  Illinois. 
JAMES  T.  BEGG,  Ohio. 


Pennsylvania,  Chairman. 
ALANSON  B.  HOUGHTON,  New  York. 
HENRY  D.   FLOOD,   Virginia. 
J.  CHARLES  LINTHICUM,  Maryland. 
WILLIAM  S.  GOODWIN,  Arkansas. 
CHARLES  M.  STEDMAN,  North  Carolina. 
ADOLPH  J.  SABATH,  Illinois. 
J.  WILLARD  RAGSDALE,  South  Caioliua. 
GEORGE  HUDDLESTON,  Alabama. 
TOM  CONNALLY,  Texas. 
THOMAS  F.  SMITH,  New  York. 


Edmund  F.  Erk,  Clerk. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 11 

Letter   of  submittal 13 

Report  of  Board  of  Engineers  for  Rivers  and  Harbors 15 

Letter  of  Col.  J.  G.  Warren,  Corps  of  Engineers 61 

Report  of  Col.  J.  G.  Warren,  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army,  on 
investigation  of  water  diversion  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara 

River 61 

Appendices 103 

Letter  of  transmittal,  W.  S.  Richmond,  assistant  engineer 10.3- 

Appendix  A.  Description  of  diversions 103 

Section  A.  Diversions  for  navigation  purposes 104 

1.  St.  Marys  Falls  Canals 104 

2.  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  and  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal 108 

3.  Wetland    Canal 116 

4.  Black  Rock  Canal 120 

5.  New  York  State  Barge  Canal 123 

6.  St.  Lawrence   River  Canals 138 

7.  Proposed  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal 145 

8.  Otlier  proposed  navigation  canals,  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario-  148 

9.  Proposed  canals,  Lake  Ontario  to  Hudson  River 159 

10.  Other  present  or  proposed  canals  diverting  water   from  the 

Great  Lakes  or  their  tril)utaries 160 

Section  B.  Diversions  for  sanitary  purposes 168 

1.  Chicago    Sanitary    Canal 168 

2.  Black  River  Canal 186 

3.  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal 187 

4.  Diversions  of  cities 190 

Section  C.  Diversions  for  power  purposes 191 

1.  St.  Marys  Falls  Canals 191 

2.  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 193 

3.  Welland  Canal 195 

4.  New  York  State  Barge  Canal 198 

5.  Black  Rock  Canal 207 

6.  Canadian  and  United  States  power  plants  at  Niagara  Falls 207 

7.  St.  Lawrence  River  Navigation  Canals 225 

8.  Massena  Canal 22T 

9.  Little  River  at  W^addington,  N.  Y 229 

10.  Long   Sault  Rapids  project 231 

11.  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal 233 

Appendix  B.  Field  and  office  operations 234 

Appendix  C.  Preservation  of  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  of  the 

rapids  of  Niagara  River 253 

Letter  of  transmittal,  First  Lieut.  Albert  B.  Jones,  Engineers 253 

1.  The  problem 253 

2.  Allowable  diversions  around  tlie  Falls 270 

3.  Remedial   works 273 

4.  Allowable  diversions  around  the  rapids 278 

5.  Division  of  proposed  diversion  and  of  cost  of  remedial  works 280 

Supplementary  report  Lieut.  Jones 281 

Appendix  D.  Propositions  for  utilizing  diversions  with  greater  economy 285- 

1.  General  statement 285 

2.  Present  Niagara  Falls  plants 292: 

3.  Proposed  plant  using  entire  diversion  and  total  head 304 

4.  Proposed  plants  dividing  diversion  but  using  full  head 315 

5.  Proposed  plants  dividing  diversion  and  dividing  head 316- 

6.  Proposed  plants  using  full  diversion  but  dividing  head 324 

7.  Proposed  power  development  combined  with  ship  canal 326- 

3 


4  T.VBLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

Appendix  D — Continued.  Page. 

S.  rroitoseil  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal 332 

9.  riants  jiroposi'd  by  various  interests 335 

10.  Coiiiparisoii  and  disrussion  of  proposed  developments 338 

ApiM'ndix  E.  EtTt'cts  of  diversion.s  upon  lake  levels 352 

1.  (JtMieral  i»rinciples 352 

L!.  Outlets  of  the  (Jreat  Lakes  and  formulas  of  discharge 3.54 

3.  EfTtMt  of  ice  on  river  flow  and  lake  levels 360 

4.  Hydroh.frical  data 364 

5.  Effects  of  pre.^ent  diversions 369 

i\.  Effects  of  proposwl  diversions 376 

7.  Remedial  works 377 

Appendix  F.  Economic  value  of  diversions 386 

1.  Effect  ui»on  navi;ration 386 

2.  Effect  upon  riparian  interests 395 

3.  Value  to  Chicago  of  its  diversion 396 

4.  Value  to  public  of  effect  on  power  production 398 

Appendix  G.  International  and  interstate  matters  involved 401 

1.  International  matters  involved 401 

2.  Treaty  provisions 405 

3.  Interests  of  various  States 413 

PLATES. 

( In  portfolio. ) 
No. 

1.  Great  Lakes  Drainage  Basin. 

2.  St.  Marys  River. 

3.  St.  Marys  Rapids,  locks,  and  canals. 

4.  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 

5.  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago. 

6.  Niagara  River  and  vicinity. 

7.  lilack  Rock  Canal  and  vicinity. 

8.  Canals  of  western  New  York. 

9.  Canals  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  Galop  and  Morrisburg  Canals. 

10.  Canals  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  Farran  Point  and  Cornwall  Canals. 

11.  Profile  of  Niagara  River,  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario. 

12.  Reproduction  of  plate  2,  Deej)  Waterways  report  nf  1S97. 

13.  Tuitographi:-  map,  Niagara  Falls  and  vicinity,  sheet  No.  1. 

14.  Topographic  map,  Niagara  Falls  and  vicinity,  sheet  No.  2. 

15.  Lower  Niagai'a  River  profile. 

16.  Niagara  Gorge.  American  side  in  vicinity  of  Lewiston. 

17.  Tyjiical  geologic  section  of  Horseshoe  Falls. 

18.  Crest  line  of  Horseshoe  Falls,  showing  recession. 

19.  Current  directirms,  vicinity  of  Horseshoe  Falls. 

20.  Current  velocities,  vicinity  of  Hor.seshoe  Falls. 

21.  Soundings,  vicinity  of  Horseshoe  Falls. 

22.  Rock  surface  elevations,  vicinity  of  Honseshoe  Falls. 

23.  Discharge  of  Horseshoe  Rapids  by  float  measurements. 
24  an<l  25  canceled. 

26.  Prf»posed  remedial  works  in  Horseshoe  Rapids. 

27.  Distribution  of  flow  through  Horseshoe  Rapids  after  construclion   of  pro- 

posed remedial  works. 

28.  Present  American  power  plants  at  Niagara  Falls. 

29.  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  hydraulic  plant,  stations  2  and  3. 

30.  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  hydraulic  plant,  cross  sections  of  station  3. 
.^1.  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co..  Niagara  i)lant. 

".2.  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co..  Niagara  plant,  cro.ss  section  of  power  house  No.  2. 

33.  Proposed  power  developments  at  Niagara  P"'alls. 

34.  Taili-ace  tiuinel  proi)osition  power  hou.se. 

35.  Pressure  tunnel  proposition,  intake. 

36.  Pressure  tunnel  proposition,  differential  surge  tank. 

37.  Pressure  tunnel  proposition,  power  hou.se. 

38.  I'ressure  tunnel  i)roposition,  alternative  design,  mid-river  intake. 

39.  Propfi.sed  canal  power  dcn-elopment. 

40.  Power  canal  jtropositlon.  Intake. 

41.  Power  canal  proposition,  forebay  and  power  hou.se. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  5 

No. 

42    Compound  two-stage  proposition,  tunnel  intake. 

43.  Compound   two-stage  proposition,   upper  station,   without  down-river  con- 

44.  Conipound  two-stage  proposition,  upper  station,  with  down-river  connections. 

45.  Compound  two-stage  proposition,  lower  station. 
40.  Simple  two-stage  proposition,  intalce. 

47.  Simple  two-stage  proposition,  upper  station. 

48.  Simple  two-stage  proposition,  lower  station. 

49.  I'roposed  combined  ship  and  power  canal,  Niagara  River. 

50.  Ship-canal  proposition,  power  plant. 

51.  Ship-canal  proposition,  locks. 

52.  Relative  elevation  of  Lake  St.  Clair  for  47  yeans. 

53.  Stage  relation  between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie. 

54.  Effect  of  ice  on  elevation  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron. 

55.  Effect  of  ice  on  fall  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie. 

56.  Effect  of  ice  on  elevation  of  Lake  Erie. 

57.  EfCect  of  ice  on  elevation  of  Lake  Ontario. 

TABLES.                                                         '  1 

No.  P«««- 

1.  Diversions  at  St.  Marys  Falls ^ 

2.  Water  diversions  at  Niagara  Falls oJ 

3.  Estimated  cost  of  ship  canal.  La  Salle-Lewiston  route "^ 

4.  Estimated  annual  charges  for  power  development,  second  diversion  of 

20,000  cubic  feet  per  second °'* 

5.  Estimated  annual  charges  for  power  development,  first  diversion  of 

20,000  cubic  feet  per  second 84 

6.  Lowering  in  feet  at  mean  stage  due  to  present  diversions  of  water 

from  the  Great  Lakes °^ 

7.  ElTect  in  feet  at  mean  stage  of  proposed  diversions  of  water  from  the 

Great  Lakes f^ 

8.  Approximate  Vv'ater  diversions  at  locks.  Sault  Ste.  Marie 10» 

9.  Discharge  of  Barge  Canal  at  Lockport,  N.   Y.,  under  various  con- 

ditions    ^f;* 

10.  Freight  moved  through  Wetland  Canal  in  1914 1^* 

11.  Yearly  mean  diversion  through  the  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  as  reported 

by  the  engineers  of  the  sanitary  district 1'''6 

12.  Tvphoid-fever    death    rate    per    100,000    in    Niagara    Falls,    N.    Y., 

'1903-1917 189 

13.  Present  operation  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie  power  plants 19* 

14.  Estimated  diversions  from  the  Wetland  Canal 19S 

15.  Power  developments  on  south  headrace  at  Lockport,  N.  Y 200 

16.  Power  sites  on  Eighteen-Mile  Creek -01 

17.  Power  installations  on  the  Oswego  River 203 

18.  Diversion  data  on  Niagara  Falls  power  plants 225 

19.  AVater-power  development  on  Cornwall  Canal 226 

20.  Little  River  water  power,  approximate  present  use  of  water 230 

21.  Triangulation  stations  used  in  survey  of  crest  line  and  Rapids,  Horse- 

shoe Falls 237 

22.  Backwater  in  Niagara  Gorge  due  to  dam  at  foot  of  Fosters  Flats 239 

23.  Daily  mean  water  surface  elevations  of  Niagara  River 242 

24.  New  bench  marks  established  in  1917  in  vicinity  of  Niagara  Falls 246 

25.  Bench  marks  along  the  Niagara  River  established  previous  to  1917 247 

26.  Rate  of  recession  of  Horseshoe  Falls 263 

28.  Schedule  of  unit  prices  adopted : 288 

29.  Thickness  of  concrete  lining  in  tunnels 289 

30.  Estimated  cost  of  tunnels  per  lineal  foot 290 

31.  Efficiency  of  hydraulic  plant  of  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co 298 

32.  Estimate  of  cost  of  tailrace  tunnel  proposition 306 

33.  Estimate  of  cost  of  pressure  tunnel  proposition 308 

34.  Estimate  of  cost  of  power  canal  proposition 312 

35.  Power  output  of  compound  two-stage  proposition 318 

36.  Estimate  of  cost  of  compound  two-stage  proposition 319 

37.  Estimate  of  cost  of  simple  two-stage  proposition 325 


f)  TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 

No.  ^^ee. 

38.  Estimate  of  cost  of  combined  ship  and  power  canal  propositions 330 

39.  Esfniate  of  rost  of  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal,  as  submitted  by 

tl»e  Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  Co 332 

40.  Revised  »'stiinate  of  ci>st  of  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal '  334 

41.  Coniiiarative  sunimary  of  estimates  of  cost  of  various  propositions 339 

42.  E.<iiinatiHl  annual  cliarws  for  power  development  from  second  diver- 

sion of  2(MKX)  cubic  feet  per  .second 344 

43.  Estiuuued  annual  charsres  for  power  development  from  fii'st  diversion 

of  2O.lK>0  cubic  feet  i)or  .sec-ond 347 

44.  Kates  of  construction  interest,  showing  variation  with  change  in  rate 

of  absori>tion  of  power 348 

4."..  Water  supjily  of  the  (Jreat  Lakes 367 

4G.  Lowering  of  Lake  levels  by  diversion  of  water  through  the  Chicago 

I>rainage  Canal 372 

47.  Effkit  of  uncompensated  diversions  upon  Lake  levels 375 

48.  Effect  of  proposed  diversions  upon  Lake  levels -^77 

4'J.  Erelgbt  statistics  of  important  Great  Lakes  ports 386 

5<>.  Keconmiendeil  draft  for  Lake  freigbters,  1917 387 

M.  Classification  of  Lake  freighters  by  size 388 

r)2.  l>iniensions  of  largest  freighters  of  Oreat  Lakes 3S9 

ftS.  liuik  freight  carried  in  commerce  of  Great  Lakes 389 

54.  Estimateil  Lake  freight  rates 390 

55.  Ni't  registered  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  from  important  ports 393 

50.  Estimate  of  value  to  Chicago  of  its  diversion 398 

57.  Comparative  cost  of  steam  and  hydraulic  power 399 

PHOTOGRAPHS. 
No. 

1.  Tvpical  bulk  freighters  of  the  Great  Lakes 112 

2.  o"ld  lock  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 112 

3.  "  State  locks  "  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 112 

4.  Fourth  lock  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 112 

5.  Weitzel  Lock  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 112 

C.  Weitzel,  Poe,  and  third  locks  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 112 

7.  Canadian  lock  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 112 

8.  Illinois  &  Michigan  Canal 112 

9.  Fox  Kiver  Aqueduct,  Illinois  &  Michigan  Canal 112 

10.  Another  view  of  Fox  River  Aqueduct 112 

11.  Lock  No.  2,  Illinois  &  Michigan  Canal  (abandoned) 112 

12.  Rock  .section,  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 112 

13.  Controlling  works,  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 112 

14.  P.ear  Trap  Dam,  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 112 

15.  Itrum  Dams  and  Lock,  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 112 

IG.  State  Dam  No.  1,  Des  Plaines  River 112 

17.  Rock  section,  present  Welland  Canal 112 

18.  Earth  cut,  present  Welland  Canal 112 

19.  Michigan  Central  Railroad  drawbridge,  present  Welland  Canal 112 

20.  Guard  gates  and  Lock  No.  25,  present  W^elland  Canal 112 

21.  Sorit«5  of  locks,  present  Welland  Canal 112 

22.  Port  Dalhousie,  Ontario,  Lock  No.  1,  present  Welland  Canal,  on  left; 

Lock  No.  1,  old  Welland  Canal,  on  right 112 

23.  Sluices  admitting  water  to  old  Welland  Canal 112 

24.  Lock  and  viaduct,  old  Welland  Canal 112 

25.  Junction  of  Twelvemile  Crwk  and  old  Welland  Canal 112 

20.  P.lack  Rock  ship  lock 112 

27.  P>la<-k  Rock  Canal,  Ferrv  Street  Bridge 112 

28.  Giianl  Lock  No.  72,  old  Erie  Canal,  Black  Rock 112 

NEW    YORK    STATE   BAKGE   CANAL. 

29.  Typical  rock  se<-tion,  under  con.struction 112 

30.  Typical  earth  section 112 

31.  Carialize<l  s<'ction  of  Outida  River 128 

32.  Exterior  of  hydraulic  power  house 128 

33.  Interior  of  hydraulic  power  house 128 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

^°-                                                           .  T->S 

34.  Exterior  of  j?asoline  power  house |1-^'^ 

35.  Interior  of  gasoline  power  liouse ^-^ 

36.  Old  iuul  new  loc-ks  at  Lockport,  N.  Y ^-'^ 

37.  (Juard  ^^ates  near  I'endleton |-^ 

38.  1  )ani  and  sluices  on  Mohawk  River  at  Vischers  Ferry i-« 

39.  Movahle  dam  on  INIohawk  Kiver  at  Cranesville 1-'^ 

40.  Lock,   dam,   and   Taintor   jiates 1-^ 

4L  Lock  and  movable  dam  on  Mohawk  River  at  Schenectady J-^ 

42.  Another  view  of  the  same j;'^ 

43.  Crescent  dam  near  mouth  of  Moliawk  River |-» 

44.  Old  and  new  locks  at  Waterford ^-^ 

45.  Bv-pass  at  Lockport,  N.  Y |^^ 

46.  Guard  Lock  No.  72,  old  Erie  Canal.  Buffalo,  N.  Y J^»- 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

47    St  Lawrence  canals,  waste  weir,  and  gates  at  Lock  No.  27 192 

48.  St.  Lawrence  canals.  Galop  Canal  above  Iroquois,  Ontario 19^ 

49.  St.  Lawrence  canals,  Lock  No.  24 |j^- 

50.  Head  of  Black  River  Canal,  Mich j^^ 

51.  Mouth  of  Black  River,  Port  Huron,  Mich — — i"^ 

52.  Controlling  works  and  Government  power  house,  Sault  Ste.  Mane—  i^^ 

53.  Canal  of  Michiiian  Northern  Power  Co.,  Sault  Ste.  Marie IJ- 

54.  Power  house  of  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,  Lockport,  111 !»- 

55.  Sector  dam  at  power  house  of  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago IJ^ 

56.  Power  house  at  Joliet,  111.,  on  Des  Plaines  River 1-^^ 

57.  Dam  on  Illinois  River  at  Marseilles.  Ill |^^ 

58.  Main  power  canal  at  Marseilles,  111 tr^ 

.59.  Mills  and  power  hou.ses  below  Marseilles  Dam j^^ 

60.  Mills  near  Lock  No.  3,  old  Welland  Canal j^^ 

61.  Mills  near  Lock  No.  2,  old  Welland  Canal 1^^ 

SURVEYS. 

62.  Rod  floats  used  in  survey  of  Niagara  Rapids 1^2 

63.  Field  parties  observing  floats  from  0  .7 |^- 

64.  Field  parties  observing  floats  from  ©  D |^^ 

65.  Chippewa  gauge "^ 

66.  International  Railway  intake  gauge i^i^ 

67.  Suspension  Bridge  gauge |^^ 

68.  Prospect  Point  gauge j^^ 

69.  Rock  soundings,  driving  a  rod |^^ 

70.  Rock  soundings,  pulling  a  rod  by  machine f^- 

71.  Rock  soundings,  pulling  a  rod  with  jacks 

NIAGARA    FALLS    AND    VICINITY. 

72.  Panorama  of  Niagara  Falls  in  summer  and  winter,  from  Canadian 

sifle 2^^ 

73.  Panorama  of  Niagara  Falls  from  "  Falls  View  " 256 

74.  American  Rapids  from  Goat  Island  Bridge -^o 

75.  The  same ^J^ 

76.  The  same ;^^ 

77.  The  same ^5^ 

78.  Canadian  Rapids  from  Goat  Island f^^^ 


79.  The  sarae- 

80.  The  same- 


256 
256 


81.  Canadian  Rapids  from  Canadian  side 256 

82.  American  Falls  from  Canadian  side 25b 


S3.  The  same- 

84.  The  same. 

85.  The  same. 


256 
256 
256 


86.  The  same_ 


^ 256 

87.  American  Falls  from  Goat  Island 256 

88.  The  same 256 

89.  The  same 250 


90.  The  same- 


256 


8  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

No.  Page. 

91.  Horseshoe  Falls  from  Goat  Island 256 

9\1.  The   same 256 

«».S.  Tlie   same 256 

^.  The  same 256 

J»."i.  West  eml  of  Horseshoe  Falls  from  Canadian  side 256 

m.  The   same 256 

97.  East  end  of  Horseshoe  Falls  from  the  "  Refectory  " 256 

9S.  The  same 256 

9*t.  The   same 256 

1(10.  East  end  of  Horseshoe  Falls  from  Canadian  end 256 

101.  The  same 256 

lOi'.  East  end  of  Horseshoe  Falls  from  Goat  Island 256 

1(».S.  The  .same 256 

KM.  The   same 256 

105.  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool  from  Michigan  Central  Railroad  bridge 256 

106.  Head  of  Whirlpool  Rapids 256 

107.  Head  of  Whirlpool  Rapids,  looking  upstream 256 

lOS.  The  same 256 

109.  The  .same 256 

110.  Whirlpool  Rapids,  looking  upstream 256 

111.  The  same 256 

112.  The  .same 256 

ll.'i.  Near  hiwi-r  end  of  Whirlpool  Rapids 256 

114.  The  ^^■llirlpool  and  the  Lower  Rapids  from  Canadian  Cliff 256 

ll.">.  Outlet  of  Whirlpool  and  head  of  Lower  Rapids 256 

116.  The  same 256 

117.  Outlet  of  Whirlpool  looking  upstream 256 

118.  The  same 256 

119.  The   same 256 

120.  Lower  Rapids  at  head  of  Fo.sters  Flats 256 

121.  Lower  Rapids  abreast  Fosters  Flats,  looking  upstream 256 

122.  Tlie  same 256 

123.  The  same 256 

124.  Head  of  Fosters  Flats,  looking  downstream 256 

125.  Lower  Rapids,  foot  of  Fosters  Flats,  looking  downstream 256 

126.  The  .same 256 

127.  The  same 2.56 

128.  Lower  Rapids,  foot  of  Fosters  Flats,  looking  upstream 256 

129.  Foot  of  Lower  Rapids,  showing  Lower  Gorge  gauge 256 

130.  I'andrania  of  Falls  from  "  Falls  View" 272 

131.  Amerinin  Rai)i(ls  above  Goaf  Island  bridge 272 

132.  Canadian  Rapids  from  Goat  Island 272 

133.  American  Falls  from  Canadian  side 272 

134.  American  Falls  from  Goat  Island 272 

13.5.  Horseshoe  Falls  from  Goat  Lsland 272 

136.  West  end  of  Horseshoe  Falls  from  Canadian  side 272 

137.  East  end  of  Horseshoe  Falls  from  "  The  Refectory  " 272 

138.  East  end  of  Hor.seshoe  FMs  from  Goat  Island 272 

139.  View  from  (Joat  Island  in  1885  and  to-day,  .showing  old  paper  mill 272 

140.  Map  of  Niagara  p-alls.  N.  Y.,  in  18.53,  showing  proposed  hydraulic 

canal 272 

NIAGARA    FALLS    POWER    CO.,    HYDRAULIC    PLANT. 

141.  Fore  bay  of  station  2.  under  construction 272 

142.  Station  2,  under  construction 272 

143.  Station  2.  roof  crushed  by  ice,  .Tanuary,  1904 272 

144.  Station  '_',  and  water  waste<l  by  the  Pettebone-Cataract  Co 272 

14.5.  Station  3  and  fore  bay  gatehouse 272 

146.  Head  of  hydraulic  canal.  Tort  Day 272 

147.  Hydraulic  canal  al)ove  Third  Street 272 

148.  I'.asin  and  foot  of  liydraulie  cjinal 272 

149.  End  of  basin  and  gatehouse  of  station  3 272 

l.VK  Station  3  fore  bay,  under  construction 272 

151.   Station  .3  fore  bay 272 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  9 

No.  PaB«- 

152.  Station  3  turbine  room 304 

153.  Station  3  generator  room 304 

154.  Station  3,  under  construction 304 

NIAGARA    FALLS    POWER    CO.,    NIAGARA    PLANT. 

155.  Main  tunnel,  under  construction 304 

556.  Wheel  pit  of  power  hou.se  No.  2,  under  construction 304 

157.  Later  view  of  same 304 

1.58.  Still  later  view  of  same 304 

159.  General  view  of  plant 304 

160.  Intake  canal 304 

161.  Power  house  No.  2 304 

162.  Rack  room  of  power  house  No.  2 304 

163.  Turbine  in  power  house  No.  2 304 

164.  Main  tunnel  outfall 304 

165.  Thrust  bearing 304 

166.  Generators  in  power  house  No.  1 304 

167.  Generator  room,  power  house  No.  2 304 

168.  Interior  of  transformer  station 384 

COMPENSATING    WORKS. 

169.  Compensating  works  in  St.  Marys  River 384 

170.  Another  view  of  same 384 

171.  Compensating  sluices  at  Government  power  house,  Sault  Ste.  Marie 384 

LAKE  VESSELS. 

172.  steamer  B.  F.  Jones  in  the  Poe  Lock 384 

173.  Steamer  B.  F.  Jones  in  St.  Clair  River 384 

174.  Steamer  /.  Pierpont  Morgan  entering  Poe  Lock 384 

175.  Ice-covered  package  freighter  in  St.  Clair  River 384 

176.  Passenger  steamer  Tionesta  in  St.  Clair  River 384 

177.  Passenger  steamer  North  West  in  St.  Clair  River 384 

178.  Government  survey  steamers  in  Cleveland  Harbor 384 

179.  Lightship  on  Lake  St.  Clair 384 

180.  A  whaleback,  light 384 

181.  A  whaleback,  loaded 384 

182.  Excursion  steamer  Tashmoo  in  St.  Clair  River 384 

183.  Passing  vessels  in  Detroit  River 384 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


War  Department, 

Washington,  Decembe?'  7,  1920. 
Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  letter  from  the  Chief 
of  Engineers,  United  States  Armv,  of  9th  ultimo,  together  with 
report  of  Col.  J.  G.  Warren,  Corps  of  Engineers,  Division  Engineer, 
Lakes  Division,  dated  August  30,  1919,  on  investigation  of  water 
diversion  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  River,  including 
navigation,  sanitary  and  power  purposes,  and  the  preservation  of 
the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  Niagara  River, 
authorized  by  public  resolution  No.  8,  Sixty-fifth  Congress ;  also  re- 
port of  the  Board  of  Engineers  for  Rivers  and  Harbors,  dated 
August  24,  1920,  reviewing  the  matter. 

Attention  is  invited  to  the  recommendation,  concurred  in  by  the 
Chief  of  Engineers,  that  all  inclosures  and  illustrations,  except  Ap- 
pendix I,  be  printed ;  and  it  is  therefore  certified  that  such  illustra- 
tions are  necessary  to  a  complete  understanding  of  the  matter. 
Very  respectfully, 

Newton  D.  Baker, 

Secretary  of  War. 
The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

11 


LETTEE  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


War  Department, 
Office  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers, 

Washington,  November  9,  1920. 
From :  The  Chief  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army. 
To :  The  Secretary  of  War. 
Subject :  Diversion  of  water  from  the  Great  Lakes. 

1.  There  is  submitted  herewith  for  transmission  to  Congress,  re- 
port dated  August  30,  1919,  with  maps  and  appendices,  by  Col.  J.  G. 
Warren,  Corps  of  Engineers,  division  engineer,  Lakes  Division,  on 
investigation  of  water  diversion  from  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara 
Eiver,  including  navigation,  sanitary  and  power  purposes,  and  the 
preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids 
of  Niagara  Eiver,  authorized  by  public  resolution  No.  8,  Sixty- 
fifth  Congress,  approved  June  30, 1917,  in  the  following  language  : 

Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  public  resolution  numbered  forty-five 
of  the  Sixty-fourth  Congress,  approved  January  19,  1917,  entitled  "  Joint  reso- 
lution authorizing  the  Secretary  of  War  to  issue  permits  for  additional  diversion 
of  water  from  the  Niagara  River,"  is  continued  in  full  force  and  effect,  and 
under  the  same  conditions,  restrictions,  and  limitations,  until  July  1,  1918 :  Pro- 
vided, That  the  Secretary  of  War  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  make 
a  comprehensive  and  thorough  investigation,  including  all  necessary  surveys 
and  maps,  of  the  entire  subject  of  water  diversion  from  the  Great  Lalces 
and  the  Niagara  River,  including  navigation,  sanitary  and  power  purposes, 
and  the  preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of 
Niagara  River,  and  to  report  to  Congress  thereon  at  the  earliest  practicable 
date.  To  carry  out  the  provisions  of  tliis  proviso  there  is  hereby  appropriated, 
out  of  any  money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  the  sum  of 
$25,000. 

The  investigation  has  involved  a  great  amount  of  work,  and  the 
report  thereon  is  a  valuable  and  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject. 

2.  This  report  has  been  referred,  as  required  by  law,  to  the  Board 
of  Engineers  for  Eivers  and  Harbors,  and  attention  is  invited  to  its 
report  herewith,  dated  August  24,  1920.  The  board  has  reviewed  in 
detail  and  commented  upon  the  several  problems  involved,  and  in  the 
last  few  pages  sums  up  its  conclusions  and  recommendations,  in  which 
I  concur,  except  so  far  as  relates  to  the  diversion  to  be  permitted  to  be 
made  by  the  Chicago  Sanitary  District.  In  respect  to  this,  the  trus- 
tees of  the  district  have  already  been  advised  that  the  Chief  of  En- 
gineers would  not  recommend  to  Congress  any  diversion  greater  than 
250,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  the  limit  set  in  the  permit  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  dated  January  IT,  1903,  until  the  district  had  worked 
out  and  presented  a  suitable  and  comprehensive  plan  for  treating  its 
sewage  so  as  to  render  it  inoffensive  and  innocuous  and  at  the  same 
time  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  quantity  of  water  necessary  for  its 

13 


l^  LETTER   OF   SUBMITTAL. 

dilution  and  transportation.  Tliis  office  has  been  informed  that  the 
<anitarv  district  is  now  making  the  necessary  studies  and  that  phins 
iiased  u'i)on  them  will  ultimately  be  presented  for  the  approval  of  the 
War  Department.  Decision  as  to  the  diversion  of  the  Chicago  bam- 
tarv  Canal  should  therefore  be  deferred.  ,      j.   • 

3.  It  is  my  understanding  that  the  methods  proposed  by  the  divi- 
sion engineer  and  the  Board  for  Kivers  and  Harbors  for  utilizing 
the  water  power  of  the  Niagara  River  and  for  preserving  the  scenic 
beaut V  of  the  Falls  are  type  plans  merely.  They  show  the  results 
which  can  be  secured  but  are  not  intended  to  be  detailed  or  to  prevent 
the  adoption  of  any  other  plans  which  may  appear  preferable  after 
such  further  study'^of  the  problems  as  may  seem  advisable  when  the 
work  is  finally  authorized  to  be  done. 

4.  Attention  is  particularly  invited  to  the  final  paragraph  recom- 
mending that  all  inclosures  and  illustrations,  except  Appendix  I^ 

be  printed. 

Lansing  H.  Beach, 

Major  General. 


REPORT  OF  BOARD  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  RIVERS  AND  HARBORS. 

[Second  indorsement.] 

Board  of  Engineers  for  Eivers  and  Harbors, 

August  21^,  1920. 
To  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army  : 

1.  This  is  a  report  by  the  division  engineer  of  the  Lakes  division 
made  in  compliance  with  the  provisions  of  public  resolution  No.  8, 
Sixty-fifth  Congress,  which  reads  as  follows: 

Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  public  resolution  numbered  forty-five  of 
the  Sixty-fourth  Congre.ss,  approved  January  19,  1917,  entitled  "  Joint  resolu- 
tion authorizing  the  Secretary  of  War  to  issue  permits  for  additional  diversion 
of  water  from  the  Niagara  River,"  is  continued  in  full  force  and  effect,  and 
under  the  same  conditions,  restrictions,  and  limitations,  until  July  1,  1918 : 
Provided,  That  the  Secretary  of  War  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to 
make  a  comprehensive  and  thorough  investigation,  including  all  necessary  sur- 
veys and  maps,  of  the  entire  subject  of  water  diversion  from  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  Niagara  River,  including  navigation,  sanitary  and  power  purposes,  and 
the  preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  Niagara 
River,  and  to  report  to  Congress  thereon  at  the  earliest  practicable  date.  To 
carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  proviso,  there  is  hereby  appropriated,  out  of 
any  money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  tlie  sum  of  $25,000. 

2.  The  report  is  an  exhaustive  presentation  of  the  facts  regarding 
all  existing  diversions  from  the  Great  Lakes  for  navigation,  for 
sanitation,  and  for  the  generation  of  power  and  of  the  effects  of  such 
diversions  upon  the  levels  and  navigability  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
their  connecting  waters,  as  well  as  upon  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara 
Falls  and  of  the  rapids  of  the  Niagara  River,  In  addition,  diver- 
sions more  or  less  seriously  contemplated  for  one  or  more  of  the  above 
three  purposes  are  described  and  commented  upon  and  measures  for 
remedying  damage  already  done,  or  likely  to  be  done,  both  to  the 
navigable  capacity  of  the  Great  Lakes  system  and  to  the  scenic 
beautj^  of  the  falls  and  rapids  of  the  Niagara  River  are  suggested. 

3.  The  report  is  the  only  comprehensive  and  thorough  investiga- 
tion of  all  these  subjects  ever  made  and  possesses  great  value  not  only 
from  the  technical,  but  also  from  the  very  full  historical  presenta- 
tion of  the  matters  with  which  it  deals. 

4.  The  most  important  features  of  the  report  are  discussions  of, 
first,  the  diversion  of  water  from  Lake  Michigan  through  the  Chi- 
cago Sanitary  Canal ;  second,  existing  and  proposed  diversions  from 
Lake  Erie ;  third,  present  diversions  for  power  purposes  from  above 
Niagara  Falls,  possible  increases  in  these  diversions,  the  utilization 
of  diverted  water  to  the  greatest  advantage  and  the  works  which  will 

15 


16        DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  L.\KES   AND  NIAG.VKA  RIVER. 

neutralize  or  ooini>ensate  for  injiiric.us  effects  of  such  diversions 
whether  upon  scenic  beautv  or  upon  the  navi^^able  capacity  ot  the 
Great  Lake^  svstem;  fourth,  the  possibility  or  advantaoje  of  com- 
bining the  interests  of  navigation  and  of  ))ower  i)roduction  in  a 
divei^ion  into  a  navigable  canal  connecting  the  ^vaters  of  Lake  i.ne 
anil  Lake  Ontjirio:  and,  iinallv,  the  provisions  of  the  existing  treaty 
regarding  l»oundarv  watei-s  and  suggestions  of  changes  in  antl  addi- 
tions to  it  neoessaVv  to  pn.mote  the  interests  of  both  the  L  nited 
Stales  and  Canada  and  to  safeguard  them  more  adecpiately. 

:..  In  tlie  following  review  of  the  report  all  existing  or  proposed 
diversions  of  whatever  rhararter  from  each  unit  of  the  (neat  Lakes 
system  will  l>e  brit-tlv  descril)ed  when  the  corresponding  unit  is  under 
i-ijnsideration,  and  thus  disposed  of  finally.  In  the  review  and  dis- 
cussion, the  nomenclature  of  the  report  of  the  division  engineer  is 
adopted,  particularlv  in  regard  to  the  various  types  of  plants  for 
developing  power  from  the  Niagara  River.  As  herein  used,  a 
"single-stage"  water-iH)wer  development  is  one  in  ^vhlch  water  is 
conducted  in  a  eiiannel  (.f  some  kind,  whether  artificial  canal,  tunnel, 
or  vertical  penstock,  from  the  upper  level  in  the  Chippawa-Grass 
Island  pool,  at  elevatii.n  about  r.GO.  to  turbines  set  practically  at  the 
elevation  of  tiie  lower  Niagara  Kiver.  about  24.S  feet  above  sea  level. 
so  that  the  total  hea«l  due  to  the  ditference  between  the  elevation  of 
the  Niagara  Kiver  just  above  the  Falls  and  its  elevation  at  or  near 
its  mouth,  some  'MO  feet,  is  deveh)»ed  in  a  single  power  house  at  about 
the  latter  level.  A  "two-stage'  develojiment  is  one  in  which  the 
total  hea<l  is  developed  in  two  power  houses  in  series.  The  "  upi)er 
stage  "  of  a  "two-stage  "  plant  is  that  which  corresponds  to  the  head 
due  to  (liffi'reiK-es  between  the  elevations  of  the  rhipi)awa-Grass 
Island  antl  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pools,  approximately  220  feet,  and 
the  turbines  at  this  stage  are  set  at  the  level  of  the  latter  pool.  al)Out 
."i-iri  feet  ab<.ve  sea  level.  The  "lower  stage"  of  a  "two-stage"  de- 
velopment is  one  in  which  the  remaining  portion  of  the  fall  of  the 
Niagara  River,  namely,  that  which  includes  the  Whirlpool  and  the 
Ix»wer  Rapids,  and  which  has  a  head  due  to  the  difference  between 
the  elevations  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool  and  of  the  Niagara  River 
at  or  near  Ix'wiston.  or  al)out  J><»  feet,  is  developed  in  turbines  set  at 
about  the  latter  level.  The  toj>ogriiphical  coiKlitions  of  the  locality 
are  suc-h  that  a  tunnel,  from  2  t<»  '\  mdes  long,  is  a  necessary  feature 
of  tlii'-  lower  stag!'.  The  "  compotiml  two-stage  "  jdan  of  the  division 
engineer  contemplates  tiie  devehtpm<'nt  of  the  energy  of  a  diversion 
of  2<MXH)  cubic  f"et  per  second,  with  an  ui)per  stage  in  which  the  exist- 
ing hearl-rare  canal  and  i)Ower  .station  No.  V,  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co.  diverting  lO.fMK)  cubic  feet  per  second,  are  retained  and 
aupmente«I  by  a  head-race  tunnel.  ]n'actically  parallel  to  the  canal  and 
leading  to  a  new  power  -tati«»n  ]>ractically  in  upstream  ])rolongati(m 
of  station  No.  '.\.  lioth  these  stati(»ns  would  discharge  into  another 
tunnel  which  would  h'ad  the  water  to  the  turbines  of  the  lower  stage 
in  a  power  hou-4'  near  the  river  level  just  above  TiCwiston.  Tlie 
*'sinjple  two  stage"  plan  (Hscus.'^mI  by  tlu'  <livision  engineer  is  one  in 
whicli  an  <'ntirely  new  diversion  of  20.00(1  cubic  feet  i)er  second  is 
devel<»|KMl  by  means  f>f  two  sets  of  turbines  in  series,  a  pressure 
tunnel  fniin  near  I*<»rt  Day  on  the  ('hip|)awa-(irass  Island  ))ool  con- 
<luctin(r  the  water  t't  the  ttirbines  of  the  ii])j>er  stage  in  a  now  power 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 


17 


house  near  tlie  level  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool,  aljout  michvay 
between  the  arched  bridj^e  at  Niaj^ara  Falls  and  kSus})ension  Bridf^e. 
These  turbines  would  discharge  into  a  ])ressure  tunnel  leadinj^  to  a 
])0wer  station  for  the  lower  stage  similar  to  that  called  for  in  the 
preceding  plan. 

15EVIEW  OF  REPORT  OF  DIVISION  ENGINEER,  PARAGRAPHS   0-G7,  INCLUSIVE. 

C.  Diversions  from  the  Great  Lakes  fall  into  three  classes  as  con- 
cerns their  effects.  These  classes  are  (a)  those  returned  to  the  same 
body  or  level  of  water  from  which  they  are  taken  and  which  there- 
fore do  not  affect  water  levels  anywhere,  and,  doing  no  damage,  re- 
quire no  limitation;  (h)  those  which  are  restored  to  a  lower  level  of 
the  Great  Lakes  system  and  which  reduce  depths  at  and  above  the 
point  of  diversion,  and  all  others  downstream  thereof  to,  but  not  in- 
cluding, the  body  of  water  into  which  they  discharge;  and  (c)  those 
which  are  permanently  removed  from  the  Great  Lakes  Basin,  and 
lower  water  levels  and  do  damage  at  and  even  upstream  from  the 
point  of  diversion,  as  well  as  at  every  downstream  locality  as  far  as 
tidewater. 

7.  There  are  no  diversions  from  Lake  Superior  of  sufficient  conse- 
quence to  justify  mention.  Small  amounts  of  water  are  taken  for 
the  domestic  purposes  of  some  of  the  communities  on  its  shores.  Such 
small  diversions  find  their  way  back  into  the  lake  and  therefore  do 
not  influence  its  level  even  slightly. 

8.  Lake  Superior  discharges  into  the  St.  Marys  River,  which,  as 
is  well  known,  has  been  improved  by  both  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  so  that  navigation  may  readily  overcome  the  fall  of  approxi- 
mately 20  feet  which  naturally  exists  there.  The  United  States  has 
built  four  large  locks  and  there  is  one  such  lock  on  the  Canadian 
side.  In  their  operation,  from  1,000  to  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second 
is  diverted  during  the  season  of  navigation  from  the  river  through 
canals  which  conduct  the  water  from  the  upper  level  to  the  locks. 
This  diversion  is,  of  course,  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  a  highly 
important  navigation,  but  it  is  so  small  as  compared  with  the  dis- 
charge of  the  river  that  even  though  uncompensated,  but  little  effect 
would  be  produced  on  the  level  of  Lake  Superior  and  of  the  river 
above  the  points  of  diversion.  There  are  also  three  diversions  from 
the  St.  Marys  River  for  power  development;  one  of  these  being  in 
Canada  and  the  other  two  in  the  United  States.  The  aggregate  di- 
version for  power  purposes  is  43,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  which 
produces  about  54,750  horsepower,  as  follows : 

Present  operation,  Sault  Ste.  Marie  power  plants. 


Plant. 

Water 
used. 

Power  pro- 
duced. 

Horse- 
power. 

Over-all 
efficiency. 

United  States  Government 

Cvbicfret 

per  second. 

1  1,030 

30, 000 

12,000 

Horse- 
poiver. 
750 
35, 000 
19,000 

Cubic  feet 

per  second. 

0.73 

1.17 

1  58 

Per  cent. 
34 

Michigan  Northern  Power  Co 

54 

Great  Lakes  Power  Co 

7S 

Total,  or  weighted  average 

43,030 

54,750 

1.27 

59 

1  Including  600  cubic  feet  per  second  wasted. 


27880—21- 


IS        DIVEKSIOX    OF   WATER  FK0:M   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

This  diversion  is  nearly  00  per  cent  of  the  average  flow  of  the 
river,  uliich  is  75,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  but  its  elt'ects,  and  those 
of  tlie  diversions  for  navigation,  are  fully  compensated  b}"  regulat- 
ing works — a  set  of  Stone}'  gates  above  the  International  Bridge. 
The  control  a  Horded  by  these  gates  is  so  complete  that  in  addition 
to  the  diversions  for  navigation,  60,000  cubic  feet  per  second  may  be 
used  for  power,  while  Lake  Superior  is  ordinarily  held  between  ele- 
vations 00*2.1  and  003.0  and  its  maxinnim  range  is  restricted  to  2.5 
feet.  Since  1800  tiie  monthly  mean  stages  of  this  lake  have  fluctuated 
between  a  low  of  about  000.50  and  a  high  of  004.10,  a  range  of  4.6 
feet.  Daily  mean  stages  have,  of  course,  shown  a  greater  range,  so 
that  the  regulating  works  are  obvioush'  beneflcial  to  navigation.  The 
ailvantage  of  developing  all  the  water  power  possible  is  also  plain, 
for  the  locality  is  a  remote  one  and  coal  is  expensive.  The  regulat- 
ing works  must  affect  the  oscillations  of  the  lakes  below,  but  up  to 
the  present  this  effect  has  been  slight  and  apparently  no  damage  has 
been  done  to  navigation. 

1).  In  consequence  of  an  act  of  Congress,  one  of  the  power  plants 
on  the  United  States  side  of  the  boundary  was  acquired  by  the  United 
States  in  1912.  It  is  now  operated  by  the  Edison  Sault  Electric  Co., 
under  a  lease  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  dated  June  25,  11J12.  The 
legal  status  of  this  diversion  calls  for  no  further  comment.  The 
other  power  plant  in  the  United  States  is  that  of  the  Michigan  North- 
ern Power  Co.,  which  was  originally  built  in  1898-1902,  under  the 
terms  of  a  permit  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  dated  December 
12,  1902.  Its  large  diversion,  amounting  to  30,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  was  the  subject  of  considerable  controversy  which  was  finally 
settled  bv  a  lease  executed  by  the  Secretary  of  AVar,  dated  May  28, 
1914. 

10.  Under  this  lease,  the  Michigan  Northern  Power  Co.  is  per- 
mitted to  take  for  a  period  of  30  jears,  beginning  July  1,  1914,  a 
continuous  flow  of  water  from  St.  Marys  River  above  the  rapids 
not  to  exceed  a  maximum  daily  aggregate  at  the  average  rate  of 
25,000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  primary  water,  with  not  to  exceed 
5.000  feet  of  secondary  Avater  at  sucli  times  as  the  level  of  Lake 
Superior  and  the  flow  of  St.  Marj's  River  will  permit,  conditioned 
upon  certain  plant  improvements  and  the  construction  of  remedial 
and  compensating  works.  A  later  lease,  dated  September  10,  1918, 
permits  the  use  of  an  additional  3,000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  water, 
referred  to  as  excess  secondary  water,  at  such  time  as,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  lessor,  it  is  available. 

11.  A  number  of  diversions  for  water  supply  are  made  from  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  cit}'  of  Milwaukee  uses  about  1,000  cub*c  feet  per 
second  for  flushing  its  harbor,  but  these  are  returned  to  the  lake  so 
dose  to  tlie  point  of  taking  as  to  have  no  effect  upon  its  levels. 
There  are  no  diversions  from  this  lake  for  navigation,  and  the  only 
really  significant  diversion  from  it  is  that  of  the  Chicago  sanitary 
disti'ict.  This  diversion  is  jjrimarily  for  sanitation,  and  the  protec- 
tion of  the  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  by  preventing  the 
discharge  into  Lake  Alichigan  of  the  raw  sewage  of  Chicago  and  the 
vicinity,  under  a  plan  wherel)y  this  sewage  is  intercepted,  diluted, 
and  transjxu-ted  into  another  drainage  system,  that  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  by  way  of  the  Des  Plaincs  and  Illinois  Rivers,  incidentally 
creating  facilities  foi-  navigation  and  for  the  dex-elopment  of  power. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       19 

This  purpose  is  accomplished  by  reversing  the  flow  of  the  Chicago 
and  Calumet  RiAcrs,  naturally  tributaries  of  Lake  ^licliigan,  which, 
through  this  change,  become  ordinarily  parts  of  the  Alississippi 
drainage  system.  The  diversion  through  the  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal 
averaged  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second  in  1917,  although  some  daily 
averages  Avere  10.000  cubic  feet  per  second  or  more.  Of  this  diver- 
sion, G,800  cubic  feet  per  second  is  incidentally  used  in  the  develop- 
ment of  power,  as  will  be  explained  later.  Such  small  navigation 
as  now  exists  would  be  ampl}?-  served  b}^  a  diversion  of  500  cubic  feet 
per  second,  and  twice  that  amount  would  be  sufficient  for  tlie  needs 
of  the  greatest  probable  commerce  of  the  so-called  Lakes  to  the  Gulf 
Waterway. 

12.  The  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  diversion  proceeds  from  Lake 
Michigan,  whose  normal  elevation  above  sea  level  is  about  580  feet, 
by  way  of  the  Chicago  and  Calumet  Kivers  through  cuts  excavated 
in  the  Ioav  divides  which  separate  the  lake  drainage  from  that  of  the 
Des  Plaines  River,  the  two  uniting  in  an  artificial  channel  whose 
dejDth  is  over  24  feet  and  whose  width  varies  between  160  and  202 
feet.  The  Chicago  River  portion  of  the  diversions  begins  at  Robey 
Street  in  the  West  Fork  of  the  South  Branch,  and  for  a  length  of 
32.35  miles  has  practically  the  full  canal  dimensions  above  given.. 
This  portion  of  the  canal  was  begun  in  1892  and  completed  in  1900. 
The  Calumet  River  diversion  begins  at  Stoney  Creek  on  the  Little 
Calumet  River  and  runs  a  distance  of  16  miles  through  a  shallow 
depression  in  the  divide,  called  "  The  Sag,"  to  a  point  on  the  main 
channel  3  miles  above  Lemont,  the  cut  being  in  the  form  of  a  canal, 
which  eventually  is  to  be  22  feet  deep  and  70  to  90  feet  wide.  The 
main  channel  or  canal  is  figured  for  a  flow  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  and  the  Calumet  Canal  for  an  initial  flow  of  2,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  to  be  enlarged  ultimately  to  4,000  cubic  feet  per  seconds 
The  latter  was  begun  in  1911  and  is  now  nearly  completed. 
_  13.  The  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  was  constructed  without  the  sanc- 
tion of  Congress,  and  the  only  existing  authority  for  this  diversion 
is  a  permit  of  the  Secretary  oi  War,  dated  January  17,  1903,  grant- 
ing permission  to  divert  350,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  or  5,833  cubic 
feet  per  second,  during  the  closed  season  of  navigation  prior  to  jMarcli 
31,  1903,  and  requiring  reduction  to  250,000  cubic  feet  per  minute, 
or  4,167  cubic  feet  per  second,  thereafter.  This  permit  was  issued 
on  the  understanding  that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  Secretary  of 
War  to  submit  all  pertinent  questions  connected  with  the  sanitary 
district  of  Chicago  to  Congress.  As  yet  Congress  has  taken  no 
action,  but  meantime  the  sanitary  district  has  for  years  greatly  ex- 
ceeded the  limits  of  the  permit  of  January  17,  1903.' 

14.  In  1908  the  Attorney  General  of  the  United  States  caused  to 
be  filed  in  the  United  States  Circuit  Court,  Northern  District  of 
Illinois,  a  bill  to  enjoin  the  sanitary  district  of  Chicago  from  con- 
structing the  Calumet-Sag  Canal,  and  diverting  through  it  the  waters 
of  Calumet  River  or  Lake  Michigan,  thereby"  reversing  the  current 
in  Calumet  River,  on  the  ground  that  these  *acts  would  impede  and 
obstruct  navigation  and  lower  the  level  of  Lake  Michigan,  thus  im- 
pairing its  navigability,  all  in  contravention  of  section  10  of  the  river 
and  harbor  act  of  March  3,  1899.  The  real  purpose  of  this  suit  was 
to  assert  the  paramount  authority  of  the  United  States  over  the  di- 
version of  the  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal,  and  over  all  acts  such  as 


20       DR^RSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RH'FiR. 

woukl  tend  to  injure  the  navi<rability  or  the  navijirable  capacity  of 
iiavi<Tral)le  Avaters  of  the  United  States.  Testimony  was  taken  in  this 
case  for  about  five  years  without  reaching  a  decision.  On  October 
6,  1!U3.  the  issue  was  more  specifically  raised  in  another  bill  filed 
by  the  Attorney  (General  of  the  United  States,  praying  that  the  de- 
fendant be  enjoined  from  diverting  more  than  4.1G7  cubic  feet  per 
second  from  Lake  Michigan  through  the  Chicago  Kiver.  The  two 
suits  were  consolidated,  heard  as  one.  and.  though  the  presentation 
of  evidence  and  arguments  of  counsel  had  been  completed  in  1915, 
a  decision  had  not  been  rendered  at  the  time  of  submission  of  the 
division  engineer's  report:  that  is.  about  12  years  after  the  original 
bill  had  been  filed. 

15.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  real  need  existed  at  Chicago  for 
a  remedy  for  the  polluted  state  of  its  Avater  supply  and  of  the  various 
streams  near  by  that  discharged  into  Lake  ^Michigan.  At  the  time 
the  main  sanitary  canal  was  projected  the  art  of  sewage  purification 
was  in  its  infancy  and  a  project  so  extensive  as  that  of  treating  all 
the  sewage  and  trade  wastes  of  a  population  of  over  a  million  people 
had  nowhere  been  seriously  considered. 

16.  The  remedy  chosen  b}'  Chicago  for  the  polluted  state  of  its 
water  supply  and  of  its  watercourses  was,  however,  damaging  to 
other  interests.  It  is  definitely  known  that  the  diversion  of  the 
amount  of  water  authorized  to  be  taken  by  the  terms  of  the  permit 
of  1903.  namely.  4,107  cubic  feet  per  second,  at  mean  stages  would 
lower  tlie  level  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Hiir(m  about  0.2  foot,  of 
I^akes  Erie  and  Ontario  about  as  much,  and  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  at  Lock  25  about  0.28  foot.  The  average  diversion  for  1917, 
8,800  cubic  feet  per  second,  being  uncompensated,  has  lowered  the 
level  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  about  0.43  foot,  of  Lakes  Erie 
and  Ontario  about  0.41  foot,  and  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  at  Ix)ck 
25  about  0.57  foot.  Damage,  varying  in  amount  with  the  locality, 
extends  from  the  lower  miter  sills  of  the  locks  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
through  all  the  lakes  and  connecting  channels  to  tide  Avater  in  the 
lower  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  its  amount  increases  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  the  diversion  at  Chicago  increases. 

17.  The  dilution  plan  of  the  Chicago  Sanitary  District  has  not 
completely  protected  its  domestic  water  supply.  The  uncertainty 
as  to  the  quality  of  the  water  arises  from  the  freshets  of  the  Chicago 
and  Calumet  Rivers,  which  often  exceed  the  volume  of  lake  water 
diverted  through  the  corresponding  channels,  the  coincident  tempo- 
rary reversal  of  the  currents  of  these  rivers  causing  corresponding 
l)olluti(m  of  the  lake.  This  condition  is  sure  to  increase  Avith  popu- 
lation and  industrial  activity  unless  the  amount  of  the  diversion  is 
also  largely  increased,  or  unless  steps  are  taken  for  the  treatment  of 
the  sewage  and  trade  AA'a.stes  noAv  finding  their  way  into  the  tAvo 
streams. 

18.  The  report  emphasizes  the  harm  done  by  the  Chicago  Sanitary 
Canal  in  loAvering  the  levels  and  diminishing  the  depths  a\^ailable 
for  navigation  from  the  lower  sills  of  the  locks  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
clear  down  to  tidcAvater.  but  the  division  engineer  feels  forced  to 
make  .some  concession  to  the  existing  status  of  affairs,  and  he  there- 
fore. Avith  evident  reluctance,  recommends  that  the  Sanitary  District 
of  Chicago  be  authorized  to  divert  not  exceeding  10,000  cubic  feet 
per  .second,  conditioned  upon  supervision  of  the  diversion  by  the 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA.   RIVER.        21 

Secretar}'  of  War  at  the  expense  of  the  sanitary  district,  and  upon 
the  further  stipuhitions  that  no  dangers  to  navi^jation  shall  be  caused 
by  the  diversion,  that  the  district  assume  responsibility  for  all  dam- 
ages incident  to  the  diversion,  that  it  pay  its  due  share  of  the  cost  of 
necessary  compensating  works,  that  it  agree  not  to  request  or  make 
any  greater  diversion,  that  it  pay  to  the  United  States  a  tax  or  fee 
dependent  on  the  additional  amount  of  power  that  the  diverted  water 
could  develop  in  the  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence  Rivers,  and  that  it 
secure  authority  from  the  State  of  Illinois  for  the  provision  of 
works  for  sewage  disposal  other  than  by  dilution  and  then  provide 
such  facilities  as  needed  to  care  for  the  growth  of  its  population. 

19.  While  there  are  small  diversions  from  Tjake  Huron  for  domes- 
tic water  supplies  in  Canada  and  the  United  States  which'  do  not 
affect  the  level  of  the  lake  nor  the  volume  of  its  discharge,  there  is 
one  diversion  from  that  lake  worthy  of  mention.  This  is  the  Black 
River  Canal,  which  extends  from  a  point  on  the  Avest  shore  of  Lake 
Huron,  about  li  miles  north  of  the  foot  of  the  lake,  westward  about 
1  mile  to  the  Black  RiA'er.  From  the  canal  junction  the  Black  River 
flows  4^  miles  southerly  through  Port  Huron  to  the  St.  Clair  River, 
about  2^  miles  below  tlie  foot  of  Lake  Huron.  The  sewage  from  a 
large  part  of  Port  Huron  and  the  wastes  from  a  sulphite  pulp  mill 
are  discharged  into  the  Black  River.  The  canal  was  constructed  by 
the  city  of  Port  Huron,  without  Federal  permit,  to  flush  Black  River, 
which  otherwise  would  be  stagnant  and  insanitar}^  The  canal  has 
a  bottom  width  of  25  feet  with  side  slopes  of  approximately  1^  on  1, 
the  average  depth  is  G  feet,  and  the  average  fall  about  1^  feet.  The 
diversion  from  Lake  Huron  averages  400  cubic  feet  per  second,  and 
lowers  the  lake  about  one-fourth  inch.  Though  this  diversion  pro- 
duces a  negligible  effect  upon  navigation,  it  is  important  in  principle. 
No  increase  in  it  should  be  permitted. 

20.  Continuing  downstream,  except  a  number  of  diversions  for 
domestic  purposes  which,  as  already  explained,  do  not  produce  any 
hurtful  effects,  there  are  no  diversions,  existing  or  proposed,  from 
the  St.  Clair  River,  Lake  St.  Clair,  and  the  Detroit  River,  though 
there  have  been  improvements  of  shoals  in  all  three  which  might  have 
tended  to  enlarge  their  capacity  for  discharge.  Considering  these 
three  bodies  of  water  as  a  unit,  it  may  be  said  that  its  discharge 
capacity  affects  the  levels  of  the  two  lakes  above  and  of  the  St. 
Marys  River  to  the  lower  lock  sills.  So  far  as  can  be  judged,  the 
works  of  channel  improvement  have  been  planned  so  as  to  give  it 
liberal  facilities  for  navigation,  while  at  the  same  time  the  depths  of 
the  waterwaj^s  and  harbors  above  the  improved  localities  have,  by 
the  exercise  of  proper  precautions,  been  protected  from  damage,  and 
there  has  been  no  effect  of  any  kind  produced  below  the  mouth  of 
the  Detroit  River, 

21.  There  are  numerous  diversions  from  Lake  Erie  for  domestic 
purposes,  and  these  produce  no  hurtful  effects  either  on  Lake  Erie 
or  anywhere  else.  As  alreadj'  stated,  the  Chicago  diversion  has 
lowered  Lake  Erie  about  0.41  foot,  and  there  are  two  other  diver- 
sions from  the  lake  which  have  also  reduced  its  levels.  In  addition, 
some  of  the  diversions  from  the  Niagara  River  have,  as  will  be  ex- 
plained later,  also  lowered  this  lake. 

22.  The  detrimental  diversions  from  Lake  Erie  itself  are  the 
Welland  Canal  in  Canada  and  the  Black  Rock  Canal  in  New  York. 


22        DIVKRSIOX   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

2:^  Tlie  Wolland  Canal  is  26^  miles  lonjr.  and  extends  from  Lake 
Erie  at  Port  C'olborne.  northward  to  Lake  Ontario  at  Port  Dalhoiisie. 
Its  total  drop  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario  avera^^es  326.35  feet 
overcome  bv  25  lift  locks  and  one  f,niard  lock.  The  locks  are  2<0 
feet  lon«r,  45  feet  wide,  and  have  14  feet  depth  on  the  miter  sills. 
The  volume  diverted  from  Lake  Erie  is  approximately  4,500  cubic 
feet  per  second,  and  in  addition  it  receives  about  40  cubic  feet  per 
second  from  the  Grand  Eiver.  naturally  a  tributary  of  Lake  Erie. 
Of  these  diversions,  ajjproximately  900  cubic  feet  per  second  is  used 
for  navi«ration.  includinof  lockagre,  leakage,  and  waste.  Of  the  re- 
mainder, a  very  small  amount  is  used  for  sanitary  purposes,  and  the 
b.alance,  about' 3,300  cubic  feet  per  second,  for  power  development. 
At  De  'Cew  Falls  there  is  a  high  head  hydroelectric  plant  of  good 
efficiency,  owned  bv  the  Hamilton  Cataract  Power,  Light  &  Traction 
Co..  which  has  leases  for  the  continuous  use  of  1,160  cubic  feet  per 
second,  but  appears  to  use  about  2,100.  The  plant  has  a  capacity  of 
over  50.000  horsepower.  The  remainder  of  the  water  is  used  ineffi- 
ciently at  a  large  number  of  small  developments  having  a  combined 
capacity  not  exceeding  15.000  horsepower.  There  has  been  very  little, 
if  any, 'increase  of  diversion  since  ^May  31,  1910,  the  date  on  which 
the  boundary  waters  treaty  was  proclaimed. 

24.  This  canal  is  now  being  enlarged,  partially  along  a  new  route. 
It  is  to  have  a  total  length  of  25  miles,  and  the  diiference  of  eleva- 
tion of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  is  to  be  overcome  by  seven  locks,  each 
having  a  lift  of  46i  feet.  The  locks  are  to  be  800  feet  long  by  80  feet 
wide  m  the  clear,"with  30  feet  of  water  over  the  miter  sills  at  ex- 
treme loAv  stages  in  the  lakes.  The  canal  will  have  a  bottom  width 
of  200  feet,  and  for  the  present  will  be  excavated  to  a  depth  of  25 
feet  onlv.  thougli  all  structures  will  be  sunk  to  the  30-foot  depth,  so 
that  the  canal  can  be  deepened  at  any  future  date  by  dredging  the 
reaches.  Its  operation  is  estimated  to  require  a  diversion  of  about 
2.000  cubic  feet  per  .second,  and  the  total  diversion  of  the  Welland 
Canal  will  then  be  about  5,300  cul)ic  feet  per  second. 

25.  The  Black  Rock  Canal  is  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  it  provides  a 
waterwav,  with  a  modern  lock  adequate  for  the  largest  lake  freighters, 
around  t'he  swift,  shallow  rapids  at  the  head  of  Niagara  River.     The 
<-anal  is  formed  l)v  a  wall  or  dike  known  as  Bird  Island  Pier,  extend- 
ing from  a  i)oint  opposite  the  ioot  of  Maryland  Street,  Buffalo,  to 
the  head  of  Squaw  Island,  about  2^  miles,  and  by  the  passage  between 
Squaw  Island  and  the  main  shore.     Within  this  area,  which  is  3i 
miles  long  and  from  220  to  1.400  feet  wide,  is  a  dredged  channel  21 
feet  deep  and  at  least  200  feet  wide.     The  Black  Rock  Lock  has  a 
usable  length  of  625  feet,  usable  width  of  68  feet,  and  a  depth  of  22 
feet  on  the  miter  sills  at  low  stage.    The  diversion  into  the  canal  from 
Lake  Erie  is  estimated  to  be  about  TOO  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which 
250  feet  leaks  back  into  the  Niagara  River  through  the  dike,  400  is 
delivered  into  the  head  of  the  old  Erie  Canal,  and  the  remainder  is 
consumed  in  lockage.     Li  the  early  days  of  the  canal  water  power 
was  d<'veloped  at  Black  Rock,  but  this  was  discontinued  many  years 
ago.     The  400  cubic  feet  per  second  now  discharged  into  the  Erie 
Canal   i)ar(ially  flushes  the  sewage  discharged  into  the  abandoned 
p(»rtion  of  the  canal  between  liuffalo  and  Tonawanda. 

2(').  The  Welland  Canal  affords  the  only  navigable  connection  be- 
tween Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  and  serves  a  traffic  of  4,000,000  to 


DIVEUSTOX   OF  WATER  FllOM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       23 

5,000,000  tons  amiiiallv,  of  which  about  10  per  cent  pertains  to  the 
United  States.  The  Black  Rock  Canal  affords  a  safe  route  for  an  im- 
portant and  growing?  tonnage  and  incidentally  it  gives  access  to  the 
NeAv  York  Barge  Canal.  Evidently  the  relatively  small  portions  of 
these  diversions  that  are  used  for  navigation  are  necessary  and  valu- 
able, and  the  treaty  explicitly  recognizes  this  fact  by  interposing  no 
limitations  upon  diversions  for  navigation.  The  diversion  for  power 
purposes  via  the  Welland  Canal  sliould,  however,  not  be  increased. 

27.  Both  of  these  diversions  lower  Lake  Erie  and  certain  waters 
aboA^e  and  below  it.  For  convenience.  Tables  47  and  48,  showing  the 
effects  of  these  and  other  existing  and  proposed  diversions  not  only 
on  Lake  Erie,  but  on  all  other  portions  of  the  Great  Lakes  system 
are  here  reproduced,  rendering  needless  furtlier  discussion  of  lower- 
ing effects,  present  and  prospective. 

Table  No.  47. — Effect  in  feet  of  iiHCODiperimfrrl  (Jirersions  of  water  fvom  the 

Great  Lakes. 


Amount 
in  cubic 
feet  per 
second. 

Michigan-Huron. 

St.  Clair. 

Erie. 

Diversion. 

Low. 

Mean, 

High. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

S,S00 

4,500 

700 

1,000 

50, 885 

0.44 
.02 

(>) 
(') 
.01 

0.43 
.03 

(') 

.01 

0.42 

.04 
(') 
{.') 
.02 

0.35 

.OS 
.01 

(') 

.03 

0.35 
.09 
.01 

(') 
.05 

0.36 
.10 
.02 
(1) 
06 

0.43 
.22 
.03 
.01 
.10 

0.41 
.21 
.03 
.01 
.10 

0.38 

.20 

Blacl.-  Kock  Ship  Canal 

Kew  York  State  Barge  Tanal 

.03 
.01 
.11 

.47 

.47 

.48 

.47 

.50 

.54 

.79 

.76 

.73 

Diversion. 

Amount 
in  cubic 
feet  per 
second. 

Niagara  River 
at  Cliippewa. 

Ontario. 

St.  Lawrence 

River  at  Lock 

No.  25. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High 

8,800 

4.  500 

700 

1,000 

50,885 

0.24 
.12 

0.23 
.12 

0.21 
.11 

0.44 

0.42 

0.39 

0.65 

0.62 

0.60 

New  York  State  Barge  Canal 

.03 
.63 

.03 
.60 

.02 

.57 

1.02 

.98 

.01 

.44 

.42 

.39 

.65 

.62 

.60 

'  Inappreciable. 

Lake  Ontario  has  been  raised  about  0.50  foot  by  the  construction  of  the  Gut 
Dam,  which  is  50  per  cent  more  than  the  luweriny:  caused  by  diversions  at 
Chicago. 

stages  of  the  laJces  referred  to  in  this  table. 


Michigan- 
Huron. 

Erie. 

Ontario. 

579. 6 
581. 1 
582.6 

570. 8 
572.3 
573.8 

244.5 

246.0 

iligh       

247.5 

24        DIVER.S^IOX    OF    WATKR    FROM    GREAT   LAKES    AND   NIAGARA   RIVER. 


Tahle  No.  4S. — Effect  in   feet  at  mean  i<ta(jc  of  proiiosed  diver.'iions  from  the 

Great  Lakes. 


Diversion. 

Proposed 
increase. 

Lakes 
Michigan- 
Huron. 

Lake  St. 
Clair. 

Lake 
Erie. 

Niagara 
River  at 
Chip- 
pewa. 

Lake 
Ontario. 

St.  Law- 

rence 
River  at 
Lock  25. 

ChicaRo  Sanitarv  Canal 

Welluid  C'aiial 

5,200 
1  000 

0.25 
.01 

0.21 
.02 

0.23 

.05 
.01 
.22 

0.13 
.0:5 
.02 

1.25 

0.24 


0.37 


New  York  State  Burgo  Canal... 

700 

48,000 

.03 

.10 

Total  effect  of  proposed 

.29 
.47 

.33 
.59 

.51 
.76 

1.43 
.98 

.24 
.42 

.37 

Total  effect  of  present  diversions. 

.62 

Sum                

.76 

.83 

1.27 

2.41 

.66 

.991 

1 

From  these  tables  may  be  seen  the  lowering  produced  by  these 
two  tli versions,  the  damage  extending  as  far  up  as  the  k)wer  sills  of 
the  Soo  Locks  and  Lake  Michigan  and  as  far  down  as  the  Lower 
Eapids  of  the  Niagara  liiver. 

28.  A  private  company  has  for  some  time  been  proposing  to  con- 
struct between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  a  waterway  known  as  the 
Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitar}^  Canal,  as  a  combined  ship,  sanitar}^  and 
power  channel.  The  proposed  canal  would  start  from  a  new  harbor 
south  of  Lackawanna.  N.  Y.,  on  Lake  Erie,  terminate  at  Olcott,  on 
Lake  Ontario,  and  Mould  have  a  length  of  -10  miles.  At  the  east 
end  of  the  propo.sed  harbor  in  Lake  Erie  there  would  be  a  lock  to 
lower  vessels  about  8  feet  into  the  head  of  the  canal.  The  route 
then  runs  along  the  eastern  outskirts  of  Buffalo,  through  Hamburg, 
West  Seneca,  Cheelctowaga,  and  Amherst  Townships,  crossing  the 
New  York  State  Barge  Canal  at  grade  in  Pendleton  Town.shi}). 
Passing  through  the  west  edge  of  Lockport  Township  it  descends 
from  the  Niagara  escarpment  just  west  of  "  Lockport  Gulf "  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  balanced  lift  locks,  which  would  afford  access  to 
the  "  Ontario  Plain,"  elevation  about  351,  the  drop  therefore  being 
209  feet.  Another  pair  of  balanced  locks  would  overcome  tlie  re- 
maining drop  of  104  feet  to  the  level  of  Lake  Ontario  near  the 
nMJutli  of  Eighteen  Mile  Creek.  It  is  proposed  to  divert  through 
the  canal  2G,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  being  the  maximum  amount 
allowed  by  tlie  treaty  wnth  Great  Britain  for  power  with  6,000  feet 
ailditional  for  sanitation.  This  canal  Avould  lower  Lake  Erie  an 
average  of  1.18  feet,  interrupt  83  railroad,  electric  railway  and  high- 
Avay  lines,  and  endanger  the  New  York  Barge  Canal.  Tlie  plan  of- 
fers no  advantages  for  cither  navigation  or  power,  it  is  not  regarded 
as  economical  or  desirable  for  sanitary  purposes,  and  construction 
is  not  recommended. 

2I>.  In  leaving  Lake  Erie,  the  Niagara  River  falls  with  relative 
rapi<lity,  the  drop  in  the  distance  of  4  miles  to  the  foot  of  Squaw 
Ishmd  being  some  5.1  feet.  From  this  point  to  a  mile  above  the 
AN'ellaiid  Kiver,  a  distance  of  about  17  miles,  the  fall  is  4.8  feet,  and 
then  there  follows  a  level  pool  called  the  Chii)pawa -Grass  Island 
]>ool.  about  2  miles  long,  who.se  average  elevation  above  sea  level  is 
503  f<H't.  Below  this  i)ool  are  the  cascades  and  rajiids,  which  de- 
scend 50  to  55  feet,  and  lead  to  the  two  falls,  the  Horseshoe  and  the 
Amerif-an,  which  drop,  respectively,  1(52  and  1G7  feet  into  the  Maid- 
f>f-(li<Mist  pool,  who.se  average  elevation  is  343  feet,  the  difference 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       25- 

between  the  two  pools  thus  being  220  feet.  The  Maid-of-the-Mist 
l^ool  leads  into  the  Whirlpool  Il{ii)ids  and  the  Lower  Rapids  with  a 
combined  fall  of  about  95  feet.  The  Lower  Kapids  terminate  in  the 
river  near  Lewiston,  where  the  level  is  substantially  that  of  Lake 
Ontario,  average  elevation  about  245  feet  above  tlie  sea.  The  only 
diversions  now  made  from  the  Niagara  River  are  above  the  Falls. 
Three  are  in  the  United  States,  three  in  Canada,  and  a  fourtli  in 
Canada  is  in  course  of  completion. 

30.  In  the  United  States  the  diversion  from  the  Niagara  River 
furthest  upstream  is  that  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  It 
provides  a  waterway  12  feet  deep,  and  not  less  than  94  feet  wide, 
except  at  locks,  from  Buffalo  on  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson  River  at 
Waterford,  and  thence  down  the  Hudson  to  New  York  City.  The 
Champlain  branch  from  Waterford  to  Lake  Champlain  is  of  like 
dimensions;  as  are  also  the  short  lateral  branches  at  Rochester  and 
Syracuse ;  the  Oswego  branch,  connecting  the  main  canal  with  Lake 
Ontario  at  Oswego;  and  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  Canal,  connecting 
the  main  canal  v/ith  Cayuga  and  Seneca  Lakes.  It  is  353.1  miles 
from  Buffalo  to  Troy  via  the  canal,  and  153  miles  from  Troy  to 
the  Battery  at  New  York  City,  or  506.1  miles  from  Buffalo  to  New 
York.  The  sole  water  supply  for  the  western  end  to  a  point  east 
of  Rochester  is  obtained  from  the  Niagara  River  at  Tonawanda. 
The  canal  system  was  opened  at  the  western  end  in  midsummer  of 
1918.  To  date  it  is  believed  that  the  diversion  has  been  somewhat 
less  than  the  average  amount  assumed  to  be  required  ultimately,, 
namely,  1,237  cubic  feet  per  second.  A  portion  of  the  water  may 
be  and  is  used  for  power  development  at  Lockport,  and  to  a  smaller 
extent  elsewhere  along  the  canal,  although  this  is  a  secondary  use,, 
the  same  water  being  required  for  navigation  also.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  the  barge  canal  causes  a  diversion  into  the  Great 
Lakes  Basin  of  about  50  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Mohawk 
River  watershed,  and  another  of  about  35  cubic  feet  per  second  from 
the  eastern  headwaters  of  the  Susquehanna  River. 

31.  In  addition  to  the  diversion  for  navigation  usos,  there  is  now 
being  diverted  through  the  New  York  State  Bar^e  Canal  from 
Niagara  River  approximately  500  cubic  feet  per  second  for  power 
development  at  Lockport  and  along  Eighteen  Mile  Creek,  The 
quantity  of  water  required  for  navigation,  while  figured  to  average 
1,237  cubic  feet  per  second,  may,  with  increasing  use  of  the  canal, 
become  considerably  greater.  The  total  developabli  head  at  Lock- 
port  and  Eighteen  Mile  Creek  is  stated  to  be  286.5  feet.  At  Lock- 
port  there  are  three  conduits  or  channels  through  which  water  may  be 
by-passed  around  the  flight  of  locks,  from  the  upper  level  to  the  lower 
level  of  the  barge  canal.  One  supplies  the  plant  belonging  to  the 
State,  which  is  used  for  furnishing  electric  energy  for  lighting  and 
operating  the  locks.  The  other  two  belong  to  thr  Hydraulic  Race 
Co.,  the  north  tunnel  producing  570  horsepower  with  200  cubic  feet 
per  second  under  50  feet  of  head,  and  the  south  headrace  3,078  horse- 
power with  773  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  various  spillways  of  the 
barge  canal,  power  has  iDeen  developed,  partly  from  the  spill  and 
partly  from  the  small  streams  passing  under  the  canal  in  culverts. 
Along  Eighteen  Mile  Creek  there  are  a  number  of  power  plants, 
having  a  present  total  development  of  4,694  horsepower,  with  3,950 
additional  horsepower  practicable. 


2G     pi\t:rsion  of  water  from  great  lakes  and  xiagara  river. 

32.  The  two  remaininfr  diversions  in  the  United  States  are  at  or 
near  Port  Day.  the  upper  one  through  the  canal  and  power  houses 
of  the  oriofinal  Niafrara  Falls  Power  Co.,  the  lower  tlirou^rh  the 
canal  of  the  former  Ilydraulic  Power  Co.  These  companies  are  now 
combined  as  a  sin«rlo  corporation  under  the  name  of  Xiafrara  Falls 
Power  Co..  and  tog^ether,  at  the  time  of  the  report,  they  were  divert- 
in«r  ahout  17,300  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Chippawa-Grass 
Island  pool,  exclusively  for  power  purposes,  generating  an  average 
of  2-45,000  iiorsepower. 

33.  In  Canada  at  the  same  time,  the  three  diversions  mentioned 
above  were  taking  about  33.800  cubic  feet  per  second,  exclusively  for 
power  purposes,  and  producing  about  388,000  horsepower.  Of  the 
total  diversion  in  Canada,  the  e(|uiva]ent  of  about  6,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  was  being  taken  from  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool  and 
all  the  rest  came  from  below  the  first  cascade. 

34.  On  the  Xew  York  side  the  Hydraulic  Canal  was  being  enlarged 
so  as  to  permit  the  diversion  of  11,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  more, 
without  undue  loss  of  head,  and  on  the  Canadian  side  the  Hydro- 
Electric  Commission  was  constructing  a  new  power  plant  for  the 
development  of  the  total  fall  between  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island 
pool  and  the  lower  river  at  Queenston,  by  means  of  an  enlargement 
of  tlie  A^Vlland  Eiver  (Chippawa  Creek)  for  a  distance  of  3.6  miles 
i)y  dreilging  it  to  a  depth  of  25  to  30  feet  and  a  width  of  200  feet. 
From  the  upper  end  of  this  dredged  section  of  the  Welland  River,  the 
plan  includes  a  canal  about  9  miles  long,  48  feet  wide,  and  30  to  35 
feet  deep,  extending  to  a  forebay  and  power  house  at  Queenston, 
where  a  net  head  of  304  feet  is  to  be  developed.  The  works  are  de- 
signed for  a  flow  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  can  be  taken 
only  by  cutting  down  the  total  diversion  now  being  made  by  the 
Canadian  power  plants  at  Niagara  or  by  changing  the  existing  treaty 
limits. 

35.  The  period  from  1890  to  1906  Avas  one  of  great  activity  in  power 
development  at  Niagara  Falls.  The  diversions  then  contemplated  by 
various  companies  amounted  to  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
whole  flow  of  the  river,  and  at  first  this  aroused  no  opposition.  Event- 
ually, however,  it  came  to  be  believed  that  imrestricted  diversion  of 
the  water  of  the  Falls  might  injure  their  scenic  beauty,  and  wide- 
spread agitation  arose  to  prevent  sucli  an  occurrence.  At  the  request 
of  Congress  tlie  International  Waterway  Commission  made  an  in- 
vestigation and  recommended  tliat  the  diversions  be  limited  by  legis- 
lation or  treaty.  On  June  29,  1900,  tlie  Bui-ton  Act  was  passed,  and 
limited  diversions  on  the  American  side  by  the  then  existing  users  to 
15.600  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  the  provision  that  further  permits 
might  be  issued  for  additional  diversions  to  such  amount,  if  any,  as 
should  not  injure  the  river  as  a  navigalde  stream,  or  as  a  bounclary 
stream,  nor  the  scenic  gi'andeur  of  Niagara  Falls.  This  act  expired 
by  limitation  on  March  4,  1913.  On  May  5,  1910,  there  fame  into 
efTcct  thiougli  the  exchange  of  ratifications  between  tlie  United  States 
and  (Jieat  liritain  a  treaty  regarding  the  boundary  waters  of  the 
Unit('<l  StMlcs  !ind  Canada.  Article  V  of  this  treaty  contains  the 
following : 

So  loiij:  Hh  this  nvat.v  .sli;ill  n'liiaiii  in  force  no  <llvcrsion  of  the  waters  of  the 
Ni:i;riira  lllvcr  aliove  the  Kails  from  the  natural  course  and  stream  thereof 
shall  he  permit teil  except  for  the  i)uniose  and  to  the  extent  hereinafter  provided. 


DIVERSIO]Sr   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       27 

The  United  States  may  authorize  and  permit  the  diversion  within  the  State 
of  New  Yorlv  ot  the  waters  of  tlie  said  river  above  the  Falls  of  Niagara  for 
power  purposes  not  exceeding  in  the  aggregate  a  daily  diversion  at  the  rate  of 
20.U00  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second. 

The  United  Kingdom,  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada  or  tlie  Province  of  Ontario, 
may  authorize  and  permit  the  diversion  within  the  Province  of  Ontario  of  the 
Avaters  of  said  river  above  the  Falls-  of  Niagara  for  power  purposes  not  exceed- 
ing in  the  aggregate  a  daily  diversion  at  the  rate  of  30,000  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second. 

The  prohibitions  of  this  article  shall  not  apply  to  the  diversions  of  water  for 
sanitary  or  domestic  purposes  or  for  the  service  of  canals  for  tlie  purposes  of 
navigation. 

\'\niile  this  article  set  the  limit  for  diversions  in  the  United  States 
at  20,000  cttbic  feet  per  second  until  the  close  of  1915,  the  limits  of  the 
Burton  Act  were  observed,  8,600  cubic  feet  per  second  being  allowed 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  6,500  cubic  feet  per  second  going  to  the 
Hydraulic  Power  Co.,  and  500  cubic  feet  per  second  to  the  Hydraulic 
Race  Co.  at  Lockport.  Due  to  the  urgent  needs  of  war  industries  at 
Niagara  Falls  and  Buffalo,  toAvard  the  close  of  1915  and  in  1916  and 
1917,  the  two  power  companies  at  Niagara  Falls  were,  step  by  step, 
authorized  to  increase  the  amounts  of  water  diverted  by  them,  and 
finalh^  were  permitted  to  use  the  full  19,500  cubic  feet  per  second 
available  under  the  treaty. 

36.  The  diversions  by  power  companies  at  Niagara  Falls  as  reported 
by  the  division  engineer  are  shown  by  the  following  table: 

Water  diversion  from  Niagara  River  at  Niagara  Falls. 

United  States:  Cubic  feet 

Niagara  Falls  Power  Co. —  per  second. 

Niagara  plant 9, 450 

Hydraulic  plant 7,  840 

Pettebone  Cataract  Paper  Co 270 


17, 560 


Canada: 

Ilydroelectric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario,  Ontario  Power  Co.  plant.  .  .  11,  200 

Toronto  Power  Co.' 12, 400 

Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co 9,  600 

International  Ry.  Co 125 


33, 325 
Grand  total 50, 885 

As  previously  stated,  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  was  making  an 
addition  to  its  hydraulic  station  No.  3,  which,  when  completed,  would 
bring  its  total  diversion  up  to  19,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  Avith  ca- 
pacity for  usinw  at  least  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  more,  and  the 
Hydroelectric  PoAver  Commission  of  Ontario  had  under  construc- 
tion an  extension  of  the  Ontario  PoAver  Co.  plant,  which  Avill  increase 
its  diversion  to  about  13,300  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  commission 
was  also  constructing  a  neAv  ])lant  to  utilize  a  diversion  of  10,000 
cubic  feet  of  Avater  per  second  under  a  head  of  300  feet.  All  the 
existing  plants  at  Niagara  generate  power  under  heads  of  219  feet  or 
less.  The  gross  head  and  power  output  of  the  seA^eral  plants  are 
shoAvn  by  the  following  table : 


2S        DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AXD  XIAGAEA   RIVER. 
Dircifiion  ilata  on  \i(i!/(ini  I'nU'f  iioircr  iiliintf<. 


Diver- 
sion. 


Cubicfeet 
per  sec. 

Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co 9, 600 

Ontario  Power  Co 11, 200 

Toronto  Power  Co 12, 400 

International  Ry.  Co [  125 

lCy(lroele<iric  power  commission  ' I      10,000 

Niaeara  Falls  Power  Co i        9, 450 

II ytlraulic  Power  Co i        7,  S40 

International  Paper  Co 

Pet  tetjonne-Cataraot  Paper  Co i  271 

Cataract  Hotel 


Power 
output. 


Horse- 
power. 
100,000 
163,000 
125,000 
570 
294,000 
100,000 
145,000 


Gross 
head. 


Horse- 
power   I   Overall 
percubiCgO^^/,f^, 
feet  per    e"'<"«^"c3 . 

second. 


2,000 


Feet. 

173 

215 

183 

91 

313 

219 

219 

219 

93 

24 


10.4 
14.6 
10.1 
4.6 
29.4 
10.6 
IS.  5 


7.4 


Per  cent. 
53 
60 
49 
45 
S3 
43 
»75 


»70 


'  Now  under  construction. 

»  The  Hvdraulic  Power  Co.  has  three  types  of  machines  with  widely  different  overall  efficiencies,  as  fol- 
lows: Station  2,  57  per  cent;  direct-current  units  in  station  3,  77  per  cent;  alternating-current  luiits  in  sta- 
tion 3,  SI  per  cent. 

3  Gross  head  taken  at  mouth  of  outfall. 

37.  By  careful  observation  made  during-  previous  investigations 
at  Xiaffara  Falls,  it  has  been  found  that  diversions  above  them  may 
affect  the  navigable  capacity  of  the  Niagara  River,  and  the  level  of 
Lake  Erie,  and  the  waters  above  it,  or  they  may  affect  only  the 
scenic  beaut}^  of  the  Falls,  including  the  rapids  above  and  below, 
or  injury  may  be  done  to  both  navigation  and  scenic  beauty.  The 
first  cascade  is  a  rock  barrier  with  a  clear,  vertical  drop  of  from  5 
to  10  feet.  It  is  thus  a  free  overfall  weir,  and  therefore  the  existing 
diversion  below  it  in  Canada  of  about  27,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
produces  no  effect  on  the  river  above.  The  sole  effect  is  to  diminish 
the  flow  of  the  Canadian  Ivapids  and  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  thereby 
helping  to  expose  more  of  the  crest  at  each  end,  undoubtedly  a  very 
serious  injury  to  tlie  harmony  and  beauty  of  the  spectacle,  while 
only  sliglitly,  if  at  all,  affecting  the  rapids  above  the  Falls.  Except 
the  small  diversion  of  the  barge  canal,  all  the  existing  Canadian  and 
American  diversions  from  the  Xiagara  River  discharge  into  the  head 
of  the  ^laid-of-the-^Iist  Pool,  and  therefore  produce  no  effect  of 
any  kind  below  tlieir  outlets. 

38.  Diversions  from  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool  damage  the 
scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  do  the 
diversions  below  the  cascades,  and  additional  similar  damage  is  done 
bj'^  the  diversions  at  Chicago,  and  through  the  Welland  Canal,  the 
total  of  all  the.se  diversions  being  at  present  al)out  OG,000  cubic  feet 
per  second. 

30.  The  division  engineer  presents  photographs  to  show  tliat  the 
diversions  for  jjower  affect  the  appearance  of  the  American  and 
Canadian  Rapids  and  the  American  and  Horseshoe  Falls,  but  not 
of  the  Whirlpool  Rapids  or  of  the  Lower  Rapids.  One  set  shows 
conditions  at  extremely  high  stage,  one  at  about  mean  stage,  and 
one  a  little  below  mean  stage.  Prior  to  the  sul>mission  of  the  main 
report  there  liad  been  no  opportunity  for  obtaining  views  at  ex- 
tremely low  stage.  Subsequently,  on  April  22,  1920.  an  unusually 
low  stage  of  Lake  Erie  occurred,  and  it  became  possible  to  obtain 
a  set  of  views  of  the  Falls  with  a  discharge  of  only  about  135,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.     These  views  accompan}-^  the  supplemental  re- 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA   RIVER,       29 

port  (lilted  May  19,  1920,  and  show  the  detrimental  effects  of  low- 
Lake  Erie  staples,  and  correspondin<;ly  low  discharj^es  on  the  scenic 
beauty  of  the  Falls  in  their  natural  condition.  The  effects  of  stage 
upon  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  the  rapids  above  and  below 
are  summarized  in  the  report  as  follows : 

1.  The  American  Rapids  are  not  much  affected  by  stage,  but  loolv  l)e.st  with 
a  moderately  large  flow. 

2.  The  Canailian  Kai)id.s  are  very  little  aifected  by  stage  except  the  north- 
west corner,  which  rtMiuire  an  extremely  high  stage  to  cover  the  shoal  there. 

3.  The  American  Fulls  look  best  at  high  stage. 

4.  The  "  notch  "'  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  of  small  scenic  value  at  any  stage. 
At  low  stages  it  is  more  often  visible  because  there  is  then  less  mist. 

5.  The  ends  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  look  very  poor  at  low  stage,  and  poor 
enough  at  the  ordinary  conditions  now  prevailing.  At  very  high  stages  they 
tire  marvelously  Improved. 

6.  The  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  and  the  Whirlpool  derive  their  beauty  primarily 
from  the  gorge,  not  the  river,  and  are  not  affected  by  change  of  stage. 

7.  The  Whirlpool  Rapids  and  Lower  Rapids  are  at  their  best  at  a  compara- 
tively low  stage.     As  the  flow  increases  much  of  their  attraction  is  lost. 

40.  The  various  power  companies  at  Niagara  now  divert  over  50,- 
000  cubic  feet  per  second  around  the  Falls  and  into  the  Maid-of-tlie- 
Mist  pool.  In  addition,  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  the  Wel- 
land  Canal,  and  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  are  taking  some  12,000 
or  13,000  cubic  feet  per  second  which  would  otherwise  flow  over 
the  Falls  and  through  the  Gorge.  In  the  near  future,  when  the  new 
Welland  Canal  is  put  in  operation  and  the  plants  now  under  con- 
struction at  the  Falls  are  finished,  the  total  diversion  affecting  the 
Falls  will  be  nearly  70.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  effect  on  Horse- 
shoe Falls  of  the  existing  diversions  vdll  be  seen  from  an  examina- 
tion of  photographs  Nos.  89  and  99,  the  former  taken  with  a  river 
discharge  of  212,000  cubic  feet  per  second  and  the  latter  with  a  dis- 
charge of  274,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  It  seems  clear  that  the  scenic 
beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  has  been  appreciably  damaged  both  by  the 
recession  of  the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  which  is  proceeding  at 
a  rate  of  about  4  to  6  feet  a  year,  and  by  the  diversion  of  water  for 
power  and  other  purposes.  At  the  present  time  there  flows  over  the 
central  600  feet  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  a  volume  of  approximately 
80,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  not  only  is  entirely  wasted  in  that 
it  creates  neither  scenery  nor  power,  but  which  is  actually  the  cause 
of  destructive  erosion  producing  the  recession  referred  to.  If  means 
were  adopted  to  distribute  the  flow^  evenly  over  the  Falls,  a  much 
greater  diversion  than  the  present  could  be  allowed  without  injury 
to  the  scenic  effects. 

41.  The  remedial  works  proposed  to  improve  scenic  conditions  at 
Niagara  Falls  by  the  division  engineer  contemplate  the  following: 
That  the  high  Canadian  end  of  the  Falls  and  the  shoal  south  of  it 
should  be  cut  down  by  excavation  made  in  cofferdams;  that  the  high 
places  near  Terrapin  Point  and  to  the  south  should  be  similarly  ex- 
cavated in  another  cofferdam;  that  to  distribute  the  flow  more  uni- 
formly a  submerged  weir,  curved  in  plan,  should  be  built  across  thci 
central  part  of  the  rapids  a  short  distance  upstream  from  the  "  notch  " 
of  the  Horseshoe  Falls;  and  that  the  American  channel  should  be 
given  a  flow  of  12,000  cubic  feet  per  second  by  means  of  a  submerged 
compensating  dike  extending  from  Goat  Island  to  Chippawa.  It  is 
believed  by  the  division  engineer  that  the  cost  of  remedial  works 
should  be  equally  divided  between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 


30       DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

42.  If  these  works  are  constructed,  the  division  enjrineer  believes 
that  then  a  considerable  addition  to  diversions  from  above  the  Falls 
is  not  onlv  pennissil)le  but  desirable.  At  present,  the  greatest  detri- 
ment to  the  beauty  of  the  Horseshoe  is  the  prevailinir  mist,  and  the 
constant  rece.ssion'of  its  crest  is  an  ever-present  and  trrowing  menace 
not  only  to  the  appearance  of  the  Horseshoe  but  also  to  the  perman- 
ence of  the  water  supply  of  at  least  one  of  the  power  companies. 
The  greatest  volume  that  can  be  taken  consistent  with  maximum  at- 
tainable scenic  beauty  is  that  which  will  reduce  the  obstructive  mist 
to  a  minimum  Avhile  j\t  the  same  time  insuring  adequate  ice  discharge 
capacity.  With  the  flow  approximately  uniformly  distributed  over 
the  crest  of  the  Horseshoe,  this  maximum  diversion  from  the  Niagara 
River  al)ove  the  Falls  is  put  at  about  80.(»()()  culjic  feet  per  second. 

•43.  The  table  in  paragraph  3G  shows  the  very  great  difference  that 
exists  between  the  efficiencies  of  the  various  power  plants  at  Niagara 
Falls,  the  range  being  between  43  and  75  per  cent,  while  88  ])er  cent 
is  predicted  for  the  Chippawa-Q.ueenston  development  of  the  Hyclro- 
electric  Power  Commission.  The  efficiencies  stated  for  the  existing 
power  stations  relate  only  to  the  head  actually  developed,  220  feet 
more  or  less,  and  therefore  ignore  the  now  undeveloped  head  of  90 
feet  or  more.  To  this  extent,  these  efficiencies  are  not  properly  com- 
parable Avith  that  predicted  for  the  Chippawa-Queenston  develop- 
ment. In  any  event,  the  importance  to  society  of  developing  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  power  from  the  volume  of  water  per- 
mitted to  be  diverted  is  evident  and  the  division  engineer  lays  down 
the  rule  that  future  developments  should  have  an  overall  efficiency 
of  more  than  80  per  cent,  and  produce  over  20  horsepower  ])er  cubic 
foot  per  second  if  they  discharge  into  the  ^laid-of-the-Mist  pool  and 
over  20  horsepower  if  the  discharge  is  into  the  river  near  Lewiston. 
These  figures  may  well  be  contrasted  with  the  present  development 
of  635.570  horse p'o AVer,  with  a  diversion  of  over  50.000  cubic  feet  per 
second  and  an  average  of  only  12.5  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per 
second.  Each  additional  horsepower  developed  by  these  diversions 
is  when  continuously  used  worth  at  least  $30  annually  to  a  consumer 
who  would  otherwise  be  forced  to  use  steam  power.  The  greater  the 
efficiency  of  development  the  cheaper  the  power  may  be  sold. 

44.  Diversions  from  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool,  by  lowering 
the  pool  itself  and  increasing  the  slope  between  it  and  the  upjier 
river,  also  lower  Lake  Erie  and  the  waters  above  it.  The  three  diver- 
.sions  from  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool,  consisting  of  about 
0,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  Canada  and  17.000  cubic  feet  per  second 
in  New  York,  a  total  of  23,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  lower  the  pool 
about  O.G  foot  and  increase  the  discharge  from  Lake  Flrie  by  about 
one-tentli  of  the  amount  of  this  diversion,  thereby  lowering  that  lake 
about  one-tenth  foot.  The  small  diversion  for  navigation  and  i)ower 
throMgli  the  barge  canal  is  also  made  from  the  Clni)pawa-Grass 
Ishuid  pool  and  lias  proportionately  a  similar  effect  in  lowering  the 
pool  and  Lake  Erie.  The  amount  l)y  wliich  the  various  portions  of 
the  (ircat  Lakes  are  affected  is  shown  in  Taljle  47. 

45.  The  diversions  from  the  Niagara  Kiver  cause  diminished  depth 
in  many  harbors  and  in  the  connecting  channels,  Avhich  limit  the 
draft  to  which  the  bulk  freighters  of  the  Great  Lakes  may  load. 
Using  data  based  upon  conditions  existing  at  the  time  of  his  report, 
the  division  engineer  figures  that  each  tenth  of  a  foot  of  draft  cor- 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       31 

responds  to  freight  earnings  of  $44.57  per  trip.  AVith  an  average  of 
25  trips  per  season,  lie  estimates  that  the  fleet  of  large  bulk  freighters 
plying  Lake  Erie  and  the  waters  above  loses  $5<J0,000  annually  for 
each  one-tenth  foot  reduction  in  permissible  draft,  while  the  corre- 
sponding loss  for  the  smaller  vessels  using  the  Welland  and  St.  Law- 
rence Canals  is  about  $70,000.  The  total  loss  in  both  trades  due  to 
all  existing  diversions  is  estimated  to  have  been  $4,713,000  in  1917. 

4G.  The  plan  of  the  distributing  weir  and  other  work  for  remedy- 
ing the  damage  already  done  to  the  Horseshoe  and  for  improving  its 
appearance  has  already  been  sufficiently  described.  The  detrimental 
effect  u])on  navigation  of  diversions  from  the  Niagara  Kiver  is  also 
susceptible  of  being  remedied  by  appropriately  designed  and  located 
works  of  simple  and  relatively  inexpensive  character. 

47.  The  division  engineer  proposes  to  restore  depths  available  for 
navigation  by  the  submerged  weir  near  the  foot  of  the  Chippavra- 
Grass  Island  pool,  and  by  two  sets  of  submerged  weirs,  one  near  the 
head  of  the  Niagara  River,  the  other  near  the  head  of  the  St.  Qair 
Eiver,  to  raise  the  levels  of  Lakes  Erie,  Huron,  Michigan,  and  their 
connecting  and  tributary  waters.  The  effect  would  be  to  restore  the 
waters  above  named  to  the  levels  they  would  have  had  before  any 
diversions  were  made.  After  their  completion,  these  lakes  will  dis- 
charge through  all  their  outlets  the  same  quantities  of  water  that 
they  formerly  discharged  when  tlie  same  stage  naturally  prevailed. 
In  other  words,  compensation  will  then  have  been  made  for  damage 
done,  but  the  variations  in  Lake  stages  and  discharges  will  go  on  as 
before. 

48.  A  plan  for  raising  the  levels  of  Lake  Erie  and  of  the  system 
above  it  so  as  to  afford  greater  depths  for  navigation  was  presented 
by  the  Deep  Waterways  Board  in  its  report  of  June  30,  1900,  and 
provided  for  the  regulation  of  Lake  Erie  between  the  levels  574.2 
and  574.8,  thereby  raising  the  mean  level  between  2  and  3  feet.  Lake 
St.  Clair  would,  it  was  estimated,  be  raised  about  three-fourths  and 
Lake  Huron  one-third  as  much.  These  works  consisted  of  a  length 
of  2,900  feet  of  submerged  weir  in  two  sections  and  a  series  of  13 
sluiceways,  80  feet  wide  and  23  feet  deep,  provided  with  Stoney 
gates.  They  Avould  compensate  for  the  lowering  effects  of  diver- 
sions considerably  greater  than  now  exist.  The  division  engineer 
points  out  certain  objections  to  this  plan,  which  are  hereafter  dis- 
cussed. 

49.  A  second  plan,  proposed  by  the  International  Waterways  Com- 
mission in  1913,  consisted  of  a  long  fixed  weir  from  above  the  mouth 
of  Welland  River  to  Gill  Creek,  raising  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island 
pool  3  feet  and  Lake  Erie  about  4!^  inches.  This  plan  would  afford 
incomplete  compensation  for  existing  diversions.  Another  plan  for 
intermittent  regulation  to  control  discharge  and  to  furnish  better 
navigation  during  the  open  season  has  been  presented  to  the  board 
by  the  sanitary  district  of  Chicago,  and  is  here  described  simply  to 
render  the  discussion  more  complete,  it  contemplates  the  construc- 
tion of  a  longitudinal  division  wall  in  the  Niagara  River  nearly  a 
mile  below  the  site  of  the  works  planned  by  the  Deep  Waterways 
Board,  and  about  2  miles  below  the  main  entrance  to  Buffalo  Har- 
bor. Here  the  river  is  about  1,800  feet  wide.  The  wall  will  divide 
it  into  two  channels,  respectively,  800  and  1,000  feet  wide.  The  nar- 
rower or  American  channel  is  to  be  used  for  regulation,  the  wider 


32        DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT   LAKES    AND   XIAGARA   RIVILR. 

channel  to  remain  open.  The  gates  proposed  are  daring  in  design, 
being  removable,  ship-like  caissons  about  '200  feet  long  Avith  butterfly 
vahes.  for  which  emplacements  or  anchorages  are  provided  in  the 
bed  of  the  river.  L'our  such  gates  are  ]H-oposed  to  be  floated  to  place 
and  anchored  in  ]\lay  and  removed  in  December.  In  place,  with  all 
valves  closed,  they  are  figured  to  reduce  the  discharge  about  40,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  function  of  these  works  is  stated  by  their 
tlesigner  to  be  as  folloAvs : 

First.  The  creation  of  a  lii^lier  mean  Lake  Erie  level  of  about  l.'>  inches  over 
the  level  which  would  obtain  durinj^  the  continuous  diversion  of  lO.CXX)  cubic 
second-feet  at  Chicago. 

Seci>nd.  The  negative  function  of  maintaining  a  substantially  \uumpaired 
outtlow  capacity  for  the  Niagara  lliver  for  water  and  ice  during  the  winter 
st-asDii,  and  at  times  when  the  lake  tends  to  crest  at  elevations  approaching 
Z)~4  and  Hood  heights  need  to  be  avoided. 

Third.  The  throttling,  wlien  desirable,  of  perhaps  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
when  the  sui)i)iy  warrants  the  saving  of  water  for  lati>r  release  to  equalize  the 
How. 

Fourth.  The  ability  to  release  during  certain  hour.s  of  the  day  a  volume  of 
30,000  cubic  second-feet  of  impounded  water. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  plan  would  raise  Lake  Erie  consider- 
ably more  than  the  amount  it  is  lowered  by  the  existing  diversion  at 
Chicago  and  by  all  other  diversions  now  made,  and  that  liberal 
margin  would  be  left  for  an  increase  in  diversions. 

50.  Contingent  upon  the  construction  of  the  remedial  and  com- 
pensating Avorks  proposed  by  him,  tlie  division  engineer  believes  that 
a  total  of  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  may  be  diA'erted  fi'om  aboA^e 
the  Falls,  Avliicli  shoidd  be  e({ually  divided  betAveen  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  and  that  of  this  total  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
should  be  returned  to  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool,  this  latter  condition 
being  for  the  protection  of  the  scenic  beauty  and  ice  discharging 
capacity  of  the  river  below  the  Falls. 

51.  The  report  furnishes  an  extended  discussion  of  the  details  and 
merits  of  the  existing  power  i)lants  at  Niagara  Falls  and  of  the  best — 
that  is,  the  most  economical  or  ellicient — j)lan  for  utilizing  the  exist- 
ing diversion  and  any  additional  one,  including  the  advisability  of 
joint  use  for  navigation  and  poAver  production. 

52.  As  already  mentioned,  there  are  at  present  three  American 
diA'ersions  from  the  Niagara  Kiver  for  poAver  purposes.  The.se  in- 
clude a  diA-ersion  of  500  cubic  feet  per  second  through  Tonawanda 
Creek  and  the  New  "^'ork  State  Barge  Canal  for  use  by  i)OAver  i)lants 
at  Lockport.  N.  Y,  Thi.x  is  about  a  century  old  and  therefore  Avas  in 
existence  at  llie  time  cognizance  Avas  first  taken  by  the  United  States 
of  the  harmfid  possibilities  of  diverting  Avater  from  the  Niagara 
Kiver.  The  use  of  this  diverted  Avater  at  and  beloAV  I^ockport 
appears  to  be  inefficient. 

53.  The  other  tAvo  diversions  are  made  just  above  the  Falls  near 
Orass  Island  and  Port  Day.  The  upper  diversion,  that  of  the  origi- 
nal Niagara  Falls  PoAver  Co..  is  reported  as  9.450  cubic  feet  per 
second,  from  Avhidi  about  100.000  horsepower  is  developed.  This 
company  Avas  the  pioneer  in  developing  Avater  power  and  generating 
electricity  upon  a  lai'ge  scale  at  Niagara  Falls.  Its  operations  Avere 
begun  about  ISDO.  Avhen  the  art  Avas  in  its  infancy  and  there  appeared 
no  po.ssihiliLy  of  limitations  on  the  use  of  Avatcr.  The  plant  consists 
of  two  poAver  houses  fed  by  a  short  headrace  canal  discharging  into 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       33 

penstocks  which  conduct  the  water  to  turbines  installed  at  the  bottom 
of  deep  pits,  the  draft  tubes  of  the  turbines  connecting  wih  a  tailrace 
tunnel  havin<^  considerable  slope  anil  openin<j;  into  the  Maid-of-the- 
Mist  pool  just  below  the  hij^hway  brid*<e  at  Niagara  Falls.  Judged 
by  present  standards,  tlie  plant  is  not  efficient,  its  output  of  10.6 
horsepower  per  cubic  foot-second  corresponding  to  an  over-all  effi- 
ciency of  only  43  per  cent. 

54.  The  remainig  American  diversion  is  that  of  the  former  Hy- 
draulic Power  Co.,  which  is  reported  as  diverting  at  Port  Day  about 
8,110  cubic  feet  per  second  into  a  headrace  canal  nearly  a  mile  long 
leading  to  penstocks  conducting  the  water  to  two  power  houses  in 
the  Gorge  below  the  highway  bridge  practically  at  the  level  of  the 
Maid-of-the-Mist  pool.  These  plants  produce  145,000  horse  power, 
an  average  of  17.9  horsepower  per  cubic  foot-second,  when  the  diver- 
sion made  from  the  canal  by  the  Pettebone  Cataract  Power  Co., 
amounting  to  271  cubic  feet  per  second,  is  included,  and  of  18.5  horse- 
poAver  per  cubic  foot-second  when  the  latter  diversion  is  not  consid- 
ered. The  latter  corresponds  to  an  over-all  efficiency  of  75  per  cent, 
and  the  efficiency  is  about  72  per  cent  when  the  whole  diversion  is 
considered.  The  company  is  enlarging  its  canal  and  building  an 
extension  of  station  No.  3.  which  will  hold  three  units  of  about  37,500 
horsepower  each  and  Avill  use  probably  slightly  over  5,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  with  a  claimed  efficiency  of  close  to  85  per  cent.  (This 
enlargement  has  since  been  completed,  the  three  new  units  are  oper- 
ating, and  the  total  diversion  into  the  canal  is  now  over  10,000  cubic 
feet  per  second.) 

55.  The  two  power  companies  above  mentioned  have  recently  been 
combined  under  the  name  of  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  With  the 
three  new  units  above  mentioned  in  operation  it  will,  under  existing 
treaty  limitations,  be  necessary  to  discontinue  the  operation  of  some 
of  the  less  efficient  units  so  as  to  keep  the  total  power  diversion  at 
20,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  division  engineer  presents  a 
plan  for  developing  the  energy  of  this  diversion  with  maximum 
efficiency.  He  calls  this  the  compound  two-stage  plan.  Under  it 
station  No.  3  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  is  retained,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  diversion  is  to  be  taken  through  a  pressure  tunnel 
virtually  parallel  to  the  hydraulic  canal  to  what  is  really  an  exten- 
sion of  station  No.  3,  thereby  developing  about  409,000  horsepower 
from  the  first  stage,  whose  head  is  220  feet.  The  tail  water  then 
discharges  into  a  tunnel  which  leads  the  water  under  pressure  to  a 
power  house  near  Riverdale  Cemetery  in  the  lower  Gorge,  where 
160,000  horsepower  additional  is  developed  from  the  head  of  90  feet 
available  in  the  second  stage. 

56.  On  the  assumption  that  it  may  be  possible  to  take  20,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  additional  in  the  United  States,  plans  are  presented 
for  utilizing  this  water  in  three  types  of  installations  for  developing 
the  total  head  of  about  320  feet,  and  in  a  single  t3^pe  of  installation 
in  which  the  head  is  developed  in  two  stages  taking  all  the  water  first 
by  a  pressure  tunnel  to  a  station  well  down  in  the  Maid-of-the-Mist 
pool  under  a  head  of  220  feet  and  then  through  a  second  pressure 
tunnel  under  the  head  of  about  90  feet  to  a  station  in  the  lower  Gorge 
at  the  same  site  as  in  the  compound  two-stage  plan. 

27880—21 ^3 


34        DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

57.  It  is  advisable  to  call  particular  attention  to  the  statement  in 
paratrraph  9'2  of  the  report  that  the  estimates  do  not  include  the 
entire  capital  costs,  nor  the  whole  of  the  construction  costs.  Costs 
of  promotion,  of  raisin<r  funds,  of  organization,  and  of  legal  services 
are  omitted  as  are  also  the  cost  of  purchasing  any  legally  enforceable 
rights  now  belonging  to  any  existing  companies.  The  development 
expense  in  building  up  a  market  for  power  is  also  omitted.  The 
omission  of  any  allowance  for  existing  investments  particularly 
affects  the  estimate  for  the  "  compound  two-stage  "  plan  in  Avhich  the 
out^iut  of  the  existing  plants  is  included  without  payment,  so  that 
the  estimated  unit  cost  of  $51.80  per  horsepower  for  this  jilan  is 
lower  than  the  actual  cost  would  be  to  anj'body  who  had  to  pay  for 
property  or  rights  already  in  existence,  or  who  had  already  paid 
for  such  rights  or  property. 

58.  The  division  engineer's  conclusion  is  that  a  combined  power 
and  ship  canal  which,  under  the  topographical  conditions,  should  be 
built  along  the  La  Salle-Lewiston  line,  would  be  less  economical  than 
a  ship  canal  along  this  line  and  a  sej)arate  power  canal  from  the 
vicinity  of  Conners  Island  to  the  (xorge  at  Riverdale  Cemetery. 
The  estimated  cost  of  the  combined  plan  is  about  $200,000,000,  Avhile 
the  separate  ship  canal  would  cost  $135,000,000  and  the  separate 
power  development  about  $46,000,000,  the  difference  in  favor  of  the 
separate  canals  being  about  $19,000,000.  The  combined  canal  is  to 
have  12,000  square  feet  area  of  cross  section,  being  alternately  300  by 
40  feet  and  400  by  30  feet,  while  the  separate  navigation  canal  is  to 
be  of  G,000  square  feet  area  of  cross  section  or  200  by  30  feet.  For 
the  development  of  a  new  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in 
a  single  stage,  he  discusses  plans  producing  about  600,000  horsepower 
with  practically  equal  efficiency,  first,  by  means  of  a  plant  consisting 
of  a  i)o\ver  house  near  Conners  Island  placed  in  a  deep  pit  and  dis- 
charging into  a  tailrace  tunnel  with  the  surface  of  tail-water  sub- 
stantially at  the  level  of  the  lower  Xiagara  River,  about  elevation 
248;  second,  by  a  pressure  tunnel  starting  at  nearly  the  same  point 
in  the  Chippawa-CJrass  Island  pool  and  leading  to  a  power  house 
in  the  lower  (xorge  near  Riverdale  Cemetery,  and.  third,  liy  means  of 
a  canal  leading  to  a  power  house  at  the  same  location.  His  estimates 
of  the  construction  cost  per  horsepower  on  the  bus  liar,  under  the 
assumptions  made  by  him,  are  $89.40  for  the  iirst  plan,  $86.40  for 
the  second  plan,  and  $73.70  for  the  third  plan.  He  believes  that  the 
tailrace  tunnel  plan  involves  construction  difficulties  due  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  encountering  ground  water  at  the  low  level  of  the  tunnel, 
and  that  both  tliis  i)lan  and  the  pressure  tunnel  are  liable  to  difficul- 
ties in  operation,  such  as  surges  in  the  tailrace  tunnel,  dangers  from 
ice,  necessity  of  unwatering  for  repairs  to  valves,  et  cetera.  His  only 
objections  to  the  canal  plan  are  that  there  may  be  some  ice  difficulty 
an«l  that  the  canal  will  cut  through  valual>le  land  and  interfere  with 
highways,  railways,  water  supply  and  sewage  .systems,  as  well  as, 
jK-rhaps.  with  the  most  economical  development  of  adjacent  real 
e.state. 

59.  For  an  additional  diversion  of  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  by 
the  sinii)le  two-.stage  plan,  he  estimates  the  total  output  to  be  580,000 
horscpowci-.  at  a  cost  of  $105.60  jier  hor.sej)ower.  This  cost  is  greater 
than  under  any  of  the  .single  .stage  i)lans,  and  more  than  half  of  the 


T)IVERSI():sr   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA   RIVER.       35 

total  cost  belongs  to  the  second  stage  Avhich  furnishes  only  about 
160,000  horsepoAver  out  of  the  total  of  580,000.  It  is  plain  that  the 
division  engineer  believes  that  a  second  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  should  preferably  be  in  a  single  stage,  thereby  making 
the  most  economical  use  of  the  water  that  may  safely  be  completely 
diverted  from  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool. 

60.  On  the  basis  of  these  construction  costs,  the  division  engineer 
figures  that  the  cost  on  the  bus  bar  will  be  $10  to  $13.90  per  annual 
horsepower  for  the  new  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
while  if  only  one  such  amount  is  to  be  diverted  and  existing  rights 
are  valid  and  therefore  must  be  paid  for,  these  figures  are  increased 
to  from  $14.90  to  $17,  the  cheapest  development  in  every  case  being 
the  single  stage  power  canal. 

61.  There  are  numerous  diversions  for  domestic  purposes  from  the 
Niagara  Elver  and  Lake  Ontario,  as  Avell  as  from  the  St.  Lawrence,, 
but  as  these  are  immediately  returned  they  produce  virtually  no 
effect  upon  levels.  There  are,  however,  no  diversions  for  navigation 
either  from  the  lower  Niagara  or  from  Lake  Ontario. 

62.  Existing  diversions  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  above  St. 
Eegis  are  utilized  for  both  navigation  and  water  power,  and  include 
four  lateral  canals  constructed  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  known  as 
the  Galop  Canal,  Rapide  Plat  Canal  (also  called  the  Morrisburg 
Canal),  Farran  Point  Canal,  and  the  Cornwall  Canal.  The  diver- 
sions are  small,  and  in  each  case  the  water  is  returned  to  the  river. 
The  diversion  by  the  Galop  Canal  is  between  500  and  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  of  which  an  average  of  200  or  less  is  used  for  navigation 
and  the  remainder  for  power.  The  diversion  by  the  Morrisburg 
Canal  is  between  1.000  and  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which  pos- 
sibly 200  feet  is  required  for  navigation  and  the  remainder  for  power. 
The  Farran  Point  Canal  diverts  about  50  cubic  feet  per  second,  all 
for  navigation.  The  diversion  by  the  Cornwall  Canal  is  about  3,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which  possibly  300  only  is  required  for 
navigation  purposes.  These  canals  were  built  primarily  for  the 
benefit  of  navigation,  and  are  open  for  use  equally  by  the  vessels  of 
both  countries.  The  development  of  water  power  along  these  canals 
was  originally  a  secondary  and  incidental  matter,  although  much  of 
the  water  is  now  diverted  solely  for  that  purpose. 

63.  The  St.  Lawrence  canals  accommodate  vessels  255  feet  long, 
42  feet  beam,  and  drawing  14  feet.  The  river  is  closed  by  ice  for 
an  average  of  144  days  per  annum,  from  about  December  3  to  about 
April  27. 

64.  In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  diversions  primarily  for 
navigation,  there  are  two  developments  solely  for  water  power. 
These  are  the  Massena  Canal,  on  the  United  States  side  of  the  river,, 
at  the  head  of  Long  Sault  Rapids,  and  the  development  at  Wad- 
dington,  N.  Y.  The  Massena  Canal  extends  about  3  miles  from  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  a  poAver  house  on  the  Grasse  River,  a  tributary'- 
of  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  has  a  bottom  width  of  188  feet  and  a  depth 
of  25  feet.  There  is  a  head  of  about  43  feet  at  the  powerhouse,  for 
which  the  Grasse  River  serves  as  a  tailrace,  conducting  the  water 
back  to  the  St.  Lawrence  at  a  point  lOf  miles  downstream  from  the 
point  of  diversion.  Until  recently  the  quantity  of  water  diverted 
was    approximately    30,000    cubic    feet    per    second,    developing    a 


36        DIVKRSIOX    OF   WATER    FROM    GREAT    LxtKES    AND   NIAGARA   RIVER. 

maximum  of  80,000  liorsepower.  Due  to  improvements  undertaken 
durinfr  the  war,  an  output  of  60,000  horsepower  is  now  produced 
with  a  consumption  of  only  17,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  AVad- 
dington,  N.  Y.,  a  dam  950  feet  lon^;  was  constructed  more  than  100 
years  ago  across  the  American  channel.  The  flow  through  the 
American  channel,  known  as  Little  River,  is  estimated  to  be  3,000 
to  4.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which  about  600  cubic  feet  is  used 
intermittently  and  inefficiently  in  the  development  of  power.  A  small 
powerhouse  is  located  at  the  downstream  side  of  the  dam,  and  a 
]jower  canal  15  to  20  feet  wide  leads  from  the  south  end  of  the  dam 
downstream  along  the  bank  of  the  river  for  about  950  feet,  serving 
four  plants.  The  company  owning  the  rights  at  this  locality  has 
proposed  the  construction  of  a  new  plant  to  develop  30,000  horse- 
power, with  the  use  of  about  30,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

65.  The  problem  of  hoAv  the  development  of  power  may  best  be 
combined  with  the  improvement  of  the  St.  Lawrence  for  naviga- 
tion is,  as  stated  by  the  division  engineer,  at  present  under  considera- 
tion by  the  International  Joint  Commission.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
advisable  to  discuss  further  such  plans  as  have  hitherto  been  pro- 
posed for  diverting  water  from  the  St.  Lawrence. 

66.  Finally,  the  division  engineer  discusses  the  existing  boundary 
waters  treaty  with  Canada,  and  recommends  that  it  be  amended  so 
as  to  cover  the  existing  needs  and  anticipate  future  requirements 
more  satisfactorily  and  with  more  flexibility. 

67.  The  recommendations  of  the  division  engineer  regarding  modi- 
fications of  tlie  treaty  and  the  use  of  diversions  are  as  follows : 

RecoDinicttiJrd  treaty  provisions. — It  is  reconi mended  that  tlie  treaty  with 
Great  Britain  proclaimed  May  13,  1010,  be  modified  in  the  following  particulars: 

(1)  That  the  wording  of  the  treaty  be  altered  to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  International  Joint  Commission  to  include  diversions  from  tributaries  of 
boiiiidary  waters  except  in  the  case  of  diversions  from  a  tributary  which  are 
returned  to  the  same  tributary. 

(2)  That  the  words,  "  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  Rapids,"  be  inserted 
in  the  first  sentence  of  Article  V  after  the  word  "  Erie." 

(3)  That  the  diver.sion  of  water  from  Niacara  River  below  the  Falls  be  spe- 
cifically limited  in  the  same  manner  as  the  diversion  from  the  Niagara  River 
above  the  Falls. 

<4)  That  the  treaty  provide  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  re- 
nieflial  works  of  the  nature  outlined  in  section  (c)  of  this  report;  such  works 
to  be  built  under  the  supervision  of  the  International  .Toint  fNunniission,  or  of 
some  other  international  body  created  for  the  purpose;  the  remedial  works 
to  be  so  desi^'ned  and  constructed  that  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  wlW  be 
restored  and  preserved  when  80,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  is  diverted 
from  the  Niagara  River  above  the  Falls;  the  expense  of  constructing  and  main- 
taining .'^aid  works  to  be  borne  equally  by  the  high  contracting  parties. 

(:"))  That  the  limits  of  diversion  from  the  Niagara  River  above  the  Falls, 
which  the  high  contracting  parties  may  permit  within  their  respective  juris- 
dictloriK,  b«'  i-ais('d  from  20.000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  on  the  United 
States  side  to  40,0(X)  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  and  from  30,000  cubic  feet 
of  water  per  second  on  the  Canadian  side  to  40,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second. 

(•;  I  That  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  the  water  so  diverted  upon  each 
side  f)f  tlie  river  shall  be  returned  to  the  Niagara  River  at  some  point  or  points 
upstream  from  turning  jMiitit  No.  134  of  the  iiiternationnl  boundary  line  adopted 
August  If).  lUV.i,  by  the  International  Waterways  ('ommissioii  under  Article  IV 
of  the  treaty  between  the  United  States  of  America  and  the  United  Kingdom 
of  On-nt  I'.rltain  and  Ireland  signed  April  11,  190S;  and  that  if  any  part  of  the 
remaining  diversior)  be  returned  to  the  Niagara  River  at  any  jioint  an  eiiual  or 
Biiialler  amount  may  b<?  again  diverted  from  any  point  farther  downstream. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       37 

(7)  That  the  limits  given  above  be  stipulated  to  apply  to  the  amount  actually 
diverted  at  any  instant,  and  that  accordingly  the  words  "  in  the  aggregate 
and  "  daily  "  be  stricken  out  of  Article  V  of  the  present  treaty  wherever  they 
occur  •  that  it  be  recognized  that  small,  brief,  accidental  violations  of  the  pro- 
visions of  a  diversion  permit  must  be  allowinl  if  the  holder  of  the  iiernnt  is  to 
obtain  the  full  value  thereof,  and  that  therefore  such  violations  shall  be  per- 
mitted under  such   regulations  as  the   International   Joint  Commission   shall 

(8)  That  five  vears  after  the  completion  of  the  remedial  works  the  Interna- 
tional Joint  Commission,  or  some  other  body  constituted  for  the  purpose,  shall 
inform  the  high  contracting  parties  whether  or  not,  in  its  opinion,  further 
diversions  of  water  from  the  Niagara  River  for  power  development  can  he 
made,  either  continuously  or  intermittently,  without  serious  injury  to  the 
scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  Rapids,  the  integrity  of  the  river  as  a  boundary 
stream,  or  appreciable  lowering  of  lake  levels.  That,  if  this  opinion  be  favor- 
able to  the  further  diversion  of  water,  the  commission  or  body  shall  indicate 
the  amount  of  further  diversion  which  may  properly  be  allowed,  and  the  con- 
ditions by  which  permits  should  be  limited. 

Recommended  use  of  diversions. — In  regard  to  the  use  of  the  various  diver- 
sions of  water  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  River,  the  following  recom- 
mendations are  made : 

(1)  That  no  change  be  made  in  the  method  of  dealing  with  diversions  whose 
primarv  use  is  for  navigation  purposes. 

(2)  That  Federal  control  of  the  diversion  at  Chicago  and  in  the  vicinity  be 
established  by  such  measures  as  are  necessary,  provided  the  United  States 
Courts  do  not  uphold  the  present  apparent  right  of  the  Federal  Government  to 
regulate  the  diversions  there ;  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  being  permitted 
to  divert  from  Lake  Michigan  and  its  tributaries  a  total  quantity  of  water  not 
exceeding  at  any  time  a  flow  of  lO.CKX)  cubic  feet  per  second ;  under  the  condi- 
tions that  the  Secretary  of  War  shall  supervise  the  diversions  as  he  deems  best, 
that  the  expense  of  supervision  shall  be  paid  for  promptly  at  stated  intervals 
by  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,  that  no  dangerous  conditions  shall  be 
created  in  navigable  waters,  that  the  sanitary  district  agrees  to  be  responsible 
for  any  damage  claims  arising  because  of  the  diversion,  that  it  shall  pay  its 
share  as  determined  by  the  Secretary  of  War  of  the  cost  of  such  compensating 
works  as  the  Federal  Government  considers  necessary  because  of  diversions  of 
water  from  the  Great  Lakes  system,  that  it  agrees  not  to  request  or  make  any 
diversion  in  excess  of  that  herein  stated,  that  it  shall  pay  to  the  United  States 
for  water  used  for  power  purposes  at  a  rate  per  cubic  foot  to  be  based  upon  the 
relative  value  of  the  power  as  developed  and  that  which  could  have  been  de- 
veloped by  its  use  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  along  the  St.  Lawrence  River, 
and  that  it  does  all  in  its  power  to  secure  any  State  authority  needed  to  enable 
it  to  undertake  the  establishment  of  provisions  for  sewage  disposal  other  than 
by  dilution  and  when  so  enabled  provides  as  rapidly  as  necessary  such  sewage 
disposal  facilities  as  are  needed  to  care  for  the  growth  of  the  district. 

(3)  That  consideration  be  withheld  on  all  proposals  for  water  diversions  for 
combined  navigation,  power,  and  sanitary  purposes  unless  of  far-reaching 
importance  and  effects  and  consistent  with  plans  approved  by  the  International 
Joint  Commission  as  remedial  against  the  pollution  of  boundary  waters. 

(4)  That  the  present  method  of  controlling  the  power  diversions  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  be  not  disturbed. 

(5)  That  the  total  diversion  through  the  Wetland  Canal  for  power  develop- 
ment be  limited  strictly  to  the  present  amount. 

(6)  That  the  diversion  through  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  for  power 
development  be  limited  to  the  500  cul)ic  feet  per  second  now  allowed. 

(7)  That  as  soon  as  a  treaty  has  been  negotiated  with  Great  Britain  along 
the  lines  indicated  in  section  {k),  additional  permit  or  permits  be  granted  so 
as  to  make  the  permitted  diversion  from  Niagara  River  above  the  Falls  on 
the  United  States  side  40.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  one-half  of  which  is  returned 
to  the  river  in  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool. 

(8)  That  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  International  Joint  Commission,  or  a 
special  board  of  engineers  be  requested  to  prepare  plans  and  t>stimates  in 
detail  for  a  comprehensive  system  of  compensating  works  for  restoring  the 
levels  of  all  the  lakes  and  their  outflow  rivers,  these  plans  to  be  submitted  to 
the  International  Joint  Commission  for  approval,  with  the  intent  tluit  such 
works  be  constructed  and  paid  for  jointly  by  the  United  States  and  Canada. 


38        Dn-ERSIOX   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

DISCUSSION,    CONCLUSIONS,    AND    RECOMMENDATIONS    OF    THE    BOARD    OF 
ENGINEERS  FOR  RHTIRS  AND  HARBORS,  TARAGRAPHS  G 8-1 2 9,  INCLUSIVE. 

68.  On  June  4,  1920,  the  Board  of  Engineers  for  Rivers  and 
Harbors  held  a  widel.v  advertised  and  numerously  attended  public 
hearing  at  Niagara  Falls,  X.  Y.,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  to  all 
concerned  or  interested  a  full  opportunity  for  the  discussion  of  di- 
vei-sions  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  general  principles  that  should  be 
observeil  regarding  their  limitations  and  utilization.  A  transcript 
of  the  stenographic  notes  of  this  hearing  is  appended  hereto,  together 
Avith  copies  of  exhibits  then  filed  by  certain  of  the  interested  parties. 
In  adtliti(m.  on  July  27.  1920.  the  board  gave  a  special  hearing  to 
Mr.  T.  Kennard  Thomson,  who  had  been  unable  to  attend  the  public 
hearing  at  Niagara  Falls.  Mr.  Thomson  is  the  advocate  of  the  plan 
for  damming  the  Niagara  River  at  Fosters  Flats,  and  his  arguments 
in  favor  of  this  plan,  having  been  fully  heard,  are  given  due  -weight 
in  the  conclusions  that  follow.  Finally,  on  August  3,  1920,  the  board 
gave  another  special  hearing  to  ]Mr.  Charles  A.  Pohl,  who  presented 
arguments  against  the  "compound  two-stage"  plan  and  in  favor  of 
a  direct  diversion  from  the  Maid  of  the  ^Nlist  pool,  on  l^ehalf  of  the 
Niagara  (Jorge  Power  Co..  and  to  Col.  H.  L.  Cooper,  whose  argu- 
ments were  based  upon  the  large  general  asi)ects  of  the  diversion 
problem  and  the  manner  in  Avliich  it  should,  in  his  opinion,  be  treated. 
The  board  has.  of  course,  given  consideration  to  these  arguments  and 
to  all  other  evidence  that  has  come  to  its  notice. 

09.  Public  resolution  No.  8,  Sixty-fifth  Congress,  which  directed 
the  making  of  this  investigation,  reads  in  part  as  follows: 

I'roriilrd.  That  the  Secretary  of  War  is  hereby  authorized  and  direotefl  to 
make  a  eoinprehensive  and  thorousjli  investigation  *  *  *  of  the  entire  sub- 
ject of  water  diversion  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Niagara  River,  including 
navigation,  sanitary  and  power  purposes,  and  the  preservation  of  the  scenic 
beauiy  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  Niagara  River. 

'J'he  division  engineer — and,  in  our  opinion,  correctly — believes  that 
it  was  the  desire  of  Congress  not  only  to  be  advised  of  tlie  facts 
regarding  all  diversions  for  the  above  purposes  but  also  to  secure 
information  and  recommendations  upon  which  to  base  a  just  policy  as 
to  present  and  future  diversions  for  any  or  all  of  the  purposes 
enumerated:  and  it  Avas  further  the  obvious  Avish  of  Congress  that 
any  such  permanent  i)olicy  should  gi^'c  due  weight  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  ra])ids. 

To.  At  tiie  time  of  the  passage  of  the  resolution  Congress  already 
knew  that  many  of  the  diversions  then  in  existence  were  productive 
of  damage,  both  to  navigation  and  to  scenic  beauty,  but,  as  all  diver- 
sions were  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  useful  or  beneficial  to  those  who 
were  making  them,  there  was  difficulty  in  fixing  their  relative  merits. 
The  report  now  enables  this  to  l)e  done  witli  confidence  and  reason- 
able certainty,  and  tiiei-eby  to  arrive  at  the  details  of  the  policy 
appaicntly  desired  by  Congress.  We  shall  therefore  briefly  discuss 
the  tliree  kinds  of  diversions  mentioned  in  tlie  resolution,  as  well  as 
the  jiresiMvatioM  of  .sc<*nic  beauty,  give  our  opinion  as  to  their  rela- 
tive importance  and  as  to  the  jjcrmissible  limits  of  the  three  varieties 
of  diversions,  and  finally  state  our  views  as  to  the  orderly  steps  that 
should  be  taken  in  the  execution  of  what  we  regard  to  be  the  proper 
policy  with  respect  to  divei'sions  and  scenic  beautv. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       39 

71.  In  advance  of  the  more  detailed  discussion  we  may  say  that 
we  believe  that  navigation  purposes  in  value  and  importance  take 
precedence  over  all  other  uses  to  which  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes 
may  be  put.  As  a  first  step  in  a  proper  policy,  damage  already  done 
by  diversions  should  be  remedied  by  the  adoption  of  some  plan  that 
will  not  only  restore  losses  of  depth  but  also  increase  lake  levels  so 
as  to  alFord  "higher  stages  than  would  naturally  exist.  The  plan  for 
accomplishing  these  purposes  with  a  nuixinnim  of  certainty  and  bene- 
fits, both  direct  and  indirect,  is  the  construction  of  a  regulating  dam 
provided  with  sluiceways  at  the  head  of  Niagara  River  which  would 
restore  and  increase  depths  in  Lakes  Erie,  Huron,  and  Michigan  and 
their  connecting  Avaters,  and  in  the  St.  Marys  Eiver  below  the  locks, 
and  at  the  same  time  i)ermit  the  discharge  of  the  Niagara  River 
hereafter  to  be  made  nearly  uniform,  thereby  increasing  by  20  per 
cent  or  more  the  natural  low-water  discharges  which  have  a  deter- 
mining influence  on  the  scenic  beauty,  power  development,  and  navi- 
gation and  therefore  serve  to  indicate  the  maximum  diversions  that 
may  be  made  from  the  Niagara  River.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
should  be  no  limitation  on  the  diversion  of  water  actually  needed  for 
the  supply  of  navigation  canals,  and  no  difficulty  will  be  experienced 
in  remedying  the  losses  of  depth  caused  by  the  small  diversions  of 
this  kind. 

72.  Diversions  of  water  for  "sanitary  purposes"  include  those 
made  by  municipal  water-supply  and  sewage  systems  and,  except  in 
the  cases  of  Chicago  and  Port  Huron,  the  quantities  taken  are  always 
insignificant,  and,  as  they  are  immediately  restored  practically  un- 
diminished to  the  source  from  which  they  are  derived,  the  diversions 
do  no  damage  either  to  navigation  or  scenic  beauty,  and  they  there- 
fore call  for  no  restriction.  The  United  States  should,  however,  do 
everything  in  its  power  to  disseminate  knowledge  as  to  the  pollution 
of  the  Great  Lakes  and  to  promote  the  adequate  treatment  of  drink- 
ing water  and  of  sewage. 

73.  The  diversions  for  "  sanitary  purposes  "  at  Chicago  and  Port 
Huron  do  not,  however,  return  the  water  immediately  to  its  original 
source.  At  Chicago  the  water  is  diverted  to  an  entirely  different 
drainage  basin,  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Great  Lakes  are  therefore 
deprived  of  this  much  of  their  natural  supply.  At  Port  Huron  the 
Black  River  Canal  takes  the  water  from  Lake  Huron  and  discharges 
it  into  the  St.  Clair  River  some  distance  below  Lake  Huron.  The 
diversion  is  small  and  its  effect  correspondingly  so.  "Were  it  larger  it 
might  be  sufficiently  detrimental  to  justify  further  notice.  As  it  is, 
the  Port  Huron  diversion  may  be  tolerated  but  it  should  not  be  in- 
creased, while  the  Chicago  diversion  is  so  large  and  its  effects  so  im- 
portant that  more  positive  measures  are  necessary,  the  details  of 
which  will  be  given  hereafter. 

74.  There  are  numerous  diversions  for  "  power  purposes  "  on  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  Niagara  River  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  Cheap 
power  is  obviously  desirable  and  development  of  water  power  should 
therefore  be  encouraged  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  the  more  impor- 
tant or  desirable  interests  of  navigation  and  scenic  beauty  that  it  is 
the  public  duty  to  notice  and  to  safeguard.  This  is  the  only  limita- 
tion upon  the  diversion  of  water  for  "  power  purposes"  that  we  rec- 
ommend. At  Sault  Ste.  Marie  practically  the  entire  river  is  di- 
verted for  "navigation  purposes"  or  for  "power  purposes."     Evi- 


40        DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT   L.VKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

dentlv  notliinpr  should  bo  taken  for  power  until  navijrntion  has  been 
a(le(iuately  supplied  and  until  the  ilanfrer  of  lowerin^r  Lake  Superior 
has  been  ade(iuately  overcome.  As  the  re<j:ulatinfr  works  above  the 
International  Brid<re  actually  hold  Lake  Suj)erior  at  hiofher  statjes 
than  would  naturally  exist,  and  as  the  small  quantity  needed  for 
canals  and  locks  is  always  available,  there  is  no  reason  v.hy  the  diver- 
sions for  "power  purposes"  should  be  interfered  with.  Every  effort 
should,  of  course,  be  made  to  secure  the  crreatest  possible  amount  of 
power  from  the  diversions. 

7o.  The  small  diversion  for  "power  purposes"  through  the 
"Welland  Canal  reduces  the  depth  of  Lake  Ph'ie  and.  more  slijihtly,  of 
the  waters  above  Lake  Erie.  It  therefore  injures  navigation  on  these 
waters  and  at  the  same  time  detracts  from  the  scenic  beaut}^  of 
Nigara  Falls.  The  diversion  existed  prior  to  the  promulgation  of 
the  present  treaty.  The  physical  conditions  necessarilv  render  this 
diversion  less  economical  than  a  diversion  of  the  same  amount  taken 
immediately  above  Niagara  Falls  and  discharged  at  or  near  Lewis- 
ton.  Xo  increase  should  therefore  be  made  in  the  power  diversion  of 
the  Welland  Canal.  The  injurious  effect  upon  lake  levels  of  this 
diversion  for  "  power  purposes,"  as  well  as  the  smaller  one  for 
'•  navigation  purposes"  is  included  in  the  total  damage  to  be  rectified 
by  the  regulating  dam  at  the  head  of  the  Niagara  River  referred  to 
above.  The  injury  done  to  scenic  beauty  by  this  diversion  and  by 
that  at  Chicago  are  included  in  the  measures  for  the  "  preservation 
of  scenic  beauty  "  hereafter  discussed. 

76.  On  the  Niagara  River  above  the  Falls  there  are  six  diversions 
"  for  power  purposes."  three  in  each  country,  and  there  are  two  very 
small  diversions  for  canal  navigation  on  the  New  York  side.  The 
latter  two  are  insignificant  and,  moreover,  the  very  slight  chimage 
they  do  to  scenic  beauty  and  to  the  depths  at  points  upstream  is 
readily  remedied.  Then,  too,  as  already  stated,  such  diversions  are 
recognized  to  be  indispensable  and  their  benefits  are  very  general. 
The  six  diversions  "  for  power  purposes "  are  sanctioned  by  the 
existing  treaty,  but  in  1909.  when  the  treaty  was  negotiated,  it  was 
known  that  they  were  undoubtedly  detrimental  to  the  "  preservation 
of  scenic  beauty,"  certainly  of  the  Falls,  if  not  of  the  rapids.  Yet  at 
that  time,  no  steps  were  taken  to  remedy  the  harm  already  experi- 
enced which  had.  by  an  elaborate  investigation  conducted  by  the 
United  States  Lake  Survey,  been  shown  to  consist  chiefly  in  accen- 
tuating the  denudation  of  the  two  ends  of  the  Horeeshoe,  already 
laid  partly  bare  by  the  recession  of  this  fall.  It  was  also  shown  that 
certain  portions  of  the  diversions  "for  power  purposes"  from  the 
Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool  produced  an  adverse  effect  upon  Lake 
Ei-io.  which,  while  considerably  less  than  the  lowering  due  to  an 
equal  diversion  direct  from  Lake  Erie  was  still  of  sufficient  magni- 
tude to  w^arrant  serious  attention.  The  report  then  made  by  the  Lake 
Survey  sugge.sted  possible  remedies  which  later  researches  prove  to 
be  desirable.  While  we  rate  the  "preservation  of  scenic  beauty"  as 
taking  precedence  over  diversions  "for  power  purposes"  we  believe 
that  the  development  of  water  power  is  of  urgent  importance  and 
that  such  diversions  should  be  not  only  permitted  but  encouraged 
to  the  extent  that  it  is  possible  to  arrange  to  make  them  consistent 
with  proper  regard  for  navigation  and  without  danger  to  the"  preser- 
vation of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  the  Niagara  River."    We  are 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER.       41 

hereafter  expressinjir  ourselves  as  believing;  that  works  are  practicable 
which  would  not  only  neutralize  the  damage  of  both  kinds  that 
diversions  "for  power  purposes"  may  justly  be  charged  with,  but 
also  would  reduce,  if  not  completely  prevent,  the  destructive  erosion 
and  recession  of  thi^  Horseshoe  which,  more  than  anything;  else,  have 
injured  scenic  beauty.  The  increase  of  low-water  discharg;es,  to  be 
rendered  possible  by  the  regulating  dam  at  the  head  of  the  river, 
would  also  ameliorate  the  rapids  and  the  Horseshoe  Falls  and  even 
before  construction  of  the  remedial  worlcs  permit  20,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  additional  to  be  diverted  above  the  Falls  in  the  United  States 
and  4,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  Canada  "  for  power  purposes," 
leaving  all  scenic  beauty  somewhat  better  than  it  noAv  is.  In  addi- 
tion, a  diversion  "for 'power  purposes"  of  80,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  in  the  Lower  Gorge  is  recommended  as  desirable  and  really 
harmless  to  scenic  beauty.  We  are  recommending  that  the  diversion 
of  20,000  cubic  feet  per'  second  be  conditional  upon  the  completion 
of  an  agreement  with  Canada  for  the  construction  of  the  regulating 
dam  and  the  appropriation  by  botli  countries  of  the  amounts  required 
for  its  construction,  and  also"  that  the  diversion  be  used  in  the  devel- 
opment of  power  under  the  full  head  of  310  to  320  feet  due  to  the 
difference  between  the  levels  of  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool  and 
the  Niagara  River  jur,t  above  Lewiston.  The  diversion  of  30,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Lower  Gorge  will  be  the  lower  stage, 
with  head  of  some  90  feet,  the  two  more  efficient  power  stations  at 
Niagara  Falls  belonging  respectively  to  the  Ontario  and  the  Niagara 
Falls  power  companies.  These  stations  are  now  in  operation  and 
develop  power  from  a  total  diversion  of  between  25,000  and  30,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  under  a  head  of  between  200  and  220  feet,  that 
of  the  upper  stage,  i.  e.,  difference  in  level  between  the  Chippawa- 
Grass  Island  pool  and  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool. 

77.  We  now  approach  the  last  and  probably  the  most  discussed 
subject  on  the  part  of  Congress  and  of  the  general  public,  namely, 
"  the  preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids 
of  the  Niagara  River."  We  have  already  mentioned  the  damage  to 
the  beauty  of  the  Horseshoe  caused  by  the  deterioration  of  the  ends 
of  the  crest.  This  is  amply  shown  by  the  admirable  photographs 
accompanying  the  text,  in  which  high  discharges  covering  these 
usually  bare  ends  are  are  contrasted  with  the  lower  flows  that  ex- 
pose the  unsightly  black  rock.  The  denudation  of  the  ends  is 
plainly  due  to  the  concentration  of  flow  in  the  notch  which  has 
formed  in  late  years  and  has  spoiled  the  symmetry  of  the  Horseshoe. 
This  concentration  has  set  up  erosion  and  recession  which,  in  turn, 
have  tended  to  increase  concentration  in  the  notch  and  accelerated 
baring  of  the  ends — the  familiar  vicious  cycle.  Mist  and  spray  are 
also  the  results  of  this  pernicious  concentration  and  they  obscure 
the  Horseshoe  and  render  it  inferior  as  a  spectacle  to  the  American 
Fall,  which,  with  far  less  depth  on  its  crest  and  much  smaller  but 
nearly  uniformly  distributed  flow,  is  generally  regarded  as  supremely 
beautiful.  The  way  to  insure  the  "  preservation  of  the  scenic 
beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  "  is  therefore  to  secure  a  uniform  distribu- 
tion of  the  flow  and  to  reduce  it  to  the  point  where  mist  and  spray 
will  be  a  minimum.  Uniform  distribution  calls  for  cutting  down 
the  now  bare  ends  and  forcing  water  away  from  the  notch,  reduc- 
tion in  volume  can  be  effected  onlv  bv  increasing  diversions.     To 


42        DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   I^VKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

secure  uniformity  of  distribution.  Ave  are  recoinuiendin^j  the  step  by 
step  construc-tioii  within  coffer  dams  of  a  rou<rh  stone  or  concrete 
weir  whose  desijrn  and  location  will  be  based  on  model  experiments, 
and  the  necessary  cuttin<r  down  of  the  ends  and  other  excavations 
are  to  be  similariy  determined  and  made.  We  recommend  also  that 
dischar^i^e  over  the  Horseshoe  be  such  as  will  produce  from  3  to  3^ 
feet  dei)th  on  the  reformed  crest,  a  volume  that  we  estimate  at  about 
70.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that  the  flow  over  the  American 
Fall  be  held  at  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  leavinj^  eventually 
100.000  to  110,000  cubic  feet  per  second  available  for  power.  The 
scenic  beauty  of  the  rapids  both  above  and  below  the  falls  will 
not  only  be  preserved  but  improved  by  the  additional  diversions. 

78.  As  to  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  desires  of  Con- 
gress are  only  indicated  in  a  general  way  as  being  included  in  the 
"  entire  subject  of  water  diversion  from  the  Great  Lakes."  Since 
the  passage  of  the  resolution,  Congress  has  directed  an  investigation 
of  practically  the  same  character  to  be  made  by  the  International 
Joint  Commission.  The  division  engineer  gives  information  as  to 
all  existing  diversions  from  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St.  LaAvrence  "  for 
navigation,  sanitary,  and  power  purposes."  He  shows  that  there 
are  none  for  navigation  or  power  from  Lake  Ontario  and  that  those 
for  "  sanitary  purposes  "  are,  as  usual,  unimportant.  While  there 
are  diversions  for  all  three  purposes  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  except 
that  at  Massena.  which,  while  considerable,  is  largely  compensated, 
they  are  all  small  and  their  effects  of  no  real  consequence.  The  in- 
ternational portion  of  the  river  lies  between  Lake  Ontario  and  St. 
Regis.  Below  St.  Kegis,  it  is  wholly  Canadian.  Above  St.  Kegis, 
there  are  no  interests  demanding  serious  consideration  except  navi- 
gation and  power.  The  volume  of  this  navigation,  though  only 
about  5  per  cent  of  that  of  the  upper  lakes,  is  substantial,  but  it 
seems  unlikely  that  its  importance  will  ever  greatly  exceed  the  possi- 
bilities of  power  development  which  are  enormous.  The  navigation 
of  Lake  Ontario  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  Welland 
Canal  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  A  regulating  dam  at  the  foot  of  Lake 
Ontario  would  obviously  help  navigation,  both  on  the  lake  and  on 
the  river  below  it  and  by  equalizing  the  discharge  it  would  greatly 
imj)rove  the  power  output.  Its  constructicm  is  desirable,  especially 
to  supplement  the  corresponding  dam  at  Buffalo,  but  as  the  Inter- 
national Joint  Commission  is  now  engaged  in  making  the  investiga- 
tion demanded  by  Congress,  we  forego  further  discussion  of  this 
subject. 

79.  The  ])receding  discussion  enables  us  to  present  a  logical  and 
convincing  solution  of  the  i)r()blcms  connected  with  water  diversions 
from  the  (ireat  Lakes  and  the  Xiagara  River,  including  navigation, 
sanitary  and  jjower  purj)oses,  and  the  "  preser\ation  of  the  scenic 
beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  Niagara  River."  by  per- 
mitting us  to  a|)i)raise  tiie  relative  value  and  importance  of  the  three 
jturposes  for  which  water  may  be  used  as  compared  with  '"  the  preser- 
vation of  scenic  beauty."  Navigation,  whether  in  artificial  canals  or 
in  open  waters,  is  of  higher  value  and  inijiortance  than  any  other 
end  served  by  the  water  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  dei)ths  of  the  lakes 
and  their  connecting  cliannels  which  may  have  been  injuicd  by  di- 
versions for  various  i)urposes  should  l)e  restored  and  if  possible  in- 
crea.sed.  and  whatever  jiossible  done  to  l)enefit  navigation.    Following 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   1^\KES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       43 

navi<2^ation  in  importance  comes  the  "  preservation  of  scenic  beauty 
of  Xia<!:ara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  the  Niagara  River,"  which,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  demands  that  the  flow  sliall  be  uniformly  distrib- 
uted, in  somewhat  reduced  volume  over  the  entire  crest  of  the  Horse- 
shoe ])y  means  which  have  been  generally  outlined.  The  Horseshoe 
will  tliereby  be  both  preserA^ed  and  improved.  The  rapids  are  not 
in  any  danger  and  additional  diversions  will  somewhat  improve 
them.  Power  comes  third  in  order  of  importance,  and  should  be 
served  only  when  the  needs  and  possibilities  of  navigation  and  of 
scenic  beauty  have  been  filled.  Legitimate  sanitary  uses  are  so  in- 
significant in  their  effects  as  to  require  no  limitation.  The  diversion 
at  Chicago  is  a  special  case  of  use  for  a  sanitary  purpose,  and  it  will 
therefore  be  discussed  separately.  We  shall  therefore  proceed  to  dis- 
cuss the  above  matters  in  greater  detail  in  the  following  order: 
Navigation,  preservation  of  scenic  beauty,  power,  sanitary  use  at 
Chicago. 

NAVIGATION. 

80.  The  character,  extent,  and  importance  of  the  navigation  of  the 
Great  Lakes  are  generally  known,  and  the  division  engineer  gives  a 
large  amount  of  detailed  information  as  to  the  commodities  carried 
and  the  vessels  that  carry  them.  The  traffic  consists  principally  of 
bulk  freight,  iron  ore,  coal,  grain,  and  stone,  carried  in  large  vessels 
of  a  peculiar  type  and  most  of  it  originates  or  terminates  at  the  west 
end  of  Lake  Superior  or  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie.  The  channels 
through  the  lakes  naturally  afford  practically  unlimited  depth,  but 
the  harbors  and  the  connecting  channels  have  had  to  be  deepened 
by  dredging  and  set  the  limitations  upon  the  drafts  to  which  vessels 
may  load.  The  lakes  themselves  exhibit  considerable  seasonal  and 
periodic  fluctuations  of  depth,  and  the  lower  stages,  occurring  gen- 
erally in  the  spring  and  fall,  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  depths  avail- 
able "in  the  harbors  and  connecting  channels.  Thus  between  1860  and 
1920  the  monthly  mean  elevations  of  Lake  Superior  varied  between 
600.7  and  604.1  feet,  those  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  between 
579  and  583.6  feet,  and  those  of  Lake  Erie  between  570.7  and  574.5 
feet.  There  have,  of  course,  been  dailj^  mean  stages  considerably 
lower  than  these  average  monthly  elevations. 

81.  Transportation  on  the  lakes  is  extremely  well-organized  and 
efficient,  and  a  system  has  been  evolved  under  which  vessels  on  evei^ 
trip  have  timely  notice  of  the  minimum  depth  available  along  their 
route  and  load"  to  the  greatest  draft  thus  indicated  as  permissible. 
Advantage  is  taken  of  every  possible  inch  of  depth  and  the  actual 
cost  of  transportation  is  thereby  kept  very  low.  It  is  easy  to  see 
that  under  such  a  system  every  inch  of  depth  is  of  measurable  value. 
The  division  engineer  has  figured  that  the  average  earnings  for  each 
tenth  of  a  foot  of  draft  of  the  average  lake  freights  is  $44.57  per 
trip,  or  $590,000  per  season  for  the  entire  fleet,  and  this  is  evidently 
also  the  loss  from  a  reduction  in  depth  of  the  same  amount  for  the 
number  of  vessels  considered. 

82.  It  is  an  accepted  fact  that  lowering  of  all  the  lakes  named  has 
resulted  from  diversions  and  changes  in  the  discharge  capacit}^  of 
their  outflow  and  connecting  rivers — and  the  amount  of  lowering  and 
consequent  reduction  of  depth    available    at    critical    points    being 


44        DIVERSION   OF   AVATER   FROM   GREAT  L.\KES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

knoAvn.  it  is  a  simple  matter  of  multiplication  to  arrive  at  the  total 
amiual'  loss.  Table  47  sho^vs  the  total  loAveriiiLT  of  each  lake  by  all 
existing  diversions  at  mean  sta<j:e.  Lakes  Michijian  and  Huron  are 
lowered  0.47  foot.  Lake  Erie  0.76  foot  and  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  at  Lock  25  about  0.G2  foot.  If  the  entire  bulk  freio;ht 
traffic  of  the  upper  Lakes  entered  Lake  Erie  the  annual  loss  would  i)e 
7.6X$o90.000=:$4,484,000.  Only  about  8  per  cent  of  this  traffic 
pertains  to  Lake  Erie  and  the  yearly  loss  is  therefore  $3,946,000. 
The  loss  on  the  12  per  cent  pertainin<T  to  Lake  ]Michi*ran  is  $333,000, 
and  that  on  the  traffic  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Canals  $434,000.  the  total 
avera^re  annual  loss  based  on  recent  tonnajLre  being  therefore 
$4.713".000.  To  this  total  loss  of  earnings  the  diversion  of  the  Chi- 
cago Sanitary  Canal,  an  average  of  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second  in  1917, 
contributed  $2,866,000  annually,  and  even  the  diversions  for  power  in 
the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool,  far  below  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie, 
lower  it  nearly  one-tenth  foot  and  cause  a  loss  of  about  $526,000  each 
3'^ear. 

83,  While  diversions  therefore  cause  great  losses  which  should  be 
ended  by  works  to  restore  the  lost  depths,  load  drafts  of  vessels  are 
affected  still  more  injuriously  by  the  natural  oscillations  of  the  lakes 
which,  over  a  period  of  years,  have  had  a  range  of  4.6  feet  on  Lakes 
Michigan  and  Huron  and  of  nearly  4  feet  on  Lake  Erie.  During  a 
single  season  of  navigation  the  diiference  between  monthly  mean  high 
and  low  waters  has  been  as  much  as  2  feet.  The  losses  due  to  this 
cause  are  therefore  nearly  three  times  as  great  as  those  due  to  di- 
versions. 

84.  As  already  stated,  at  least  four  different  plans  have  been  pro- 
posed for  restoring  lake  levels  and  two  of  these,  those  of  the  Deep 
Waterways  Board,  and  of  the  Chicago  Sanitary  District,  contemplate 
regulating  Lake  Erie  and  restorin*^  diminished  levels  by  Avorks  that 
would  modify  the  natural  oscillations  of  that  lake.  The  Division 
Engineer  believes  that  the  former  plan  is  objectionable  because  it 
would  increase  the  danger  of  floods  due  to  winds  and  ice  gorges.  Such 
floods  cause  a  certain  amount  of  damage  at  Buffalo  and  Eort  Erie  and 
other  centers  of  population  near  by.  In  addition,  the  disturbance 
of  the  normal  outflow  of  Lake  Erie  would  affect  Lake  Ontario  un- 
favorably. We  had  no  opportunity  to  pass  upon  the  plan  of  the 
Chicago  Sanitary  District  which  apparently  is  subject  only  to  the  lat- 
ter objection.  I'he  plan  proposed  b}^  the  International  Waterways 
Commission  in  1913.  a  compensating  submerged  weir  of  peculiar  form 
extending  diagonally  across  the  Niagara  River  from  above  the  mouth 
of  Chippawa  Creek  to  Gill  Creek,  would  raise  the  Chippawa-Grass 
Island  pool  3  feet,  and  by  backwater  elevate  Lake  Erie  about  4f 
inches.  It  would  therefore  fall  far  short  of  restoring  the  natural 
levels  of  the  lake  and  the  oscillations  of  the  latter  would  remain  un- 
affected. The  Division  Engineer  rejects  the  first  and  third  plans  for 
restoring  levels  and  proposes  to  restore  the  levels  of  Lakes  Erie, 
Huron,  and  Michigan  l)v  the  construction  of  two  sets  of  submerged 
weirs.  One  set  of  five  would  be  at  the  head  of  the  Niagara  River 
abreast  of  Squaw  Island,  cost  about  $2,000,000,  and  raise  Lake  Erie 
1.27  feet.  Lake  St.  Clair  about  0.55  foot,  and  Lakes  Huron  and  Michi- 
gan about  0.10  foot,  leaving  0.28  foot  to  be  compensated  by  dredging 
in  Lake  St.  Clair.  The  second  set  of  about  11  weirs,  spaced  al)out 
one-third  niile  apart  in  the  St.  Clair  River,  would  cost  $1,500,000 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  EROM   GREAT   LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       45 

and  would  raise  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan  0.00  foot  more.  The 
levels  of  these  three  lakes  and  the  connecting  rivers  between  them 
would,  at  a  total  cost  of  about  $3,660,000,  be  not  only  fully  restored, 
but  provision  made  for  the  lowering  that  would  be  caused  by  some 
additional  diversion,  the  margin  on  Lake  Erie  being  0.51  feet  and  on 
Lakes  Iluron  and  Michigan  0.29  foot. 

85.  These  submerged  weirs  would  leave  the  natural  oscillation  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Huron  undisturbed.  They  would  reduce  the  discharge 
capacity  of  the  St.  Clair  and  Niagara  Rivers  to  what  it  was  before 
any  diversions  or  other  artificial  changes  were  made  and  permit  the 
lakes  to  fluctuate  between  such  levels  as  would  have  resulted  from 
purely  natural  causes,  such  as  changes  in  precipitation,  evaporation, 
etc.  To  design  the  weirs  correctly,  proper  model  experiments  would 
be  desirable  and  also  prolonged  gauge  observation.  In  other  respects, 
the  weirs  are  a  sound  and  workable  solution  of  the  problem  of  improv- 
ing navigable  depths,  in  some  respects  preferable  at  the  time  they  were 
recommended  to  any  other  plan. 

86.  Since  the  Division  Engineer's  report  was  prepared,  there  has 
been  a  very  marked  development  of  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  the 
opening  of  the  upper  St.  Lawrence  River  to  large  vessels,  and  it 
seems  fairly  certain  that  any  such  plan  will  include  works  for  regu- 
lating the  discharge  and  level  of  Lake  Ontario.  One  important 
objection  to  restoring  the  levels  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  waters  above  it 
by  means  of  an  adjustable  or  regulating  dam  will,  therefore,  be  re- 
moved, and  we  believe  that  the  objection  as  to  interference  with  the 
discharge  of  floods  and  ice  would  be  safely  met  by  providing  a  dam 
with  sluiceways,  operated  by  Stoney  gates,  extending  completely 
across  the  river  and  by  enlarging  the  area  of  cross  section  at  the  dam 
and  below  it  through  the  now  constructed  section  of  the  upper 
Niagara  River  so  as  to  permit  the  safe  discharge  of  about  400,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  On  December  9,  1917,  the  stage  of  Lake  Erie 
was  579  and  the  discharge  366,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  on 
December  7, 1909,  the  lake  reached  an  elevation  of  580.28,  correspond- 
ing to  a  discharge  of  400,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  so  that  the  dis- 
charge capacity  proposed  corresponds  to  actual  conditions. 

87.  Such  a  regulating  dam  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie  would  have  a 
number  of  important  advantages  over  the  plan  of  the  Division 
Engineer.  It  would  hold  Lake  Erie  during  the  season  of  navigation 
at  a  more  nearly  uniform  level,  probably  between  elevations  573  and 
574,  thereby  increasing  the  low  water  depths  on  that  lake  by  perhaps 
1^  feet  or  more,  and  its  range  of  oscillation  during  the  open  season 
might  be  reduced  to  a  foot  or  less.  The  low-water  depths  of  Lakes 
Michigan  and  Huron  and  of  the  channels  connecting  them  with  Lake 
Erie  would  also  be  improved,  the  Lakes  being  raised  perhaps  0.2  foot 
or  more  and  the  connecting  ch^mels  greater  amounts.  Apparently, 
depths  on  Lake  St.  Clair  woulS  be  fully  compensated  for  all  exist- 
ing or  probable  future  diversions,  and  below  Lake  St.  Clair  during  the 
season  of  navigation  they  would  be  considerably  greater  than  the  un- 
disturbed natural  depths  would  have  been. 

88.  By  proper  manipulation  of  the  sluice  gates  of  this  dam  the 
discharge  of  Lake  Erie  might  be  made  very  nearly  constant,  say, 
from  180,000  to  200,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  would,  in  turn, 
greatly  benefit  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls,  which,  when  Lake  Erie 
is  extremely  low  with,  for  example,  such  an  elevation  as  that  of  Feb- 


46        DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RH^R. 

riiarv  1,  1015,  namely,  567.38,  and  a  oorrespondincr  discharfje  of 
106,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  are  materially  less  beautiful  than  when 
the  stages  and  discharges  are  higher.  The  discharge  at  normal  low 
water  is  considerably  greater  than  the  figure  just  given,  being  about 
160,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Regulation  would  increase  this  dis- 
charge about  40.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  only  half  the  amount  added 
at  extreme  low  stage.  This  increase,  however,  Avould  be  a  real  benefit 
to  scenic  beauty  and  it  also  woukl  permit  power  diversions  to  be  in- 
creased. Furthermore,  the  regulating  dam  would  enable  the  remedial 
works  al)ove  the  Horseshoe  to  be  more  safely  and  readily  constructed, 
as  will  hereafter  be  shown. 

89.  Because  of  these  great  and  positive  benefits,  we  recommend 
the  construction  of  the  above  regulating  dam  at  the  foot  of  Lake 
Erie  close  to  the  site  selected  by  the  deep  Avaterways  board.  No 
detailed  plan  has  been  made  for  this  dam.  It  is  an  international 
matter  and  should  be  clearh^  defined  in  an  appropriate  agreement 
with  Canada.  We  have,  however,  made  a  tentative  analj'^sis  and 
estimate  which  show  that  the  plan  of  control  is  feasible  and  that 
it  would  not  cost  more  than  $8,000,000.  This  cost  should  be  de- 
fraj^ed  b}^  Canada  and  the  United  States  upon  such  a  basis  as 
might  be  agreed  to. 

90.  The  regulating  dam  would  not  completely  compensate  for 
existing  losses  of  depth  in  the  St.  Clair  River  and  in  Lakes  Huron 
and  Michigan  and  it  would  not,  of  course,  permit  any  increases  in 
the  diversions  that  affect  those  depths.  Furthermore,  the  oscilla- 
tions of  these  two  lakes  and  consecpiently  of  the  St.  Clair  River 
would  be  practically  unaffected  in  range.  It  is  seemingly  out  of 
the  question  to  control  the  oscillations  of  the  Detroit  River  and 
of  the  channels  and  lakes  above  it,  and,  subject  to  adequate  model 
experiments  as  to  the  submerged  weirs,  we  therefore  recommend 
the  dredging  in  Lake  St.  Clair  and  the  compensating  weirs  in  the 
St.  Clair  River  proposed  by  the  division  engineer  for  raising  the 
levels  and  increasing  depths,  all  at  an  additional  cost  of  $2,- 
160.000. 

91.  This  regulating  dam  and  the  dredging  and  submerged 
weirs  give  practical  assurance  of  the  operation  of  the  present  type 
of  large  vessels  with  a  minimum  of  inconvenience  and  uncertainty, 
and  their  installation  would  represent  full  and  liberal  provision 
for  the  preponderating  interest  of  navigation.  They  should  be 
begun  and  completed  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

PRESERVATION  OF   SCENIC  BEAUTY. 

02.  We  are  now  at  liberty  to  pass  to  the  subject  next  in  order 
of  importance,  namely,  the  "preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of 
Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  the  Niagara  River."  The  report 
of  the  division  engineer  is  full  and  clear  in  its  analysis  of  what 
constitutes  and  causes  the  scenic  effects  of  the  Niagara  River  and 
without  further  discussion  we  accept  his  conclusions  which  are 
that  the  chief  beauty  of  the  Falls  arises  from  unbroken  crest  lines, 
generously  supplied  witli  Avater  and  clearly  visible  from  advan- 
tageous viewpoints;  that  the  American  Fall  "is  more  beautiful  than 
tiie  Horseshoe  because  the  absence  of  mist  and  spray  permit  it 
to  create   a    more  pleasing  impression   on   the   spectator;   that  the- 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       47 

effect  of  the  Horseshoe  is  marred  not  only  by  the  mist  and  spray 
but  also  by  the  denudation  of  its  two  ends;  that  these  are  caused 
aljiiost  exclusively  by  the  erosion  and  recession  of  the  notch  with 
consequent  concentration  of  flow  there  to  the  detriment  of  the 
remainder  of  the  Horseshoe;  that  diversions  hitherto  made  for 
various  purposes  have  slightly  injured  the  Horseshoe;  that  to  re- 
duce its  rate  of  recession  the  discharge  at  the  notch  of  the  Horse- 
shoe must  be  reduced  by  distributing  the  flow  uniformly  over  the 
crest  line ;  that  some  additional  diversion  for  power  above  the 
Falls  is  not  only  permissible  but  desirable,  because  of  its  effect  in 
reducing  erosion  and  recession;  that  on  the  whole  all  the  rapids 
look  best  at  low  stages;  and  that  the  beauty  of  the  gorge  is  largely 
due  to  its  wooded  high  banks. 

93.  So  far  as  concerns  the  preservation  of  scenic  beauty,  the  most 
important  measure  suggested  by  the  Division  Engineer  is  the  con- 
struction of  a  weir  and  certain  rock  excavation  for  the  uniform  dis- 
tribution of  flow  over  the  Horseshoe,  and  he  believes  that  this  work 
should  be  j^lanned  only  after  the  river  bed  above  the  Horseshoe  has 
been  laid  bare,  its  exact  formation  ascertained  and  a  correct  model 
made  to  scale  and  tested.  To  preserve  the  flow  of  the  American  Fall 
he  recommends  a  rough  submerged  weir  between  the  head  of  Goat 
Island  and  the  Canadian  side,  part  of  which  has  already  been  made 
by  dumping  dredge  spoil. 

94.  We  are  in  accord  with  these  recommendations  of  the  Division 
Engineer  as  to  the  advantage  of  distributing  as  nearly  uniformly  as 
possible  the  water  flowing  over  the  Horseshoe  Fall  and  as  to  the  gen- 
eral method  by  which  this  can  be  accomplished.  The  work  to  be 
done  consists  of  the  construction  of  cofferdams  so  planned  as  to  per- 
mit successive  parts  of  the  river  bed  to  be  unwatered  and  surveyed 
niinutely,  leaving  always  sufficient  channel  way  unobstructed  to  pro- 
vide for  the  discharge  of  the  river.  The  construction  of  these  coffer- 
dams is  dangerous  and  difficult,  and  it  should  he  undertaken  only  by 
those  who  have  had  practical  experience  under  similar  conditions 
and  therefore  understand  how  to  cope  with  the  swift  current  and 
large  discharge.  Similar  work  has,  however,  been  done  at  this  very 
locality  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  the  cofferdams  can  be  built,  that 
an  accurate  model  can  be  made  from  which,  under  varying  conditions 
of  flow,  may  be  determined  the  form  of  the  rough  structure  for  di- 
verting most  of  the  flow  from  the  notch  and  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  excavations  necessary  in  conjunction  with  it  to  insure  uniform 
distribution  of  the  flow  over  the  crest  of  the  Horseshoe.,  The  smaller 
the  discharge  over  the  Horseshoe  the  more  easily  all  this  work  can 
be  done.  By  completing  the  regulating  dam  at  the  head  of  the 
Niagara  River  before  work  is  begun  on  these  remedial  works  at 
Niagara  Falls,  it  would  be  possible  to  reduce  the  discharge  of  the 
river  practically  at  will,  and  thereby  greatly  to  facilitate  the  con- 
struction of  these  works.  We  therefore  recommend  that  no  attempt 
be  made  to  start  the  remedial  works  until  the  regulating  dam  has 
been  completed  and  is  in  operation.  The  submerged  weir  for  pre- 
serving the  flow  of  the  American  Fall  is  necessary,  and  it  should  be 
built  whenever  rock  is  made  available,  possibly  as  a  result  of  the 
remedial  work  above  the  Horseshoe.  These  reniedial  works  are  also 
international  in  their  scope  and  therefore  call  for  appropriate  diplo- 
matic agreement  as  to  their  construction  and  payment. 


48        DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  L.MvES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

95.  Reasoning  from  the  analogy  of  the  beautiful  American  Fall 
with  its  flow  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  average  depth  of  1^ 
feet  on  its  crest,  and  its  average  discharge  of  10  cubic  feet  per  second, 
per  foot  of  crest,  we  believe  that  should  these  remedial  works  be  com- 
pleted, a  flow  of  60,000  to  70,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  an  average 
of  ^3  to  27  cubic  feet  per  second  per  foot  of  crest  will  give  a  depth  of 
from  3  to  3i  feet,  and,  considering  all  differences  of  conditions,  re- 
sult in  a  clearly  visible  spectacle  of  maximum  beauty,  corresponding 
closely  to  that  of  the  American  Fall.  The  problem  is  one  not  sus- 
ceptible of  rigid  analysis  and  only  a  comprehensive  and  intelligent 
program  of  model  experiments  will  enable  the  best  results  to  be 
attained.  We  estimate  the  cost  of  all  operations  connected  with  the 
construction  of  these  remedial  works  at  $6,000,000.  The  rapids  re- 
quire no  remedial  action  for  their  preservation. 

DIVERSIONS  "  FOR  POWER  PURPOSES." 

96.  These  come  third  in  our  estimate  of  their  general  importance, 
by  which  we  mean  that  the  development  of  water  power  at  Niagara 
Falls  should  be  subordinated  to  the  needs  of  navigation  and  to  such 
limitations  as  are  required  for  the  preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of 
the  Falls  and  rapids.  To  show  the  value  of  the  navigation  of  lakes  to 
the  Nation,  it  is  reliably  estimated  that  the  annual  carrving  charges  for 
bulk  freight  are  $250,000,000  less  than  they  would  be  if  rail  trans- 
portation were  used.  Scenic  beauty  can  not  be  valued  in  money,  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  place  Niagara  Falls  holds  in  the 
opinion  of  the  American  people.  Power,  no  doubt,  justly  conies  third 
in  relative  order  among  the  matters  upon  which  we  have  to  express 
our  judgment,  but  it  must  not  therefrom  be  inferred  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  greatest  permissible  amount  of  water  power  is  a  matter 
of  small  importance. 

97.  Cheap  and  abundant  power  is  a  necessity  of  a  great  industrial 
country  such  as  ours.  While,  in  recent  years,  the  adoption  of  the 
multiple  stage  steam  turbine  in  units  of  very  large  capacity  has 
brought  the  cost  of  steam  power  to  extremely  low  figures,  the  steadily 
advancing  price  of  coal  makes  a  steam  power  much  more  expensive 
than  any  fairly  con.stant  and  reasonably  efficient  water  power. 
Ordinary  grades  of  coal  now  cost  more  than  $6  per  ton  at  Lake  Erie 
ports,  and  are  difficult  to  get  even  at  that  figure.  Throughout  the 
country,  therefore,  there  is  an  urgent  demand  for  water  power. 
Nowhere  are  the  conditions  for  the  development  of  water  power  as 
favorable  as  on  the  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence  rivers,  whore  a  prac- 
tically constant  flow  of  great  volume  is  available  under  a  total  devel- 
opable head  of  about  500  feet,  the  resulting  power  at  80  per  cent 
efficiency  being  about  9,000,000  horsepower.  This  enormous  amount 
of  power,  at  jiresent  largely  undeveloped,  is  situated  close  to  a  busy 
and  well-sot  tied  industrial  region  where  there  are  no  deposits  of  coal. 
Kaoh  water  horsepower  used  in  place  of  .steam  would  save  at  least 
10  tons  of  coal  annually  and,  if  the  above  total  water  power  could 
be  developed,  the  resulting  saving  of  coal  Avould  release  the  labor 
of  200.000  men  or  more.  The  part  of  this  power  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  especially  that  possible  of  development  at  Niagara 
Falls,  would  be  of  immense  value  in  the  diversified  industries  of 
western  New  York.    Incidentally,  the  overtaxed  railroads  might  not 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM  T.REAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA  RIVER.        49 

only  be  relieved  of  much  coal  and  set  free  to  carry  more  profitable 
commodities,  but  they  might  also  in  large  part  be  electrified.  Water 
power  at  Niagara  can  be  developed  very  cheaply.  If  1,000,000  horse- 
power additional  could  be  developed  there,  the  saving,  as  compared 
with  steam  poAver,  would  1)6  at  least  $30,000,000  annually.  There  is 
now  an  insistent  demand  for  more  power  for  general  uses  in  western 
New  York,  and  the  shortage  is  certainly  to  be  measured  in  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  horsepower. 

98.  Notwithstanding  the  great  value  of  water  power,  we  have 
already  indicated  our  opinion  that  the  amount  of  water  that  should 
be  permitted  to  be  diverted  is  definitely  limited.  The  division  engi- 
neer recommends  that  a  total  of  not  exceeding  80,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  be  diverted  from  above  the  falls.  This  increase  in  diversion 
for  power  purposes  above  the  present  treaty  limit  of  56,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  is  predicated  on  the  assumption  that  the  remedial 
works  for  improving  the  Horseshoe  can  and  will  be  built,  and  that, 
as  the  submerged  weirs  at  the  head  of  the  Niagara  River  would 
restore  the  levels  of  Lake  Erie  without  affecting  its  oscillations  and 
its  variations  in  discharge,  an  occasional  minimum  discharge  at 
130,000  cubic  feet  per  second  must  be  expected,  of  which  he  believes 
that  not  less  than  5,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  required  to  sluice 
ice  over  the  American  fall  and  45,000  cubic  feet  per  second  to  per- 
form the  same  duty  for  the  Horseshoe,  leaving  the  maximum  diver- 
sion at  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Having  in  mind  the  same  mini- 
mum discharge  of  130,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  division  engineer 
concludes  that  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  one-half  of  the  total 
recommended  diversion,  may  be  taken  from  above  the  falls  and 
diverted  around  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool  and  both  the  rapids  below 
it,  but  that  the  remaining  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second  should  be 
returned  to  the  river  immediately  below  the  falls,  the  principal  reason 
for  this  decision  being  the  need  of  preserving  the  ice-discharge  capac- 
ity of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool,  which  therefore  he  estimates  to  call 
for  a  flow  of  at  least  90,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

99.  The  immense  quantity  of  ice  discharged  each  year  by  the  Ni- 
agara River  certainly  must  receive  attention  in  fixing  the  limits  within 
which  diversions  are  permissible.  We  believe  that  appropriately  de- 
signed regulation  works  at  Buffalo  will  not  only  not  endanger  but 
in  reality  will  increase  the  river's  ability  to  dispose  of  unusual  accu- 
mulations of  ice  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie.  The  power  at  any  time 
to  release  from  300,000  to  400,000  cubic  feet  per  second  and  send  this 
volume  swiftly  down  the  river  Avill  permit  us  to  flush  the  channel 
clean  throughout  its  length  and  thereby  largely  solve  the  ice  problem 
throughout  the  river.  The  division  engineer  has  stated  that  a  mini- 
mum flow  of  50,000  cubic  feet  per  second  must  exist  above  the  Falls 
so  that  the  ice  may  be  safely  carried  over  them.  We  are  recom- 
mending a  minimum  of  70,000  to  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  to 
this  increased  discharge  have  added  the  valuable  sluicing  effect  of  an 
occasional  maximum  flow  of  300,000  to  400,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
as  may  be  judged  to  be  needed.  In  all  human  probability,  ice  as  a 
serious  limiting  factor  above  the  Falls  may  therefore  be  disregarded. 

100.  In  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool  the  ice  disposal  problem,  in  the 
division  engineer's  opinion,  calls  for  a  minimum  discharge  of  90,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  a  volume  that  he  feels  may  not  be  seriously  di- 

27880—21 4 


50        DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

minished  without  grave  danger.  While  as  the  result  of  regulation  un- 
der our  proposals  a  dischargeof  that  volume  would  be  provided  in  the 
entire  river  channel  below  the  Falls,  we  believe  that  ice  conditions 
in  that  portion  of  the  river  merit  some  discussion.  The  mere  accu- 
mulation of  ice  anywhere  is,  of  course,  unobjectionable,  uidess  it  does 
damage.  Below  the  Falls  there  are  only  two  localities  where  ice 
gorges  form,  namely,  above  the  cantilever  bridge  with  occasional 
daiiuning  and  super-elevation  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool,  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  where  gorges  have  also  been  known  to  raise  the 
river  level  from  Lake  Ontario  practically  to  the  Lower  Eapids. 
During  the  exceptionally  severe  winter  of  1908,  gorges  occurred  at 
l>()th  those  localities.  The  up])er  one  raised  the  water  level  sufficiently 
to  Hood  the  power  house  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  Since  that  time 
the  company  has  closed  the  openings  through  which  the  water  then 
came  so  that  a  similar  interruption  of  its  service  and  damage  to  its 
generators  could  not  occur.  The  stations  of  the  Hj^draulic  Power 
Co.  were,  however,  not  harmed,  and  the  only  otlier  injury  was  some 
disturbance  of  the  tracks  of  the  Oorge  Eailway.  With  proper  use 
of  the  flushing  capacity  of  the  Lake  Erie  regulating  works,  in  con- 
junction with  the  minimum  discharge  of  about  90,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  that  we  hereafter  recommend,  ice  gorges  in  the  Maid-of-the- 
Mist  pool  and  lower  river  should  become  rare,  if  not  impossible,  and 
with  proper  interconnection  of  the  power  plants  in  the  Niagara  dis- 
trict and  efficient  arrangements  for  cutting  off  nonessential  use  and 
reducing  essential  use  to  a  minimum  during  such  emergencies  as 
arise  as  the  result  of  ice  damage,  we  feel  confident  that  loss  to  the 
public,  while  improbable,  would,  in  any  event,  be  small.  In  short, 
ice  gorges  in  the  lower  river,  never  frequent,  Avould  become  far  less 
so.  and  their  evil  effects,  always  comparatively  unimportant,  would 
largely  be  neutralized. 

101.  The  regulating  dam  at  the  head  of  the  Niagara  Kiver  will 
afford  a  nearly  constant  flow  of  from  180,000  to  200,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  If  a  constant  discharge  of  from  70,000  to  80,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  would,  as  we  believe,  create  the  greatest  attainable 
scenic  beauty  at  the  falls  and  amply  take  care  of  ice  above  them, 
there  would  be  available  for  diversion  about  100,000  cubic  feet  per 
second.  At  present,  the  diversions  on  the  New  York  side  are  an 
average  of  1,600  cubic  feet  per  second  through  the  New  York  State 
barge  canal,  and  19,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  taken  near  Port  Day 
into  the  canals  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  the  total  diversion 
in  New  York  being,  therefore,  about  21,100  cubic  feet  per  second. 
On  the  Canadian  side,  the  total  diversion  by  the  three  power  com- 
panies at  Niagara  Falls  is  about  33,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and 
the  entire  diversion  from  above  the  falls  may  be  put  at  54.100.  All 
the  power  diversions,  except  that  at  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  discharge  into 
the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool,  which  is  220  feet  below  the  ChippaAva- 
(irass  Island  pool.  1  he  small  diversion  at  Lockport  is  evidently 
quite  inefficient.  Of  the  five  distinct  power  developments  at  Niagara 
Falls,  only  two  are  utilizing  efliciently  anything  like  the  full  head 
of  220  feet,  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  ta'king  about  13,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  on  the  Canadian  side  and  station  No.  3  and  its  ex- 
tension belonging  to  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  diverting  about 
12,000  cubic  feet  per  .second  on  the  New  York  side.  The  others  use 
iji  the  neighborhood  of  only  140  feet  head. 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  loAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       51 

102.  While  the  safe  limit  of  diversion  from  above  the  falls  would 
be  about  100,000  cubic  feet  per  second  after  the  completion  of  the 
regulating  dam  at  Buffalo,  we  see  that  for  power  purposes  this  rep- 
resents an  increase  of  but  45,900  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  only  42,900 
cubic  feet  per  second,  if  Canada  be  assumed  to  take  the  full  36,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  now  permitted  under  the  treaty.  We  are  sure 
that  no  sound  reason  any  longer  exists  for  the  unequal  division  of 
the  total  diversion.  Accordingly,  Canada  should  ultimately  receive 
18,450  cubic  feet  per  second  of  additional  water  for  power  purposes 
and  the  United  States  29,450,  thereby  making  the  diversion  of  each 
country  eventually  49,450  cubic  feet  per  second.  In  the  beginning, 
however,  we  think  it  Avise  to  limit  the  increases  to  20,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  on  the  American  side  and  to  4,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
on  the  Canadian,  postponing  further  diversions  until  a  sufficient 
opportunity  has  been  had  to  observe  the  effects  of  the  regulating  and 
remedial  works.  As  will  be  explained  hereafter,  not  even  the  initial 
increases  should  be  made  until  the  construction  of  the  regulating 
dam,  upon  Avhose  operation  the  increases  clearly  depend,  has  been 
agreed  to,  funds  provided,  plans  completed  and  contracts  let. 

103.  We  now^  come  to  the  subject  of  diversions  from  the  Maid-of- 
the-Mist  pool  and  lower  gorge.  We  have  already  stated  that  the 
division  engineer  assigns  a  present  limit  of  40,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  to  such  diversions.  He,  how^ever,  believes  that  experience  and 
close  observation  may  justify  a  higher  figure.  This  limitation  is 
based  upon  his  belief  that  a  minimum  flow  of  about  90,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  is  needed  below  the  falls  to  take  care  of  ice.  Accept- 
ing this  volume  of  90,000  cubic  feet  per  second  as  approximately  the 
correct  minimum,  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  equalizing  of  the  flow 
of  Lake  Erie  at  180,000  to  200,000  cubic  feet  per  second  introduces  a 
condition  with  which  the  division  engineer  did  not  reckon  as  does 
also  our  provision  of  70,000  to  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  as  the 
minimum  flow  over  the  falls. 

104.  As  already  stated,  two  of  the  existing  power  stations  at 
Niagara  Falls  are  efficient.  Because  of  the  relatively  short  distance 
between  their  intakes  in  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool  and  their 
outlets  at  the  head  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool,  a  mile  or  less,  these 
plants  were  economical  to  construct.  Built  many  years  before  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War,  it  is  probable  that  their  construction 
cost  per  horse-power  at  the  switchboard  Avas  less  than  the  cheapest 
plan  of  developing  the  entire  head  would  now  afford.  It  is  therefore 
unlikely  that  these  two  plants  Avill  ever  be  abandoned.  As  they  dis- 
charge about  25,000  cubic  feet  per  second  into  the  Maid-of-the-Mist 
pool,  after  the  plans  recommended  by  us  have  been  completed,  the 
discharge  immediately  below  the  falls  will  be  115,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  Furthermore,  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  is  under- 
stood to  claim  the  legal  right  to  use  at  least  3,100  cubic  feet  per 
second,  and  possibly  7,500  cubic  feet  per  second  in  addition  to  the 
quantity  now  used  efficiently  by  its  station  No.  3,  and  to  be  planning 
to  develop  power  from  this  added  flow.  Ultimately,  therefore,  over 
30,000  cubic  feet  per  second  may  be  diverted  around  the  falls  and  de- 
veloped efficiently  under  the  head  of  220  pertainii\ff  to  the  upper 
stage,  and  then  the  total  minimum  flow  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool 
will  be  about  120,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  90,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  is  necessary  for  scenic  effect  as  well  as  for  ice  discharge,  we 


52        DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

recommend  that  not  exceeding  30.000  cubic  feet  per  second  be  per- 
mitted to  be  diverted  farther  down  in  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool  for 
the  development  of  the  second  stage  of  about  90  feet,  producing 
roundly  240,000  horsepower.  Such  a  diversion  is  now  permissible 
under  the  treaty,  and  we  reconmiend  that  it  be  made  at  the  earliest 
possible  moment,  for  the  demand  for  power  is  urgent,  and  the  de- 
velopment can  be  made  without  injury  to  the  scenic  beauty  of  the 
lower  gorge.  Construction  should  probably  be  under  a  pressure 
tunnel  plan,  and  would  require  not  less  than  two  years. 

105.  Certain  other  aspects  of  this  first  step  in  our  power  program 
are  of  interest.  The  best  plan  for  this  development  is  one  that  would 
allow  the  greatest  latitude  in  the  choice  of  licensee,  and  thereby  per- 
mit a  si'lection  most  favorable  to  the  public  interest.  The  ice  and 
other  difficulties  which  led  the  division  engineer  to  prefer  the  "  com- 
pound two-stage  "  plan  are  not,  in  our  opinion,  sufficient  to  justify 
the  selection  of  a  plan  that  limits  freedom  of  choice  of  licensee,  and 
involves  the  construction  of  an  extra  5,000  feet  of  tunnel,  costing  at 
least  $3,700,000  more  than  would  be  necessary  were  the  intake  placed 
in  the  gorge  at  an  appropriate  point  above  the  railroad  bridges. 
The  division  engineer  has  estimated  the  cost  of  the  second  stage  of 
his  "  compound  two-stage "  plan  as  $209  horsepower  for  a  diver- 
sion of  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  producing  164,000  horsepower. 
Omitting  the  cost  of  5,000  feet  of  tunnel  and  of  certain  other  work 
peculiar  to  the  "  compound  two-stage  "  plan,  the  cost  per  horsepower 
becomes  about  $185.  For  a  diversion  of  30,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
we  are  safe  in  assuming  the  cost  to  be  about  $150  per  horsepower. 
This  saving  on  cost  and  the  other  advantage  mentioned  above  justify 
us  in  recommending  that  this  diversion  from  the  lower  gorge  be  com- 
pletely independent  of  the  upper  stage. 

106.  Certain  objections  arise  in  connection  with  this  diversion, 
but  they  can  be  met.  Because  of  the  much  longer  tunnels  needed  in 
Canada,  it  is  evident  that  a  similar  development  tliere  could  be  made 
only  at  prohibitive  cost.  This,  added  to  the  fact  that  in  diverting 
30,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  we  are  taking  all  that  should  at  present 
be  taken  out  of  the  Maid-of-the-lNIist  pool  direct,  might  cause  the 
feeling  in  Canada  that  we  are  getting  more  than  our  fair  share  of 
all  the  power.  Tlie  point  is  perhaps  not  very  important,  but  it  might 
be  met  by  offering,  as  an  equivalent,  the  cancellation  of  the  existing 
contract  for  50.000  horsepower,  more  or  less,  between  the  Ontario 
Power  Co..  and  the  Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  Power  Co.,  to  be 
available  for  use  in  Canada  as  soon  as  this  new  water  power  came 
into  operation  in  the  United  States.  To  enable  this  block  of  power 
to  be  released  to  Canada  would  require,  of  course,  that  suitable  ar- 
i-angemcnth  l)e  made  with  the  Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  Power 
Co..  but  it  is  assumed  that  this  should  not  present  insuperable  ob- 
stacles. 

107.  Another  difficulty  is  financial.  This  new  development  will 
carry  a  construction  cost  of  $150  per  horsepower  at  the  switchboard, 
whereas  a  new  single-stage  development  would  ])robal)ly  cost  from 
$80  to  $90,  and  tiie  existing  plants  have  prol)ably  cost  less  than  these 
latter  fimircs.  In  a  normal  market  the  most  expensive  plant  might 
l)e  unable  to  compete  with  the  others,  and  it  might  therefore  be  hard 
to  finance,  but  as  conditions  now  are  it  should  be  comparatively 
easy  to  o\ercome  this  (lifliculty  and  thereby  to  attract  capital   for 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       53 

this  development.  Even  with  an  assured  constriiction  cost  of  $150 
per  horsepower,  it  shoukl  be  possible  to  deliver  this  power  to  the 
consumers  at  $30  less  than  the  rate  now  char^jed  by  efficient  central 
steam  stations,  and  yet  to  earn  a  fair  profit  on  the  investment.  If 
we  arrange  to  charge  the  consumer  $10  more,  i.  e.,  to  reduce  his 
saving  to  about  $20  per  horsepower,  and  set  aside  this  $10  annually 
as  a  fund  to  amortize  the  excess  portion  of  the  construction  cost, 
at  the  end  of  four  or  five  years,  which  is  the  earliest  that  a  new 
single-stage  plant  could  come  into  operation,  the  accumulated  sur- 
charge would,  with  compound  interest,  reduce  the  original  capital 
cost  to  about  that  of  the  single-stage  plan.  Thereafter  this  proposed 
plant  and  the  new  single-stage  development  could  compete  on  equal 
terms,  provided  the  original  franchise  for  the  more  expensive  plant 
were  made  correspondingly  longer  than  that  of  the  single-stage 
plant. 

108.  In  making  this  suggestion,  we  are  taking  cognizance  of  the 
policy  laid  down  in  section  10  (d)  and  (g)  of  the  "Act  to  create 
a  Federal  power  commission,  etc.,"  having  in  mind  that  in  this  case 
the  franchise  would  be  of  unusual  value  due  to  the  constant  depend- 
iible  flow  and  to  proximity  to  a  market  having  a  large  unsatisfied 
demand  for  power  and  every  prospect  of  continued  gi'owth. 

109.  The  clanger  of  ice  interruption  to  a  plant  in  the  gorge  has 
been  touched  on  above.  Assuming  stable  and  solid  construction,  the 
worst  that  could  happen  would  be  that  for  a  greater  or  less  time 
the  supply  of  water  would  be  cut  off  and  it  would  therefore  be  im- 
possible to  generate  electrical  energy.  We  have  already  shown  that 
this  danger  would  be  minimized,  if  not  entirely  eliminated,  by  the 
proper  use  of  the  regulating  dam  at  Buffalo.  Any  interruptions 
would  probably  be  short,  and  during  this  time  essential  needs  might 
be  supplied  by  the  use  of  interconnections  of  liberal  capacity  be- 
tween the  power  stations  on  the  United  States  side.  It  would,  of 
course,  be  still  better  if  good  interconnection  could  also  be  ar- 
ranged with  the  Canadian  power  plants.  During  the  World  War 
it  became  necessary  for  the  Secretary  of  War  to  assume  charge 
of  all  power  systems  at  Niagara  Falls  and  Buffalo  and  to  administer 
their  power  for  the  greatest  benefit  of  the  war  program.  Though 
nonessential  use  was  reduced  and  much  essential  use,  not  otherwise 
possible,  was  supplied  with  power  by  this  unified  control,  the  results 
would  have  been  far  better  had  ample  interconnections  then  existed 
between  the  four  principal  systems.  Such  interconnections  shoulcl 
now  be  planned,  and  before  new  diversions  are  authorized  the  Fed- 
eral Power  Commission  should  insure  their  installation,  as  well  as 
some  adeciuate  arrangement  for  unified  control,  during  emergencies,, 
of  all  Niagara  power  and  its  allocation  under  some  proper  priority 
program  such  as  that  set  up  by  the  War  Industries  Board. 

110.  We  have  already  stated  that,  contingent  upon  prior  inter- 
national agreement  to  construct  the  regulating  dam  at  Buffalo,  the 
appropriation  of  the  necessary  funds  by  both  nations,  the  comple- 
tion of  definite  and  detailed  plans,  and  the  actual  letting  of  con- 
tracts for  the  entire  work,  we  recommend  the  diversion  of  20,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  additional  in  the  United  States  and  4,000  ( ubic 
feet  per  second  additional  in  Canada.  Some  statement  of  our  views 
as  to  the  best  manner  of  utilizing  this  increase  is  therefore  undoubt- 
edly  called   for.     We  agree   with   the   division   engineer  that  the 


54      I)Ivp:rsion  of  water  from  creat  i^vkes  and  xiagara  river. 

enlnr^red  Welland  Canal  Avill  for  many  years  take  care  of  all 
demands  of  navigation  and.  as  he  has  shoAvn  that  the  use  of  this 
20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  a  combined  power  and  navigation 
canal  would  cost  $-20,000,000  more  than  a  separate  ship  canal  of 
suitable  dimensions  and  a  power  canal  for  the  above  volume  of 
water,  we  concur  in  his  view  that  the  construction  of  a  combined 
power  and  ship  canal  is  inadvisable.  "We  also  are  of  the  opinion 
that  any  new  diversion  of  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  the  United 
States  should  develoj)  the  full  head  of  310  feet  or  more. 

111.  The  division  engineer  estimates  that  for  an  assumed  diversion 
of  20.000  cubic  feet  joer  second  developing  the  entire  head  of  310  feet 
or  more,  the  construction  cost  of  a  power  canal  would  be  $12.70  per 
liorsepower  less  than  that  of  a  pressure  tunnel  development  and  $15.70 
per  horsepower  less  than  that  of  a  tailrace  tunnel  plan.  He,  however, 
draws  attention  to  the  omission  of  certain  items  affecting  the  ultimate 
cost  of  the  canal,  such  as  damages  to  real  estate,  interruptions  of  high- 
ways and  railroads,  as  well  as  the  difficulties  caused  to  the  sewage 
and  water  supply  systems  of  a  city  such  as  Niagara  Falls.  All  these 
would  add  greatly  to  the  final  cost  of  a  power  canal,  and  we  l)elieve 
that,  in  the  end, "its  cost  would  fall  little  below  those  of  the  other 
two  types  of  development.  We  therefore  feel  that,  as  to  cost  alone, 
there  is  little  to  choose  between  them  and  that  choice  must  be  based 
on  other  considerations.  An  open  canal  5  miles  long  is  more  likely 
to  have  operating  troubles  due  to  the  formation  of  ice  in  its  channel 
than  either  type  of  tunnel.  The  conclusive  objection  to  this  type  of 
development  is  that  it  would  restrict  the  National  Government  in 
the  aAvard  of  the  license  and.  as  a  result,  the  terms  secured  for  the 
public  might  not  be  as  favorable  as  would  result  from  the  adoption 
of  either  the  pressure  or  the  tailrace-tunnel  plan.  The  tailrace 
tunnel  seems,  on  the  whole,  to  give  the  greatest  latitude  in  this 
regard,  and  as  its  power  house  is  nearer  the  probable  center  of 
demand  for  jwwer.  thereby  reducing  transmission  losses  and  the  cost 
of  transmission  lines,  and  as,  further,  its  poAver  house  is  safer  from 
danirer  of  damage  by  ice  gorges,  which,  though  slight,  in  the  lower 
gorge  may  at  extremely  long  intervals  prove  real,  we  recommend  the 
adoption  of  the  tailrace-tunnel  plan.  The  suggested  difficulty  as  to 
surges  and  vacuum  effects  in  a  long  tunnel  can  be  solved  by  provid- 
ing and  retaining  as  vents  a  sufficient  number  of  construction  shafts. 

112.  Assuming  that  the  conditions  antecedent  to  starting  the 
single-stage  diversion  would  require  a  period  of  from  2  to  3  years 
for  iheir  fulfillment,  and  that  construction  work  woidd  take  4  years, 
at  the  end  of  aljout  7  years  from  the  commencement  of  negotiations 
there  would  be  available  in  the  United  States  240.000  horsejwwer 
from  the  lower  stage,  580,000  horsepower  from  tiie  single  stage,  and 
possiblv  00.000  to  150.000  horsepower  from  the  u]5per  stage  develop- 
ment, a  total  of  880,000  to  970,000  horsepower,  which  wo\dd  save  at 
least  10,000.000  tons  of  coal  each  year  and  possibly  $30,000,000  or 
more  in  the  cost  of  power. 

113.  Under  our  power  and  diversion  program  above  outlined, 
involving  the  ultimate  taking  of  80.000  to  100,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, the  total  lowering  of  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  ])ool  would 
be  aV)()ut  2  feet.  This  would  be  compensated  by  the  submerged  weir 
propose<l  to  V)e  built  from  the  head  of  Goat  Island  to  the  Canadian 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER,       55 

shore.     The  loweriiio-  ell'ect  on  Lake  Erie,  about  0.2.  foot,  would  be 
taken  care  of  by  tlie  regulatino;  (hun  at  Buffalo. 

DIVERSIONS   rOK   SANTIARY   PURPOSES. 

114.  Divei-sions  for  water-supply  and  sewage  purposes  have  already 
been  discussed  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  diversion  of  the  Chi- 
cago sanitary  district,  they  have  been  disj)osed  of.  We  therefore 
revert  to  this  important  permanent  diversion  at  (^hicago.  The 
case  is  so  well  known  and  the  information  in  the  report  so  full  as 
to  call  for  little  further  discussion  of  its  merits.  Granting  that 
disposal  by  dilution  was  the  most  practicable  plan  at  the  time  of 
its  adoption,  the  fact  remains  that  the  Chicago  sanitary  district  has 
for  practically  20  years  been  on  notice  that  the  United  States  was 
unwilling  to  allow  the  district  to  divert  more  water  than  the  limit 
set  in  the  permit  of  1903,  namely,  4,167  cubic  feet  per  second.  Not- 
withstanding this,  the  district  has  since  then  greately  expanded  its 
boundaries  and  enlarged  its  plans,  and  from  year  to  year,  in  the 
face  of  the  opposition  of  the  United  States,  has  diverted  more  and 
more  water,  until  in  1917  the  yearly  average  diversion  Avas  8,80() 
cubic  feet  per  second,  which  is  more  than  twice  the  lawful  amount. 

115.  The  district  can  no  longer  fairly  plead  the  absence  or  the 
impracticability  of  other  safer  methods  of  handling  sewage  and  of 
protecting  its  people  from  water-borne  diseases.  Certainly,  for  the 
past  20  3'ears,  expert  opinion  has  held  disposal  by  dilution  to  be 
inferior  to  other  methods  of  treating  sewage,  and  enlightened  public 
opinion  has  condemned  a  policy  which,  in  effect,  is  the  transfer  of  a 
nuisance  from  our  own  front  door  to  that  of  our  neighbor.  Large 
cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  cannot  safely  drink  raw  lake  water,  nor 
should  they  discharge  unscreened  and  imfiltered  sewage  either  into 
the  lakes  or  into  tributary  streams.  In  1915,  the  Chicago  Real  Estate 
Board  employed  three  experts,  of  whom  two  were  of  acknowledged 
eminence  in  England,  and  the  third  a  New  York  expert  of  well- 
known  authority,  to  investigate  the  sewage  problem  of  Chicago  and 
to  present  their  views  as  to  the  best  way  of  solving  it.  Their  report 
entitled  "A  Report  to  the  Chicago  Real  Estate  Board  on  the  Disposal 
of  the  Sewage  and  the  Protection  of  the  Water  Supply  of  Chicago, 
Illinois,"  by  Messrs.  Soper.  Watson,  and  Martin,  has  been  printed, 
and  its  conclusions  are,  therefore,  well  known  to  the  public  in  gen- 
eral, and  particularly  to  the  people  of  Chicago  whom  they  advised 
substantially  in  accordance  with  the  views  above  expressed.  Chicago 
is,  therefore,  debarred  from  any  claim  for  indulgence  as  to  work 
done  and  expenditures  incurred  in  recent  j^ears.  If,  in  defiance  of  the 
opposition  of  the  Government,  and  in  open  disregard  of  the  law, 
the  officials  of  the  Chicago  sanitary  district  have  continued  to  ex- 
pend the  money  of  their  constituents  in  the  prosecution  of  unwise 
and  illegal  plans,  these  officials  and  their  constituency  are  to  blame, 
and  they  should  expect  no  great  indulgence  from  the  general  public 
whose  government  they  have  ignored  and  whose  interests  they  have 
disregarded. 

116.  Quite  recently,  at  the  end  of  many  years  of  delay,  a  decision 
in  the  suit  of  the  United  States  to  restrain  the  sanitary  district 
from  the  diversion  of  more  water  than  was  authorized  in  its  permit 


56        DR-ERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   Lu\KES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

of  1903,  has  been  made  public.  As  was  expected,  the  judge  has  felt 
constrained  to  uphold  the  authority  of  the  I"'nited  States,  but  it  is  not 
believed  that  any  injunction  has  issued  against  the  district.  Also, 
recently,  the  district,  as  noticed  earlier  in  this  report,  has  admitted 
the  damage  done  to  navigation  by  the  diversion  at  Chicago,  and  is 
understood  to  be  prepared  to  install  and  pay  for  remedial  works, 
contingent  upon  the  grant  by  the  United  States  of  authority  per- 
manently to  divert  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  views  of  the 
division' engineer  as  to  this  matter  are  summarized  in  paragraph 
183(2)  of  his  report.  We  agree  with  him  excejpt  that  we  believe 
that  the  diversion  should  be  limited  to  G,S()0  cubic  feet  per  second, 
and  that,  as  the  use  of  the  water  for  developing  power  is  more  or  less 
an  incident  to  its  use  for  dilution,  we  regard  as  inadvisable  the  tax 
that  he  proposes,  though  we  concede  that  such  a  tax  would  be  equi- 
table. It  would,  however,  be  difficult  to  assess  correctly  and  it  might 
prove  onerous.  Apparent!}',  the  public  interest  would  be  sufficiently 
satisfied  were  assurance  given  that  all  the  power  derived  from  this 
diverted  water,  a  possible  70,000  to  80,000  horsepower,  would  be 
conserved  and  administered  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  of  Illinois, 
and  therefore  not  alienated  to  anj^  individual  or  corporation  oper- 
ating solely  for  private  profit.  His  recommendations  that  the  diver- 
sion shall  be  supervised  by  the  United  States  at  the  expense  of  the 
sanitary  district,  and  that  provision  be  made  at  the  earliest  moment 
for  the  installation  of  a  method  of  sewage  disposal  other  than  by 
dilution,  are  excellent,  and  we  concur  in  them.  We  believe,  further, 
that  the  Chicago  Avater  supply  should  receive  such  treatment  as  will 
render  it  at  all  times  safe.  The  diversion  above  recommended  would 
permit  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  to  be  taken  by  way  of  the  Calumet 
jRiver,  4,800  cubic  feet  per  second  by  the  Chicago  River,  and  allow 
the  operation  of  all  power-generating  machinery  now  installed  at 
Lockport,  111.  It  would  also  afford  the  statutory  dilution  of  3^  cubic 
feet  per  second  per  1,000  of  population  for  a  total  of  2,100,000  people. 


OTHER   SUBJECTS. 

117.  Since  the  division  engineer's  report  was  submitted,  the  "  act 
to  create  a  Federal  power  commission,  etc.,"  has  been  passed  by  Con- 
gress and  approved  by  the  President.  Its  provisions  will  therefore 
govern  the  issue  of  licenses  for  existing  or  future  diversions  from 
the  (ireat  Lakes  for  power  purposes.  Section  7  of  this  act  indicates 
the  will  of  Congress  as  to  the  choice  of  licensees  and  requires  that 
pref(Mence  be  given  to  api)lications  made  by  States  or  municipalities. 
Without  attenq)ting  to  foi-estall  the  action  of  the  Federal  power 
commission,  the  record  shows  that  the  city  of  BulTalo  contemplates 
making  applifation  for  a  license  to  divert  water  for  ])ower  purposes 
from  the  Niagara  Kiver.  In  this  connection  it  shouhl  be  said  that 
the  amount  of  r-entral  station  electric  power  now  used  within  the  city 
limits  of  Buffalo  is  aljout  250,000  liorsepower,  and  the  growth  of  the 
next  five  years  may  be  somewhat  liberally  figured  at  100,000  horse- 
power. Beyond  that  time  growth  is  more  or  less  problematical,  but 
it  is  fairly  certain  that  a  long  time  would  elapse  before  Buffalo  would 
be  alilt*  to  absorb  as  much  as  300,000  additional  horsepower,  the 
amount  of  energy  from  a  single-stage  development  of  a  diversion 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER         57 

of  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Such  a  development  would  be  con- 
siderably less  economical  than  one  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
(opacity,  and,  in  the  general  interest,  rather  than  authorize  a  small 
and  relatively  expensive  project  for  the  sole  berefit  of  Buffalo,  it 
would  be  wiser  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  Buffalo,  ^hile,  at  the  same 
time,  permitting  development  to  be  made  upon  an  economical  scale. 
A  partnership  arrangement  might  not  prove  out  of  question,  under 
which  private  interests  could  join  the  city  in  making  a  single  large 
new  development  of,  sjiy,  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

118.  We  have  hitherto  said  nothing  about  the  uses  to  which  power 
hereafter  to  be  developed  should  be  put.  This  is  a  matter  that  prob- 
ably should  be  dealt  with  by  otliers,  but,  as  some  discussion  of  it  has 
taken  place,  it  seems  permissible  to  indicate  our  belief  that  the  elec- 
trochemical industries  should  by  no  means  be  permitted  to  monopo- 
lize any  increase  to  the  detriment  of  the  general  user.  In  our  opinion, 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  small  factories  and  other  similar 
demand  from  the  general  public  will  be  supplied,  and  that  reasonable 
future  increase  in  this  kind  of  load  will  be  cared  for.  When  this 
has  been  done,  any  balance  may,  under  contracts  reserving  the  right 
to  reduce  the  supply  in  favor  of  general  needs,  be  assigned  to  electro- 
chemical uses.  By  this  policy  profitable  employment  is  assured  for 
a  much  larger  population  than  would  be  possible  were  electrochemi- 
cal use  given  preference.  The  electrification  of  railways  should  also 
be  given  precedence  over  any  large  electrochemical  demand. 

119.  AVe  have  recommended  that  30,000  cubic  feet  per  second  be 
diverted  from  the  lower  gorge  immediately,  and  that  24,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  additional  be  diverted  from  above  the  falls  as  soon 
as  the  existing  treaty  has  been  amended  and  certain  conditions  as  to 
the  regulating  dam  at  Buffalo  have  been  met.  Subject  to  such  tem- 
porary restrictions  as  may,  during  severe  winters,  prove  necessary, 
we  believe  that  these  limits  should  be  regarded  as  daily  averages, 
and  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  take  notice  of  peak  loads  and  load 
factors,  thereby  affording  the  most  economical  use  of  all  diverted 
water.  To  enable  this  to  be  done,  a  unified  control  and  supervision 
constantly  in  close  touch  with  all  conditions  should  be  installed,  and 
the  load  factors  affecting  diversions  should  be  fixed  as  conditions 
from  time  to  time  indicate. 

120.  Liberal  interconnections  between  all  power  stations  have  been 
shown  to  be  indispensable,  and  every  license  should  make  elastic 
provisions  for  their  installation.  These  interconnections  will  facili- 
tate the  unified  control  above  suggested.  Their  caj)acity  can  be  fixed 
only  by  a  careful  survey  of  the  tributary  territory  and  its  power  de- 
mand, and  this  maj^  well  be  deferred  until  these  matters  come  before 
the  Federal  power  commission. 

121.  The  immediately  preceding  paragraphs  show  that,  in  reality, 
the  division  engineer  is  correct  when  he  states  in  his  paragraphs  179 
and  180  that  the  water  power  of  the  Niagara  River  is  a  monopoly. 
In  many  essentials,  it  is  a  monopoly,  and  our  recommendation  of 
unified  control  contemplates  the  recognition  of  its  monopolistic  char- 
acter, and  the  exercise  by  the  United  States  of  such  restrictive 
powers  as  are  thereby  made  advisable.  We,  therefore,  feel  that  the 
objection  raised  by  certain  interests  to  this  portion  of  the  division 
engineer's  report  is  adequately  met  not  only  by  him,  but  also  by  the 
precautions  above  suggested  by  us. 


58        DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  L.\.KES   AND  NIAGARA   lUVER. 
FINAL   SCMMAltV    AND   GENERAL   RECOMMENDATIONS. 

122.  We  have  above  stated  that  in  considering  the  various  uses 
and  etFects  of  diversions  from  the  Great  Lakes,  they  should  be  ar- 
rantjed  in  the  following  order  of  value  and  importance :  Navigation, 
scenic  beauty,  and  power.  We  have  also  reported  that  diversions  for 
legitimate  sanitary  purposes  consume  so  little  water  that  there  need 
be  no  restriction  on  them,  but  this  statement  does  not  apply  to  the 
Chicago  diversion.  For  the  benefit  of  navigation,  w'e  have  recom- 
mended the  immediate  construction  by  international  agreement  of  a 
regulating  dam  at  Buffalo  to  cost  about  $8,000,000.  This  dam  would 
efjualize  the  discharge  of  Lake  Erie  and  raise  its  level  more  than 
it  has  been,  or  is  likely  to  be,  lowered  by  diversions  from  the  Great 
Lakes  system,  and  it  would  also  restore  the  depths  of  the  Detroit 
Eiver.  At  such  later  time  as  may  prove  necessary,  we  recommend 
dredging  in  Lake  St.  Clair,  and  a  system  of  submerged  weirs,  at  a 
total  cost  of  $2,160,000,  these  requiring  also  international  action  and 
being  intended  to  repair  damage  done  to  Lake  St.  Clair,  the  St. 
Clair  River,  and  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan.  For  the  preservation 
and  betterment  of  scenic  beauty  of  the  Niagara  River,  we  are  recom- 
mending a  submerged  distributing  weir  built  in  the  dry  above  the 
Horseshoe,  and  the  removal  of  portions  of  its  rocky  crest  and  bed. 
This  work  also  requires  international  agreement,  and  it  should  not 
be  executed  until  the  regulating  dam  at  Buffalo  has  ])een  put  in 
operation.  We  also  recommend  a  suljmerged  w^eir  from  the  head  of 
Goat  Island  to  the  Canadian  shore.  This  will  protect  and  increase 
the  discluirge  of  the  American  Fall,  and  w-ill  also  restore  the  level  of 
the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool,  which  would  otherwise  be  con- 
siderably lowered  by  the  power  diversions  we  now  recommend. 
While  tliis  submerged  dam  really  helps  navigation,  w^e  charge  its  cost 
and  that  of  the  distributing  weir  to  scenic  beauty.  Their  total  cost 
would  l)e  $0,000,000.  For  the  improvement  of  the  power  supply,  we 
recommend  the  immediate  diversion  and  development  of  30.000  cubic 
feet  per  second  from  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  pool.  The  head  is  about 
90  feet  and  the  power  output  about  240,000  horsepower,  costing  about 
$ir)0  per  horsepower  in  the  bus  bar.  Contingent  on  the  conclusion 
of  an  international  agreement  and  contracts  for  the  regulating  dam 
at  Buffalo,  we  also  recommend  that  additional  diversions  of  4,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  in  Canada,  and  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
in  tlie  United  States,  Ije  authorized,  the  diversion  in  the  Fnited  States 
to  develop  about  000,000  horsepoAver,  under  the  full  head  available 
between  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool  and  the  lower  river  near 
Lewiston.  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $80  to  $90  per  horsepower.  We 
also  recommend  that  this  diversion  be  not  divided  between  several 
licen.sees,  but  that  contending  interests  be  taken  care  of  under  some 
form  of  partnership  arrangement.  Finally,  as  to  power  diversions, 
■we  state  that  the  limit  may  ])i"()l)Mb]y  cA-entually  be  i-aised  to  l>olween 
100.000  and  110.000  cu])ic  feet  per  second,  the  inrreas(>  being  de- 
pendent on  the  measure  of  success  attained  in  operating  the  regulat- 
ing d:im  :)t  Buffalo.  As  to  the  diversion  at  Chicago,  we  are  recom- 
mending that  the  existing  permit  for  250,000  cubic  feet  per  minute 
be  r('pla«<'d  by  f)ne  for  408.000  or  G,800  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that 
the  Chicago  "Sanitary  District,  and  the  City  of  Chicago  be  required 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       59 

to   provide   appropriate   treatineiit    for   botli   sewage    and    drinking- 
water. 

1'2S.  The  public  need  for  better  navigation  and  for  a  greater  supply 
of  water  power,  and  the  value  of  improved  navigation,  scenic  beauty, 
and  enlarged  power  supply,  are  so  very  great  that  we  urge  that  the 
promptest  action  be  taken  to  enable  our  recommendations  to  be 
placed  in  effect.  We  especially  urge  that  negotiations  be  at  once 
undertaken  looking  toAvard  the  amendment  of  the  existing  treaty. 

124.  The  division  engineer  has  recommended  certain  changes  in 
the  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  proclaimed  May  13,  1910.  Except 
as  modified  in  our  recommendations  already  made,  we  agree  with 
his  views.  The  changes  proposed  in  his  (1),  (2),  and  (8)  should 
be  made.  The  change  suggested  in  (3)  should  be  amplified  by  adding 
the  words  "  so  as  to  limit  it  to  a  daily  rate  not  exceeding  30,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  until  such  time  as  further  observations  may 
indicate  that  this  amount  may  be  exceeded  without  detriment  to  the 
scenic  beauty  and  the  ice-discharging  capacity  of  the  Niagara  River 
below  the  Falls."  The  modification  suggested  in  (4)  should  be  based 
upon  the  navigation  and  power  program  recommended  by  us,  namely, 
an  immediate  agreement  as  to  the  regulating  dam  at  Buffalo,  prompt 
arrangements  for  its  definite  design,  and  joint  financial  provisions 
for  its  construction  under  an  appropriate  contract.  The  remedial 
works  above  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  and  the  compensating  weirs  at 
the  head  of  Goat  Island  and  in  the  upper  St.  Clair  River,  and  the 
dredging  in  Lake  St.  Clair  should  be  covered  by  the  same  agreement, 
but  work  on  them  should  not  begin  until  after  the  regulating  dam 
has  been  completed.  No  definite  limit  should  be  set  upon  the  critical 
discharge  over  the  Falls  and  the  amount  of  water  permitted  to  be 
diverted  other  than  to  state  that  the  remedial  works  should  be  de- 
signed so  as  to  afford  the  maximum  attainable  scenic  beauty,  in  our 
opinion  corresi^onding  to  an  ultimate  diversion  of  100,000  to  110,000 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

125.  The  limits  set  in  (5)  accord  with  our  views  as  to  what  may  be 
diverted  after  definite  provisions  have  been  made  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  regulating  dam  at  Buffalo,  but  we  believe  that  it  will 
eventually  be  found  desirable  to  increase  these  diversions.  Accord- 
ingly, (5)  should  be  amended  by  inserting  the  words  "  wdienever 
joint  arrangements  for  the  regulating  dam  at  Buffalo  have  been  com- 
pleted, funds  appropriated,  and  contracts  for  the  construction  of 
the  dam  entered  into,"  to  follow  the  initial  word  "  That."  The  words 
"  These  diversions  may  be  further  increased  as  provided  in  (8)  here- 
after "  should  be  added  at  the  end  of  (5). 

126.  The  proposal  of  (G)  will  also  require  modification  to  make  it 
accord  with  our  power  plan.  This  may  be  effected  by  substituting  the 
opening  words,  "  That  not  less  than  30,000  cubic  feet  per  second  of 
the  water  so  diverted  shall  be  returned,  etc."  The  remainder  of  the 
provision  ma}'  remain  imchanged. 

127.  We  have  already  recommended  suitable  provision  for  making 
allowance  for  peak  loads  and  the  load  factor.  The  change  proposed 
in  (7)  is  out  of  harmony  with  our  recommendations  and  we  suggest 
the  following:  "(7)  That  the  limits  above  given  be  understood  to 
be  daily  rates  of  diversion  corresponding  to  the  load  factors  char- 
acterizing each  individual  power  station.     Whenever  ice  or  other 


60        DR'ERSION   OF   WATER   FROIM   GREAT  LjS.KES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

conditions  render  restrictions  necessary  in  the  public  interest,  steps 
may  be  taken  by  the  high  contracting  parties,  either  jointly  or 
severally,  to  reduce  all  or  any  authorized  diversions  until  such  time 
as  the  emergency  is  considered  to  have  passed." 

1'JS.  As  to  tlie  use  of  diversions,  as  recommended  by  the  division 
engineer  and  quoted  verbatim  in  paragraph  67  under  the  caption 
''  Recommended  use  of  diversions,''  we  agree  with  the  division  engi- 
neer's views  as  expressed  in  (1),  (3),  (4),  (5),  and  (6).  We  have 
indicated  in  the  preceding  paragraph  and  in  the  general  discussion 
the  extent  to  which  we  differ  from  (7)  and  (8),  and  nothing  further 
as  to  them  seems  called  for.  As  to  (2),  relating  to  the  Chicago 
sanitary  diversion,  we  believe  that  the  maximum  should  be  G,800 
cubic  feet  ])er  second,  and  that  the  provision  for  exacting  payment 
is  inexpedient.  Otherwise,  we  agree  with  the  division  engineer's 
recommendations  as  to  Chicago. 

129.  In  closing,  we  desire  again  to  express  our  opinion  that  the 
report  is  of  great  and  f)ermanent  value.  We,  therefore,  recommend 
that  it  be  printed  in  its  entirety  and  that  all  inclosures  and  illustra- 
tions be  reproduced,  except  Appendix  I,  which  has  already  been 
printed  in  connection  with  hearings  held  in  1918  before  the  House 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs. 

For  the  board: 

H.  Taylor, 
Brigadier  General^  United  States  Army^ 

Senior  Member  of  the  Board. 


REPORT  ON  INVESTIGATION  OF  WATER  DIVERSION  FROM 
GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

[By  Col.  J.  G.  Warken,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.] 


War  Department, 
Office  of  the  Division  Engineer  Lakes  Division, 

Buffalo,  N.  r.,  August  30, 1919. 

From :  The  Division  Engineer,  Lakes  Division. 

To :  Chief  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Subject:  Eeport  on  Investigation  of  water  diversion   from   Great 

Lakes  and  Niagara  Kiver,  N.  Y. 

There  is  submitted  herewith  report  on  investigation  of  water  diver- 
sion from  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  River  as  directed  by  the  Chief 
of  Engineers,  United  States  Army,  together  with  eight  appendices 
which  treat  of  various  items  of  the  investigation  in  greater  detail. 
Appendices  A,  B,  D,  E,  F,  and  G,  contain  the  eight  sections  of  a 
report  of  W.  S.  Richmond,  assistant  engineer,  on  Investigation  of 
water  diversion  from  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  River.  Appendix  C 
is  a  report  of  First  Lieut.  Albert  B.  Jones,  Engineers,  United  States 
Army,  on  preservation  of  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  of  the 
rapids  of  Niagara  River.  Appendix  I  is  copy  of  interim  report 
submitted  March  2,  1918. 

J.  G.  Warren, 
Colonel,  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army. 


INVESTIGATION   OF   WATER   DIVERSION    FROM    THE    GREAT    LAKES 
AND    NIAGARA    RIVER. 

1.  Introductory.— T\\Q  following  report  covers  an  investigation 
into  the  matter  of  water  diversion  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara 
River.  The  duty  of  making  this  investigation  and  report  was 
assigned  to  me  by  letter  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers  dated  July  20,  1917 
(E.  D.  57243),  in  pursuance  of  public  resolution  No.  8,  Sixty-fifth 
Congress,  which  is  as  follows: 

Resolved,  hy  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  Am-ei-ica  in  Congress  assembled..  That  public  resolution  numbered  45  of  the 
Sixty-fourth  Congress,  approved  .lanuary  19,  1917,  entitled  "  Joint  resolution 
authorizing  the  Secretary  of  War  to  issue  permits  for  additional  diversion  of 
water  from  the  Niagara  River,"  is  continued  in  full  force  and  effect,  and  under 
the  same  conditions,  restrictions,  and  limitations,  until  July  1.  1918:  Provided, 
That  the  Secretary  of  War  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  make  a  com- 
prehensive and  thorough  investigation,  including  all  necessary  surveys  and 
maps,  of  the  entire  subject  of  water  diversion  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
Niagara  River,  including  navigation,  sanitary,  and  power  purposes,  and  the 
preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids  of  Niagara 
River,  and  to  report  to  Congress  thereon  at  the  earliest  practicable  date.  To 
carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  proviso,  there  is  hereby  appropriated,  out  of 
any  money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  the  sum  of  $25,000. 

2.  Progress  of  the  investigation. — The  investigation  was  gotten 
under  way  as  promptly  as  practicable  and  has  been  prosecuted  with 

61 


62      r»iv?:RSioN  of  water  from  great  lakes  and  Niagara  river. 

tlili«ience.  A  considerable  amount  of  field  work  required  in  the 
vicinity  of  Xia^jara  Falls  was  completed  in  February,  1918.  Other 
fielil  work  was  of  minor  importance.  The  office  Avork  which  included 
reductions  of  field  data,  the  analysis  and  bringin^:  up  to  date  of  the 
trreat  amount  of  existing  data,  preparation  of  maps,  profiles  and 
diagrams,  studies  of  the  engineering  matters  involved,  making  de- 
signs and  estimates  of  proposed  works,  and  preparation  of  the  report, 
lias  proved  a  task  far  greater  than  had  been  anticipated,  and  the  sub- 
mission of  the  final  report  has  been  consequently  delayed.  A  de- 
st-ription  of  the  field  and  office  work  is  given  in  Appendix  B. 

3.  Interim  report. — In  compliance  with  instructions  from  the  Chief 
of  Engineers  an  interim  report  Avas  submitted  on  March  2.  1918.  In 
it  certain  facts  were  pointed  out  and  conclusions  presented.  It  is 
important  to  note  that  the  subsequent  work  of  the  investigation  con- 
firms in  every  important  detail  the  recommendations  and  conclusions 
therein  contained.  This  report,  together  with  the  action  of  the  de- 
partment thereon,  is  printed  in  Appendix  I.^ 

4.  Scope  of  the  investigation. — The  general  scope  of  the  investiga- 
tion was  indicated  approximately  in  the  interim  report  by  an  outline 
of  subjects  and  topics  given  in  the  thii'd  paragraph.  In  preparing 
the  final  report  this  outline  has  been  adhered  to  in  general,  although 
minor  changes  in  topics  and  sequence  of  suljjects  have  been  found 
advantageous.  In  the  appendices  will  be  found  a  treatment  of  each 
topic  and  subject  in  as  great  detail  as  is  considered  essential  to  a 
clear  and  comprehensive  exposition,  without  elaborating  historical, 
technical,  or  legal  details  held  to  l)e  immaterial,  and  without  any 
attempt  to  exhaust  the  subject  matter.  All  diversions  of  water  from 
the  Great  Lakes  Basin  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  be  considered  worthy 
of  mention  have  been  included,  Avhether  for  navigation,  sanitary,  or 
power  purposes,  the  character,  quantity,  and  effect  of  each  being 
stated.  The  Niagara  diversions  are  dwelt  upon  with  special  em- 
phasis, consideration  in  detail  being  given  to  the  subjects  of  preser- 
vation of  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  rapids  of  Niagara  River 
and  of  further  development  of  water  power. 

5.  Evtent  of  tei^ntory  involved. — The  territory  involved  in  a  com- 
prehensive consideration  of  these  diversions  is  the  entire  drainage 
area  or  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  above  St.  Regis,  N.  Y.,  6G  miles  above 
M(jntreal,  the  place  at  which  the  St.  Lawrence  River  pas.ses  entirely 
into  Canada.  This  area  is  approximately  300,000  square  miles,  of 
which  59.5  per  cent  lies  on  the  United  States  side  of  the  International 
b(»undary  line.  The  total  area  is  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  Texas 
and  about  one  and  one-half  times  the  size  of  France.  The  land  area 
on  the  T'nited  States  side  is  greater  tlian  the  combined  area  of  the 
New  England  States  and  New  York  State.  It  includes  practically 
all  the  State  of  Michigan  and  ))()rtions  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  IncHana,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  ^'ork.  Tiie  land  area 
on  the  Canadian  side  comprises  a  large  part  of  the  Province  of 
Ontario.  The  water  surface  area  alone  is  95,205  stjuare  miles,  and 
G0,975  s(iuare  miles  of  this,  or  64  ))er  cent,  is  in  the  United  States. 
The  main  shore  line  involved  exceeds  8,300  miles  in  length. 

6.  Population  of  t}ir.  hamn. — The  population  of  the  basin  area  is 
estimated  to  be  15,(X)(),fX)0,  of  whom  about  2,000,000  are  in  Canada. 

'Omitted;  b««  par.  129.  p.  00  of  this  document.  Appendix  I  was  printed  in  Part  2 
of  HoarliiKH  l'<f<ir<'  1h<'  Cornmlttoe  on  Foreign  Affiilrs,  IIou.so  of  Roproscntatives,  G5th 
Cong.,  2d  H«*8.,  on  H.  tt.  11871,  relaUvu  to  "  Wvorsion  of  water  from  Niagara  River." 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       63 

At  least  IG  cities  of  over  50,000  population  each  are  located  within 
its  boundaries. 

7.  Water  power  of  the  hasin. — The  total  developable  water  power 
of  the  basin  is  estimated  at  10.000,000  horsepower,  far  more  than  half 
of  which  is  in  the  United  States.  The  water  power  already  developed 
within  this  area  is,  roughly,  1,000,000  horsepower  in  the  United 
States  and  1,500,000  horsepower  in  Canada. 

8.  Lake  commerce  of  the  hasln. — The  lake  commerce  in  1917  was 
carried  in  more  than  1,000  vessels  of  an  average  registered  tonnage 
exceeding  2,000  tons  each,  about  90  per  cent  of  the  vessels  having  a 
registered  tonnage  of  over  100  tons,  while  41  vessels  had  a  dead 
weight  tonnage  of  13,000  tons  or  more.  The  maximum  length  of 
freight  steamer  was  625  feet,  maximum  beam  64.2  feet,  and  maxi- 
mum draft  used,  21.9  feet.  The  total  freight  passing  through  De- 
troit River  during  the  navigation  season  of  1917  ^yas  95,000,000  tons, 
valued  at  approximately  one  and  one-quarter  billion  dollars.  There 
is  a  not  inconsiderable  lake  commerce  which  does  not  pass  through 
Detroit  River.  The  length  of  steamer  track  from  Montreal  to  Duluth 
is  1,340  miles,  and  from^Montreal  to  Chicago  it  is  1,260  miles. 

9.  Maps  of  Great  Lakes  Basin. — The  drainage  area  under  con- 
sideration is  depicted  on  Plate  No.  1,  on  which  are  shown  the  out- 
lines of  the  Great  Lakes  and  connecting  and  outflow  rivers,  the  out- 
line of  the  entire  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  above  St.  Regis,  the  out- 
line of  the  drainage  basin  of  each  individual  lake,  the  international 
boundary  line  through  the  lakes,  and  the  general  locations  of  water- 
ways through  which  wat«r  is  diverted  from  the  Great  Lakes,  or 
tributaries  of  the  Great  Lakes,  together  with  other  data  of  a  general 
character.  Plate  No.  12  is  reproduced  from  Plate  2  of  the  report  of 
1897  of  the  first  Deep  Waterw^ays  Commission,  published  as  House 
of  Representatives  Document  No.  192,  54th  Congress,  2d  session. 

10.  Diversion  of  Great  Lakes  waters. — In  Appendix  A  is  a  treat- 
ment in  some  detail  of  diversions  of  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes 
Basin,  separated  into  three  sections,  {a)  navigation,  (&)  sanitation, 
and  (c)  power  development.  Some  diversions  pertain  to  only  one 
of  these  uses,  some  to  two,  and  others  to  all  three.  In  Appendix  A, 
where  they  pertain  to  two  or  three  uses  they  are  treated  under  each 
division  concerned,  the  remarks  in  each  case  being  confined  in  so  far 
as  practicable  to  the  particular  use  under  consideration,  and  each 
diversion  is  described  upon  its  first  mention.  For  brevity  in  the 
following  paragraphs  the  diversions  at  each  locality  will  be  described 
in  turn,  all  diversions  at  the  locality  being  considered  simultaneously, 
whether  for  use  of  navigation,  sanitation,  or  power  development. 
Attention  is  directed  to  the  maps  and  photographs  accompanying 
Appendix  A. 

11.  Diversions  at  St.  Marys  Falls. — The  average  volume  of  flow 
of  St.  Marys  River  is  approximately  75,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  drop  in  water  level  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Huron  averages 
20.7  feet  over  a  period  of  years,  19.4  feet  of  this  occurring  in  a  rapids 
three-fourths  mile  long  abreast  the  city  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich. 
There  is  one  ship  lock  on  the  Canadian  side,  and  there  are  four  on  the 
American  side,  the  fourth  lock  being  under  construction  and  not 
quite  complete.  There  are  three  power  developments,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  river  involving  a  power  canal,  and  one  in  the  rapids  on 
the  American  side.  The  water  diverted  is  about  as  set  down  in 
Table  No.  1. 


64        DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  KIVER. 

Tauije  No.  1. — Diversions  at  Si.  Marys  Falls. 
(Cubic  feet  per  second.] 


Use. 

United  States. 

Canada. 

Total. 

800 
31,000 

200 
12,000 

1,000 

43,000 

Total 

31,800 

12,200 

44,000 

In  each  case  the  water  diverted  is  returned  to  the  river  in  a  distance 
of  2^  miles  or  less  from  the  point  of  diversion.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  fourth  lock  will  require  an  average  consumption  of  350  cubic 
feet  of  water  per  second.  These  locks  require  somewhat  more  water 
than  shown  in  the  table  during  the  open  season  of  navigation  and 
far  less  during  the  closed  season. 

12.  The  necessary  controlling  works  for  maintaining  the  level  of 
Lake  Superior  are  parth'  built  and  partly  under  construction.  They 
are  des'-ribed  in  Appendix  E.  The  operation  of  these  works,  and 
supervision  of  the  diversions,  are  vested  in  a  local  board  of  control 
established  pursuant  to  recommendation  of  the  International  Joint 
Commission. 

13.  Diversion  through  the  Illinois  c&  Michigan  Canal. — The  Illinois 
&  Michigan  Canal  extends  from  Chicago  to  La  Salle,  111.  For  the 
past  few  years  there  has  been  no  direct  diversion  of  Great  Lakes 
waters  through  this  canal,  because  the  connection  with  Chicago  River 
has  been  closed  up.  A  small  part  of  the  water  diverted  from  Lake 
Michigan  through  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  enters  the  Illinois  & 
Michigan  Canal  at  Joliet,  111.  This  quantity  varies  from  practically 
nothing  at  moderate  to  high  stages  of  the  Des  Plaines  River  to  nearly 
550  cubic  feet  per  second  at  very  low  stages  of  this  river.  Of  this 
amount  only  a  trifle  is  used  locking  boats,  an  average  of  about  40 
cubic  feet  per  second  is  used  for  power  development  at  Ottawa,  111., 
and  the  rest  is  expended  in  minor  manufacturing  uses  and  in  seepage, 
evaporation,  and  waste. 

14.  Diversion  through  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. — The  Chicago 
Drainage  Canal  extends  from  Chicago  to  joliet.  111.,  connecting  the 
south  branch  of  the  Chicago  River  with  the  Des  Plaines  River.  The 
diversion  from  Lake  Michigan  through  this  canal  averaged  8,800 
cubic  feet  per  second  in  1917,  daily  averages  running  as  high  as 
10,000.  The  entire  diversion  was  used  for  sanitary  purj^oses.  As 
a  secondary  matter  a  large  portion  of  this  water  is  used  at  Lockport, 
111.,  to  develop  power  under  a  head  averaging  34  feet.  The  quantity 
so  used  in  1917  averaged  G,800  cubic  feet  per  second, 

15.  It  is  estimated  that  500  cubic  feet  per  second  would  be  ample 
to  serve  any  navigation  refmirements  of  the  present  canal.  Should 
the  Des  Plaines  and  Illinois  Rivers  be  improved  to  accommodate  navi- 
gation of  8-foot  (h-aft  to  tiie  Mississippi,  a  diversion  of  1,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  might  be  required  to  meet  the  needs  of  navigation 
only.  The  i)resent  use  of  the  canal  for  navigation  is  very  small,  there 
having  been  only  100  lockages  at  the  power  house  in  1917,  the  largest 
b(jat  locked  through  being  75  feet  long. 

10.  Excavation  of  the  drainage  canal  was  commenced  in  September, 
1892.     The  Sanilarv  District  of  Chi(;ago,  a  cori)oration  created  by  the 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       65 

State  of  Illinois  to  carry  on  this  work  and  provide  for  the  sewerage 
of  Chicago  and  the  surrounding  communities,  has  been  in  control  of 
operations  from  the  outset.  This  corporation  began  dredging  in 
Chicago  Kiver  in  1896.  The  canal  was  first  opened  for  the  passage 
of  water  on  January  17,  1900.  The  hydroelectric  plant  at  Lockport 
began  producing  power  in  December,  1907.  The  flow  in  the  canal 
has  mounted  fairly  steadily  from  approximately  3,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  in  1900  to  approximately  9,000  in  19i7,  average  annual 
rate  of  discharge. 

17.  The  water  passing  through  the  drainage  canal  is  in  part  used 
again  for  water  power  development  at  Joliet  and  Marseilles.  At 
Joliet  the  State  has  a  dam  affording  a  head  averaging  10  feet.  Here 
5,250  cubic  feet  of  Avater  per  second  are  used  for  power  production. 
A  lock  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  is  located  at  the  westerly 
end  of  this  dam.  At  Marseilles  a  private  dam  across  the  Illinois 
Kiver  affords  a  head  of  about  11  feet.  There  is  no  lock  at  this  dam. 
A  large  portion  of  the  entire  flow  of  the  Illinois  River  is  used  in  power 
development  at  this  point. 

18.  Improvement  of  the  Illinois  River  to  afford  slack  water  navi- 
gation to  the  drainage  canal  would  result  in  the  production  of  a  total 
developable  head  of  116  feet,  including  the  heads  now  utilized  at 
Lockport,  Joliet,  and  Marseilles. 

19.  In  Section  B  of  appendix  A  a  brief  history  is  given  of  the 
great  efforts  put  forth  for  many  years  by  the  city  of  Chicago  to  cope 
with  its  sewerage  and  water  supply  problems.  The  great  and  sus- 
tained growth  of  the  city  has  repeatedly  frustrated  attempts  at  solu- 
tion. On  several  occasions  plans  were  adopted  which  were  expected 
to  cure  certain  evils,  and  less  than  a  decade  after  their  completion 
the  growth  of  the  city  had  rendered  the  new  provisions  as  inadequate 
as  the  old  ones  had  been. 

20.  The  system  of  sewage  disposal  now  in  use  was  developed  be- 
cause of  the  city's  situation  near  the  crest  of  a  low  divide  having  an 
immense  reservoir  on  one  side  just  below  the  crest.  This  is  the  lowest 
point  of  the  divide  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi  Basins. 
While  other  cities  which  also  draw  water  supplies  from  the  lakes  in 
front  of  them,  Cleveland  and  Milwaukee  for  example,  have  been 
forced  to  install  complicated  and  expensive  sewage  purification  works, 
Chicago  was  able  to  cut  through  the  divide  and  draw  off  some  of 
the  water  of  the  reservoir,  thus  forming  a  stream  into  which  her 
sewage  could  be  discharged  so  that  it  would  be  diluted,  and  washed 
away  into  the  Mississippi  Basin.  Using  pumps  at  Bridgeport,  this 
method  began  to  be  used  in  a  small  way  in  1848  and  was  expanded  in 
1866.  In  1887,  at  the  time  the  present  drainage  canal  was  being 
planned  and  urged,  the  matter  of  adopting  some  other  disposal 
system  was  considered  seriously  and  rejected.  The  art  of  sewage 
disposal  by  any  method  other  than  dilution  was  not  then  well  de- 
veloped. The  fact  that  such  a  solution  of  the  city's  sanitary  diffi- 
culties would  lower  the  levels  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  create  certain 
undesirable  conditions  in  the  Illinois  A^  alley  was  recognized,  but 
these  disadvantages  were  minimized  by  the  people  whose  duty  it 
was  to  provide  adequate  sewage  disposal  facilities.  Sufficient  data 
did  not  then  exist  to  permit  accurate  prediction  of  the  lowering  of 
lake  levels,  and  the  estimates  made  by  those  best  prepared  to  make 

27880—21 5 


66       DH'ERSrON   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  L.\KES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

such  predictions  indiciited  lake  lowerin«;s  only  one-third  to  one-half 
as  irreat  as  now  known  to  be  caused.  Xeither  the  frreat  and  sustained 
future  L'roAvtli  of  the  city  nor  the  vast  and  imj)ortant  development 
of  lake  commerce,  which  is  now  12  times  Avhat  it  was  in  IfsSD,  were 
anticipated.  There  was  a  disposition,  moreover,  to  iro  ahead  with 
the  project  re^rardless  of  other  interests  in  the  Great  Lakes  and  Mis- 
sissi])i)i  Valleys,  llie  matter  of  Government  interest  was  considered, 
but  Government  sanction  does  not  appear  to  have  been  deemed 
necessary  except  for  chanije  of  current  in  Ghicaj2'o  River. 

21.  The  case  of  the  United  States  v.  The  Sanitary  District  of  Chi- 
ca<ro.  now  in  the  Ignited  States  District  Court,  Northern  District  of 
Illinois.  Eastern  Division,  involves  the  very  important  question  of 
Federal  or  State  jurisdiction.    This  case  was  placed  before  the  court 
in  bills  filed  :March  23,  1908.  and  October  G,  1013.     The  final  argu- 
ments in  this  case  were  presented  in  1915.    To  date  the  United  States 
Government  has  been  unable  in  this  instance  to  secure  an  injunction 
compellino:  a  State  corporation  to  observe  the  terms  of  a  permit 
issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War  pursuant,  in  the  opinion  of  the  de- 
partment, to  his  authority  over  navi<xable  waters  prescril)ed  by  acts 
of  Confrress.    Here  is  a  situation  in  which  a  single  State  denies  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Government  over  a  matter  affecting  seven 
other  States  in  the  Great  Lakes  Basin,  several  States  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  although  the  State  of 
Illinois  is  powerless  itself  to  deal  directly  vvith  these  States  or  the 
Dominion,  except  as,  under  the  Constitution,  the  other  States  may 
sue  Illinois  in  the  Supreme  Court,  and,  under  the  boundary  waters 
treaty,  citizens  of  Canada  haA'e  the  same  rio;ht  of  action  against 
Illinois  that  citizens  of  Illinois  have.     The  State  of  Illinois  would 
seem  thereby  to  deny  the  right  of  Federal  interference  should  the 
State  of  New  York,  for  example,  by  the  construction  of  sanitary 
or  power  development  works  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  lower 
the  water  level  along  the  Chicago  water  front  and  in  the  drainage 
ranal.    The  only  remedy  would  be  suit  in  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  which  necessarily  is  often  a  process  requiring  years  of  time. 

22.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  call  to  mind  the  fact  that 
the  State  of  ^Missouri  brought  suit  in  the  Supreme  Couit  of  tiie 
Ignited  States  against  the  State  of  Illinois  and  tlie  Sanitary  District 
of  Ciiicago  to  prevent  the  discharge  of  Chicago  sewage  into  streams 
fui'nishing  the  water  supply  of  St.  Louis.  This  case  was  dismissed 
without  prejudice  after  being  in  court  more  than  six  years,  on  the 
ground  that  no  material  injury  to  St.  Louis  had  been  i)roved. 

23.  It  seems  clear  that  matters  conceniing  diversions  of  Great 
Lakes  waters,  where  such  diversions  affect  more  than  one  State  or 
more  than  one  nation,  can  be  handled  adecpiately  only  by  an  execu- 
tive body  of  the  Federal  Government. 

24.  Whether  the  method  of  disposal  chosen  by  the  ])e()ple  of  Chi- 
cago was  right  or  wrong,  a  condition  has  been  created  which  de- 
serves most  sorious  consideration  and  constructive  acti(jn.  The  fact 
mu.st  be  recognized  that  tlie  present  system  has  been  i)rovided  at 
great  expense,  most  of  which  is  covered  by  bonds  not  yet  retired, 
and  that  an  abandonment  of  tiiis  system  for  an  entirely  different  one 
wouhl  be  enormously  costly.  If  'the  growth  of  Chicago  continues 
at  jiast  rates,  the  present  canal  will  in  a  few  years  become  entirely 
inadequate   under  the   dilution   system.      It    will   then  be  necessary 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       67 

either  to  expand  the  j) resent  system  and  increase  the  diversion  or  to 
undertake  the  instalhition  of  sewaf,^e  treatment  works  which  will  at 
least  provide  that'  the  eilhient  does  not  exceed  in  volume  the  capacity 
of  the  present  canal.  It  is  time  that  these  matters  were  decided  upon, 
and  plans  for  the  future  worked  out. 

25.  Diversion  through  Bldcl' River  Canal. — The  Black  River  Canal 
here  considered  is  just  north  of  Port  Huron,  Mich.,  and  extends  from 
a  point  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Huron,  about  1^  miles  north  of 
the  foot  of  the  lake,  westward  about  one  mile  to  the  Black  Eiver. 
From  the  canal  junction  the  Black  River  flows  \\  miles  southerly 
through  Port  Huron  to  the  St.  Clair  River,  about  21  miles  below  the 
foot  of  Lake  Huron.  The  diversion  from  Lake  Huron  averages  400 
cubic  feet  per  second.  Its  use  is  in  flushing  out  Black  River,  which 
otherwise  becomes  stagnant  and  very  foul  and  ill  smelling.  The 
canal  was  constructed  by  the  city  of  Port  Huron  without  Federal 
permit.  Since  it  conducts  w^ater  around  the  rapids  at  the  head  of 
St.  Clair  River  it  exerts  a  lowering  influence  upon  the  level  of  Lake 
Huron  which  is  important  in  principle  though  entirely  negligible 
in  amount  up  to  the  present  time. 

26.  Diversion  through  Welland  Ca7ial. — The  Welland  Canal  is  in 
Canada,  5i  to  19  miles  west  of  the  Niagara  River.  It  is  2G|  miles 
long,  and  extends  from  Lake  Erie  at  Port  Colborne,  northward  to 
Lake  Ontario  at  Port  Dalhousie.  Its  total  drop  from  Lake  Erie  to 
Lake  Ontario  averages  32G.35  feet.  The  quantity  of  water  diverted 
through  it  from  Lake  Erie  is  approximately  4,500  cubic  feet  per 
second,  and  in  addition  it  receives  about  40  cubic  feet  per  second 
from  the  Grand  River,  a  tributary  of  Lake  Erie.  These  are  average 
figures,  which,  of  course,  are  exceeded  under  conditions  of  maximum 
diversions.  Of  these  diversions  approximately  900  cubic  feet  per 
second  on  the  average  the  year  around  are  used  for  navigation,  in- 
cluding lockage,  leakage,  and  waste.  Of  the  remainder  a  very  small 
amount  is  used  for  sanitary  purposes,  and  the  balance,  about  3,400 
cubic  feet  per  second,  for  power  development.  At  DeCev\"  Falls  there 
is  a  high  head  hydroelectric  plant  of  good  efficiency  which  has  leases 
for  the  continuous  use  of  1,160  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  but 
appears  to  use  about  2,100.  The  remainder  is  used  inefficiently  at  a 
large  number  of  small  developments,  mostly  along  the  line  of  the 
old  canal.  Diversion  from  the  Grand  River  began  in  1833.  Diver- 
sion direct  from  Lake  Erie  began  in  1881.  Since  that  time  the  di- 
version has  increased,  but  there  has  been  very  little  if  any  increase 
since  May  13,  1910,  the  date  on  which  the  boundary  Avaters  treaty 
was  proclaimed. 

27.  The  Welland  Canal  afi^ords  passage  between  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario  for  vessels  255  feet  long,  45  feet  beam,  and  14  feet  draft, 
Avith  ample  headroom  for  tall  spars.  It  is  wholly  under  Canadian 
control,  but  is  available  to  both  Canadian  and  United  States  vessels 
on  equal  terms.  The  only  other  waterway  connecting  these  lakes  is 
the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  which  is  restricted  to  12  feet  of 
depth  and  15^  feet  of  headroom,  and  affords  a  connection  204  miles 
long  from  Buffalo  to  Oswego  by  way  of  the  Erie  and  Oswego 
branches.  The  New  Welland  Canal,  under  construction,  will  afford 
a  AvaterAva^'  for  A'essels  800  feet  long,  80  feet  beam,  and  25  feet  draft. 
Its  operation  is  estimated  to  require  a  diA^ersion  of  about  2,000  cubic 
feet  per  second. 


68        DIVERSIOK   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

OS  Diversion  through  Black  Rock  Garwl.—l^he  Black  Rock  Canal 
is  at  Buffalo.  N.  Y.,  Avhere  it  provides  a  waterway  and  modern  lock 
adequate  for  the  largest  lake  freighters  to  overcome  the  swift  shallow 
rapids  at  the  head  of  Niairara  River.  The  diversion  into  it  from 
Lake  Erie  is  estimated  to^be  about  TOO  cubic  feet  per  second  of 
which  250  leaks  back  into  the  Niagara  River  through  the  dike,  400 
is  delivered  into  the  head  of  the  Old  Erie  Canal,  and  the  remainder 
is  consumed  in  lockage.  Until  1918  the  quantity  delivered  to  the 
Erie  Canal  at  Black  Rock  was  larger,  approximating  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  In  the  early  days  of  the  canal  water  power  was  de- 
veloped at  Black  Rock,  but  this  practice  was  discontinued  many 
years  a^ro.  The  400  cubic  feet  per  second  now  discharged  into  the 
Erie  Carnal  partially  flushes  out  of  the  portion  of  this  canal  between 
Buffalo  and  Tonawanda,  now  abandoned  for  navigation  purposes, 
the  sewage  discharged  into  it  at  Buffalo.  7     rr^i      xr 

29.  Diversion  through  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.— I  he  New 
York  State  Barge  Canal  system  is  an  improvement  of  the  old  Erie, 
OsweiTO,  Champlain,  and  "^Cayuga  and  Seneca  Canals.  It  extends 
from  Buffalo  to  Troy,  N.  Y.,  with  branches  to  Lake  Ontario  at 
Oswego,  Lake  Champlain,  Cayuga  Lake,  and  Seneca  Lake.  From 
the  Niagara  River  at  Tonawanda,  N.  Y.,  it  obtains  its  sole  water 
supply  for  the  western  end  to  a  point  east  of  Rochester.  The  canal 
system  was  opened  at  the  western  end  in  midsummer  of  1918.  To 
date  it  is  believed  the  diversion  has  lieen  somewhat  less  than  the  aver- 
age amount  assumed  to  be  required  ultimately,  namely,  1,237  cubic 
feet  per  second.  The  maximum  discharging;  capacity  of  the  portion 
of  the  canal  leading  from  Tonawanda  to  Lockport  varies  with  the 
stage  of  Lake  Erie  from  1.000  to  3,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  East  of 
Lockport  the  maximum  discharge  capacity  is  1,600  cubic  feet  per 
second.  As  constructed  the  canal  Avill  probably  require  a  diversion 
of  about  1,237  cubic  feet  per  second  for  navigation  purposes.  Inci- 
dentally a  portion  of  this  water  may  be  used  for  power  development 
at  Lockport  and  to  a  smaller  extent  elsewhere  along  the  canal, 
altliough  this  is  a  secondary  use,  the  same  water  being  required  for 
navigation  use  also. 

30.  Until  1918  the  Erie  Canal  diverted  water  from  Lake  Erie  at 
Buffalo.     This  is  a  diversion  of  very  long  standing,  dating  from  1825. 

31.  In  addition  to  the  diversion  for  navigation  uses  there  is  now 
being  diverted  through  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  from 
Niagara  River  approximately  500  cubic  feet  per  second  for  power 
development  at  Lockport  and  along  Eighteen  Mile  Creek  under  per- 
mits from  the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  New  York  State  superintend- 
ent of  puljlic  works. 

32.  It  is  an  interesting  matter,  important  in  principle,  though  un- 
imi)ortai)t  in  effect  up  to  the  present  time,  that  the  use  of  the  barge 
canal  causes  a  diversion  of  about  50  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second 
from  the  Mohawk  River  watershed  into  the  Great  Lakes  Basin  and 
a  diversion  of  about  35  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  eastern  head- 
waters of  the  Susquehanna  River  into  the  Great  Lakes  Basin. 

33.  Present  diversions  hy  fower  companies  at  Niagara  Falls. — The 
present  diversions  of  water  from  Niagara  River  at  Niagara  Falls  for 
power  development  are  approximately  as  given  in  Table  No.  2. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LiVKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       69 

Table  No.  2. — Water  diversion  from  Niagara  River  at  Niagara  Falls. 

United  States:  Cubic fpct 

Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.—  P'^'"  second. 

Niagara  plant 9.  459 

Hydraulic  plant 7,  840 

Pettebone  Cataract  Paper  Co 270 

Total 17,  560 

Canada : 

Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario,  Ontario  Power  Co. 

plant 13.200 

Toronto  Power  Co 12,  400 

Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co 9,  600 

International  Railway  Co 125 

Total -  33,325 

Grand  total 50,  885 

34.  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  has  under  construction  at  its 
hydraulic  plant  an  addition  which,  when  completed,  will  bring  the 
total  diversion  by  that  company  up  to  19,500  cubic  feet  per  second, 
with  capacity  for  using  at  least  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  more. 
The  Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario  has  under  con- 
struction an  extension  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  plant  which  will 
increase  the  diversion  of  that  plant  to  about  13,300  cubic  feet  per 
second.  The  commission  is  also  constructing  a  new  plant  to  utilize  a 
diversion  of  10,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  under  a  head  of 
300  feet.  All  the  other  plants  enumerated  generate  power  under  heads 
of  214  feet  or  less,  diverting  water  from  the  river  not  more  than  1^ 
miles  above  the  falls  and  returning  it  to  the  river  within  less  than 
a  mile  of  the  foot  of  the  falls.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  new  works 
provide  a  capacity  for  diversion  on  both  sides  in  excess  of  treaty  limits. 

35.  Diversions  through  St.  Lawrence  River  canals. — The  St.  Law- 
rence River  canals  above  St.  Regis  are  four  in  number,  and  are  all 
downstream  from  Prescott,  Ontario,  which  is  opposite  Ogdensburg, 
N.  Y.  In  order  downstream  they  are  the  Galop  Canal,  overcoming 
Galop  Rapids;  Morrisburg  Canal,  overcoming  Rapide  Plat;  Farran 
Point  Canal,  overcoming  a  small  rapids  of  the  same  name;  and  the 
Cornwall  Canal,  overcoming  the  Long  Sault  Rapids.  The  diversions 
are  small,  and  in  each  case  the  water  diverted  is  returned  to  the  river 
again  within  a  distance  of  11  miles  or  less  of  its  point  of  diversion. 
The  diversion  by  the  Galop  Canal  is  between  500  and  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  of  which,  on  the  average,  200  or  less  is  for  navigation  use 
and  the  remainder  for  power  development.  The  diversion  by  the 
Morrisburg  Canal  is  between  1,000  and  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second, 
of  which  possibly  200  is  required  for  navigation  use,  the  remainder 
being  utilized  in  power  development.  The  Farran  Point  Canal 
diverts  perhaps  50  cubic  feet  per  second,  all  for  navigation  use.  The 
diversion  by  the  Cornwall  Canal  is  about  3,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
of  which  possibly  300  is  required  for  navigation  purposes,  the  balance 
being  used  in  the  development  of  water  power. 

36.  These  canals  and  their  appurtenances  have  been  constructed, 
maintained,  and  operated  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada  without  any 
reference  to  or  complaint  from  the  United  States,  except  in  the  case 


70        DIVERSION    OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

of  the  Gut  Dam,  which  is  partly  in  United  States  territory;  and  in 
case  t)f  tlie  North  Channel,  whose  openin^^  it  was  at  one  time  feared 
would  ^"-reatly  lower  the  level  of  Lake  ()ntario.  These  canals  were 
built  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  navigation,  and  are  open  for  use 
ecpially  ])y  the  vessels  of  both  countries.  The  development  of  water 
power  along  these  canals  is  a  secondary  and  incidental  matter, 
although  much  of  the  water  is  now  diverted  solely  for  that  purpose. 

37.  iJicersioii  through  the  Masscna  Canal. — The  Massena  Canal 
is  on  the  I'nited  States  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  at  the  head 
of  the  Long  Sault  IJapids,  and  extends  about  3  miles  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  a  power  house  on  the  Grasse  River,  a  tributary  of  the 
St.  Lawrence.  There  is  a  head  of  about  43  feet  at  the  power  house, 
from  which  point  the  last  T  miles  of  the  Grasse  River  serves  as  a 
tailrace.  conducting  the  water  back  to  the  St.  Lawrence  at  a  point 
10|  miles  downstream  from  the  point  of  diversion.  The  quantity  of 
water  diverted  is  approximately  30,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This 
development  was  made  under  New  York  State  charters,  without 
Federal  license  or  permit,  except  for  minor  operations  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  first  requested  after  the  project  had  been  under 
construction  for  several  years,  and  without  any  reference  to  Canada 
until  very  recently.  The  development  is  now  controlled  through 
stock  ownership  by  the  Aluminum  Co.  of  America. 

38.  Mooter  power  at  W adding ton^  N.  Y. — At  the  Rapide  Plat  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  is  divided  into  two  channels  by  Ogden  Island. 
The  American  channel,  which  is  much  smaller  than  the  Canadian, 
is  said  originally  to  have  had  a  flow  of  approximately  2(5,000  cubic 
feet  per  second.  A  dam  was  built  across  this  channel  at  Wadding- 
ton,  N.  Y.,  more  than  100  years  ago.  No  Federal  permit  was  sought 
or  granted  for  this  construction,  or  reference  made  to  Canada.  The 
right  to  build  and  maintain  the  dam  was  granted  by  the  State  of 
New  York  in  1808,  the  purpose  being  to  imjn-ove  navigation  and 
develop  water  power.  In  1826  the  rights  conferred  were  made  per- 
petual, and  the  ownership  of  the  bed  of  Little  River  below  the  dam 
was  added  to  the  perpetual  rights  granted.  Apparently  no  ques- 
tion has  ever  been  raised  as  to  the  validity  of  this  grant,  although 
a  rather  similar  grant  by  the  State  of  New  York  in  1907  to  the  Long 
Sault  Development  Co.  of  portions  of  the  bed  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  in  New  York  State  was  held  to  be  unconstitutional  by  the 
State  courts,  the  decision  being  sustained  by  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court.  The  flow  through  Little  River  is  estimated  to  be 
3,000  to  4,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which  about  000  cubic  feet 
per  second  is  used  intermittently  and  inofliciently  in  the  development 
of  power.  A  project  is  being  framed  for  the  proposed  development 
of  power  at  Waddington  on  a  large  scale,  and  certain  of  the  ])lans 
have  been  jjresented  to  the  International  Joint  Commission  for  con- 
sideration. 

39.  UhxrHurna  of  Hfiei^. — The  only  remaining  direct  diversions  of 
water  from  the  Great  Lakes  System  of  sufficient  importance  to  be 
worthy  of  mention  are  the  diversions  of  cities  bordering  the  Great 
Lakes  and  outflow  rivers  for  water  supply  and  sewer  flushing.  The 
most  notable  example  of  flushing  is  at  Milwaukee,  where  nearly  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  water  ])er  second  is  ])umped  from  Lake  Michigan  to 
flush  sewage  from  three  rivers  in  that  city  out  into  Lake  Michigan. 
At  rhicago  the  pumpago  for  water  sujJjVly  fiom  Lake  Michigan  is 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       71 

1,050  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  Detroit  the  average  amount  pumped 
from  Detroit  River  is  225  cubic  feet  per  second,  while  at  BulFah)  the 
i^umpage  for  water  supply  from  Lake  P>ic  is  220  cubic  feet  per 
second.  At  Chicago  most  of  the  water  so  pumped  ultimately  paijses 
down  the  drainage  canal,  forming  part  of  the  diversion  measured 
at  Lockport.  At  every  other  city  on  the  Lakes  practically  all  the 
water  so  diverted  finds  its  way  back  within  a  few  miles  of  the  point 
of  diversion,  and  so  produces  only  a  trivial  effect  upon  lake  levels. 

40.  Diversions  from  tributaries  of  the  Great  Lakes. — The.  diver- 
sions enumerated  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  cover  all  the  im- 
portant direct  diversions  of  water  from  the  Cireat  Lakes  and  out- 
floAv  rivers,  including  the  diversion  of  the  Illinois  &  Michigan  Canal 
which  formerly  was  direct  and  now  is  indirect,  and  the  condition  at 
Waddington,  IS^.  Y.,  which  is  not  a  diversion,  but  a  closely  allied 
matter.  There  are  several  places  along  streams  naturally  tributary 
to  the  Great  Lakes  and  outflow  rivers  where  diversions  or  interfer- 
ences occur  which  affect  the  supply  of  water  to  the  Great  Lakes. 
Prominent  among  such  diversions  are :  the  Grand  River  in  Ontario,  a 
portion  of  whose  discharge  has  for  many  years  been  diverted  through 
the  Port  Maitland,  or  Dunnville,  feeder  into  the  Welland  Canal,  and 
so  into  Lake  Ontario,  Tonawanda  and  Ellicott  Creeks;  which  natu- 
rally discharged  into  Niagara  River,  diverted  into  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal,  and  so  ultimately  into  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego. 

41.  Supplies  from  adjacent  xoatersheds. — Mention  has  already  been 
made  of  the  fact  that  the  summit  level  water  supply  of  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal  is  so  arranged  that  the  Oneida  and  Oswego  Rivers, 
tributaries  of  Lake  Ontario,  receive  a  small  amount  of  water  from 
the  Mohawk  and  Susquehanna  watersheds.  A  similar  case  is  that 
of  the  Fox  River  in  Wisconsin,  a  tributary  of  Lake  Michigan,  which 
receives  during  high  water  a  small  amount  of  water  through  the  Fox 
River  Canal  from  Wisconsin  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Mississippi. 
Formerly  the  operation  of  the  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal  in  Ohio  caused  a 
small  diversion  from  the  Tuscarawas  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Ohio 
River,  into  Lake  Erie  at  Cleveland. 

42.  Other  canals  in  the  hasin. — Other  canals  which  now  cause  a  re- 
distribution of  water  between  adjacent  watersheds  in  the  Great  Lakes 
Basin  are  the  Trent  Canal,  in  Ontario,  between  Lake  Ontario  and 
Georgian  Bay,  and  Rideau  Canal,  in  Ontario,  between  Lake  Ontario 
and  the  Ottawa  River.  Abandoned  canals  which  formerly  caused 
such  redistribution  are  the  Shenango  Canal  in  Pennsylvania;  the 
•Chenango,  Chemung,  and  Genesee  Valley  Canals  in  New  York ;  and 
the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal  in  Ohio.  Proposed  canals  which  probably 
would  cause  such  redistribution  are  the  Lake  Erie  and  Ohio  River 
Canal,  the  Lake  Erie-Lake  Michigan  Canal,  and  the  Georgian  Bay 
ShiD  Canal. 

43.  Proposed  navigatio7i  canals.,  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontaiw. — Aside 
from  the  Welland  Canals,  and  the  proposed  Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitary 
Canal,  to  be  mentioned  hereafter,  the  proposed  routes  of  navigation 
connecting  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  have  contemplated  using  portions 
of  the  Niagara  River.  The  first  survey  for  such  a  canal  was  made 
in  1784.  Since  that  date  but  few  years  have  passed  without  agitation 
for  the  construction  of  such  a  canal,  and  many  surveys  and  estimates 
have  been  made.  The  most  recent  and  also  the  most  elaborate  and 
complete  survey  and  estimate  is  that  of  the  United  States  Board  of 


72       DR^RSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  Lu\.KES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 


Engineers  on  Deep  Waterways,  whose  report,  submitted  in  1900,  was 
published  as  House  of  Representatives  Document  No.  149,  Fifty-sixth 
Con^rress.  second  session.  This  board  surveyed  and  estimated  in 
detail  two  routes,  known  respectively  as  the  Tonawanda-Olcott  route 
and  the  La  Salle-Lewiston  route,  but  recommended  the  hitter  as  more 
economical  and  otherwise  preferable.  In  the  course  of  the  present 
investigation  a  careful  reconnaisance  was  made  of  both  routes,  and 
revisory  surveys  of  the  La  Salle-Lewiston  route  were  made  in  suffi- 
cient detail  to  bring  the  information  up  to  date. 

4-1-.  Improvement  of  the  Black  Rock  Canal,  including  construction 
of  the  new  lock  at  Black  Rock,  has  obviated  the  necessity  of  con- 
structing the  works  designed  by  the  board  for  the  head  of  Niagara 
River.  The  artificial  portion  of  the  route  extending  from  La  Salle 
to  Lewiston  has  been  redesigned  with  more  liberal  dimensions,  and 
an  estimate  of  the  cost  has  been  prepared  based  on  present-day  prices. 
In  a  later  portion  of  the  report  this  canal  is  considered  in  relation 
to  its  combination  with  a  project  for  the  development  of  water  power. 

4.5.  In  Section  A  of  Appendix  A  the  matter  of  a  ship  canal  between 
Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  is  treated  at  considerable  length  for 
two  reasons:  First,  to  comply  with  instructions  contained  in  depart- 
ment letters  dated  August  4,\916  (E.  D.  42608)  ;  September  29,  1916 
(E.  D.  101152)  ;  and  April  28,  1917  (E.  D.  106256),  which  cover  the 
preliminary  examination  on  "  waterway  or  ship  channel  along  the 
most  practicable  route  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  of  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  admit  the  largest  vessels  now  in  use  on  the  Great 
Lakes,"  ordered  by  Congress  in  the  river  and  harbor  act  of  July  27, 
1916,  which  exammation  and  report  were  originally  directed  by  the 
department  to  be  included  in  the  investigation  reported  herein  but 
are  now  made  the  subject  of  a  separate  report  and,  second,  to  comply 
with  department  instructions  that  such  a  canal  should  be  treated  in 
this  report  with  special  reference  to  the  practicability  and  advis- 
ability of  making  it  a  combined  power  and  ship  canal. 

46.  For  a  ship  canal  Avithout  power  development  the  estimated 
costs  are  as  given  in  Table  No.  3 : 

Table  No.  3. — Estimated  cost  of  ship  canal,  La  Salle-Le^ciston  route. 


Size  of  prism. 


200  feet  wide,  25  feet  deep . 
200  feet  wide,  30  feet  deep . 
300 feet  wide,  30  feet  deep. 


Size  of  locks. 


6r>0  feet  long,  70  feet  wide,  25  feet  deep. 
800  feet  long,  80  feet  wide,  30  feet  deep. 
do 


Cost. 


$120,000,000 
135,000,000 
156,662,000 


47.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  new  Welland  Ship  Canal,  only 
a  few  miles  distant,  which  is  now  ])artially  completed,  and  which  no 
doubt  will  be  open  before  a  canal  in  the  United  States  could  be  con- 
structed, will  be  able  to  care  for  all  the  traffic  likely  to  exist  between 
Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  for  many  years  to  come,  and  that 
accordingly  there  is  no  necessity  for  an  additional  canal.  Moreover, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  communication  between  Lake  Ontario 
and  the  seaboard  is  still  limited  by  the  St.  Lawrence  canals  and 
the  shallow  places  in  St.  Lawrence'  River.  The  present  commerce 
through  the  Welland  Canal  is  only  about  5  per  cent  as  large  as  that 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  L..VKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       73 

throufch  the  Detroit  River,  and  of  this  small  amount  not  more  than 
10  per  cent  is  United  States  commerce. 

48.  The  diversion  of  water  from  Niagara  River  for  navigation  use 
in  a  canal  extending  from  La  Salle  to  Lewiston,  would  probably  be 
less  than  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

49.  Proposed  canals,  Lake  Ontario  to  Hudson  River. — Four  water 
routes  from  Lake  Ontario  to  the  sea  have  in  the  past  received  con- 
sideration. These  are  shown  on  Plate  No.  12.  One  of  them  is  the 
natural  route  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  other  three 
are  by  way  of  the  Hudson  River.  Of  the  routes  to  the  Hudson,  one 
follows  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  St.  Louis,  an  artificial  canal  from 
there  to  the  Richelieu  River,  then  up  to  the  Richelieu,  through  Lake 
Champlain,  and  by  Woods  Creek  and  Bond  Creek  to  the  Hudson; 
another  follows  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  St.  Francis,  an  artificial 
canal  from  there  to  Lake  Champlain,  and  on  to  the  Hudson  as  be- 
fore; and  the  third  leaves  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego,  following  the 
Oswego  and  Oneida  Rivers  to  Oneida  Lake,  across  the  divide  in  an 
artificial  canal,  and  on  down  the  Mohawk  River  to  the  Hudson. 
Only  the  last  route  lies  entirely  in  United  States  territory. 

50.  The  Oswego-Mohawk  route  was  first  surveyed  for  improve- 
ment in  1791.  In  1829,  upon  opening  the  Oswego  Canal,  this  route 
became  navigable,  the  Erie  Canal  along  the  Mohawk  River  having 
been  opened  previously.  This  route  was  carefully  surveyed  by  the 
Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  Waterways,  and  its  estimate  of  cost  for 
a  ship  canal  was  presentecl  in  the  report  of  1900.  The  route  was 
recommended  by  the  board  in  preference  to  the  route  via  St.  Law- 
rence River  to  Lake  St.  Francis,  Lake  St.  Francis  to  Lake  Cham- 
plain via  artificial  canal,  etc.,  which  route  was  also  carefully  sur- 
veyed by  the  board,  similar  estimates  being  prepared.  The  build- 
ing of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  along  the  Oswego-Mohawk 
route  has  made  the  construction  of  this  ship  canal  as  planned  impos- 
sible, and  has  rendered  very  difficult  the  provision  of  an  adequate 
water  supply  for  the  summit  level  of  any  ship  canal  built  along  this 
route. 

51.  Any  diversion  of  water  brought  about  by  the  operation  of 
such  a  canal  would  amount  solely  to  a  redistribution  of  the  water  at 
the  summit  level  between  the  adjacent  watersheds  of  the  Hudson 
River  and  the  Great  Lakes  Basin. 

52.  Long  Sault  Rapids  project. — A  project  to  dam  the  entire  St. 
Lawrence  River  at  the  foot  of  Long  Sault  Rapids  was  seriously  con- 
sidered during  the  years  1907  to  1916.  The  scheme  was  primarily  one 
of  power  development  under  a  head  of  40  feet,  and  secondarily  of 
improvement  to  navigation  under  the  slack- water  system.  For  this 
purpose  the  Long  Sault  Development  Co.,  a  subsidiary  of  the  Alumi- 
num Co.  of  America,  was  incorporated  in  New  York  State  in  1907. 
In  1913  the  State  repealed  the  act  of  incorporation  as  unconstitu- 
tional, the  decision  being  upheld  in  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
in  1916.  Congressional  authority  for  the  development  was  sought 
from  1907  to  1912.  but  without  success.  Unsuccessful  attempts  were 
also  made  to  secure  authority  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

53.  Erie  <&  Ontano  Sanitary  Canal  project. — The  project  of  the 
Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  Co.  involves  a  diversion  of  26,000 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  from  Lake  Erie,  with  which  it  is 
proposed  to  develop  800,000  horsepower.    About  21,000  cubic  feet  per 


4  4        DH'ERSIOX   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  A:!SrD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

second  of  this  is  to  pass  through  the  main  ship,  sanitary,  and  power 
canal,  Avliich  is  phinned  to  be  40  miles  long,  exclusive  of  the  harbors, 
extending  from  Seneca  Shoal,  in  Lake  Erie,  passing  south  and  east 
of  Buffalo  and  Lackawanna,  west  of  Lockport,  and  reaching  Lake 
Ontario  at  Olcott.  X.  Y.  There  is  to  be  a  ship  lock  having  an  8-foot 
lift  at  Lake  Erie  and  two  enormous  twin  lift  locks  near  Lockport, 
X.  v.,  one  of  209  feet  lift  and  the  other  of  104  feet  lift.  A  branch 
canal  following  the  line  of  the  old  Erie  Canal  from  Black  Rock  to 
Touawanda,  and  extending  thence  easterly  to  its  junction  with  the 
main  canal,  is  to  be  13^  miles  long  and  carry  a  discharge  of  5,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  dej)th  of  the  main  canal  is  to  be  30  feet 
and  of  the  branch  canal  12  feet. 

54.  The  project  of  the  company  is  threefold :  First  to  provide  a 
ship  canal  of  ample  dimensions  connecting  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario, 
whose  control  for  navigation  uses  will  be  turned  over  to  the  Federal 
Government  without  charge;  second,  to  prevent  contamination  of 
the  X'^iagara  River  with  sewage  from  Buffalo  and  the  Tonawandas 
and  eliminate  flood  conditions  from  Buffalo  River  by  providing 
drainage  into  the  new  canal  free  of  charge;  and,  third,  to  utilize 
under  a  high  head  for  power  development  all  the  water  permitted  by 
treaty  to  be  diverted  from  X'iagara  River  for  power  purposes,  there- 
by earning  a  revenue  sufficient  to  pay  for  and  maintain  the  works,  and 
provide  a  large  amount  of  power  in  the  district.  Of  the  26.000  cubic 
feet  per  second  diversion,  6.000  is  considered  by  this  comi)any  to  be  a 
permissible  divei"sion  for  sanitary  purposes.  The  other  20.000  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  present  permittees,  namely  19,500  from  the  X'iagara 
Falls  Power  Co.  and  500  from  the  Hydraulic  Race  Co.  of  Lockport, 
X.  Y.  These  companies  are  to  be  compensated  for  loss  of  water 
either  by  being  sup]died  with  an  amount  of  power  equal  to  that  now 
produced,  or  their  properties  are  to  be  condemned  and  purchased. 

55.  As  a  navigation  project,  assuming  that  provision  for  such  navi- 
gation is  essential,  the  proposition  is  open  to  two  fatal  objections: 
First,  the  route  crosses  every  railroad  and  road  entering  Buffalo  from 
the  east,  south,  and  west,  some  83  or  more  altogether,  requiring  about 
70  moval)le  bridges,  and  the  consequent  obstruction  to  traffic  would 
be  enormous :  second,  a  better  and  much  cheaper  canal  can  be  pro- 
vided along  the  La  Salle-Lewiston  route.  There  are  four  other  seri- 
ous objections.  The  first  of  these  is  the  lowering  of  Lake  Erie  of 
1.18  feet  at  mean  stage,  which  would  be  caused  by  this  direct  diver- 
sion. This  lowering  could  be  ])re vented  at  considerable  ex|)ense  by 
the  construction  of  remedial  works.  The  second  is  the  j^roduction  of 
excessive  currents  in  the  Black  Rock  Shij)  Canal,  and  the  third  is 
the  unduly  narrow  canal  section  provided  in  earth  cut.  Both  these 
objections  could  be  overcome  by  canal  enlargements,  which  would  be 
very  costly.  The  fourth  is  the  diflicult  and  dangerous  crossing  at 
grade  of  the  X'^ew  York  State  Barge  Canal.  'J'his  objection  could 
probably  be  overcome  also  at  great  exi)ense  by  the  use  of  locics  and 
syphons  or  by  excavation  and  maintenance  of  a  large  basin  at  the 
crossing. 

5C).  As  regards  the  sanitary  features  of  the  project,  they  seem 
both  urii'cononiical  and  to  some  extent  undesirable.  The  matter  was 
carefullv  investigated  by  the  International  »Toint  Commission,  Avhich 
rejjorted  that  the  canal  would  be  highly  objectionable  and  dangerous 
from  a  sanitary  standjioint  if  raw  sewage  were  discharged  into  it, 


.DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   (iJlEAT  1.AKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       75 

and  that  the  expense  and  extent  of  treatment  of  sewage  from  Buffalo 
and  other  communities  ah)no-  Niagara  Kiver  Avouhl  be  greater  to  pre- 
pare the  sewage  for  discharge  into  the  canal  than  to  prepare  it  for 
discharge  into  Niagara  Eiver.  The  report  of  the  commission  was 
udverse^and  highly  unfavorable  to  the  canal.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded by  sanitarians  that  water  supplies  from  such  streams  as  the 
Niagara  River  must  be  purified  in  any  event,  and  money  is  more 
wisely  expended  in  purifying  intensively  the  relatively  small  (pian- 
tity  of  water  diverted  for  water  supply  than  in  attempting  to  i)re- 
vent  completely  the  discharge  of  impurities  into  the  stream,  although 
nuisances  and  gross  pollution  should  be  prohibited. 

57.  In  regard  to  the  power  development  features  of  this  project 
there  seems  to  be  no  insu])erable  obstacle  to  the  development  of  about 
787,000  horsepower,  an  amount  slightly  less  than  the  stated  800,000, 
in  the  summer  time.  The  probability  of  serious  difficulties  with  ice 
in  wintertime  seems  very  great,  because  of  the  enormous  quantities 
of  ice  Avhich  usually  pile  up  in  windrows  at  the  eastern  end  of  Lake 
Erie.  The  only  estimate  of  cost  of  the  project  submitted  by  the  com- 
pany is  based  on  prewar  conditions  and  prices,  and  is  obviously  very 
much  too  small.  It  is  $95,969,000.  An  estimate  comparable  to  other 
estimates  of  power  development  propositions  given  in  this  report 
has  been  prepared,  the  total  amount  being  $401,760,000.  On  this 
basis  the  cost  per  horsepower  of  development  would  be  $510.50.  It  is 
further  estimated  that  the  cost  of  producing  power  on  the  bus  bars 
in  the  power  stations  would  be  at  least  $65  per  horsepower  per  annum, 
as  against  $10  to  $16  in  the  new  plans  proposed  to  be  constructed  at 
Niagara  Falls. 

58.  Preservation  of  scenic  heauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  rapids 
of  Niagara  River. — The  Falls  of  Niagara,  with  the  rapids  and  whirl- 
pool in  the  gorge,  constitute  what  is  probably  the  most  famous  scenic 
marvel  in  the  world.  Officials  of  the  New  York  State  reservation 
at  Niagara  Falls  estimate  the  number  of  spectators  annually  at  one 
and  one-half  million  persons,  many  of  wdiom  come  from  great  dis- 
tances. The  total  expenditure  per  annum  of  these  tourists  is  esti- 
mated at  $37,000,000.  The  destruction  or  serious  defacement  of  the 
spectacle  or  any  part  of  it  for  power  development  or  commercializa- 
tion of  any  kind  would,  and  should  beyond  doubt,  be  held  almost 
universally  to  be  intoleralile  vandalism. 

59.  The  prohlem  of  Niagara  Falls. — There  is  much  to  be  said,  how- 
ever, in  favor  of  Niagara  power  and  its  great  benefits  to  the  TTnited 
States,  and  to  the  world.  The  development  already  existing  made  pos- 
sible the  growth  in  this  country  of  chemical  industries  so  important 
that  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  they  could  possibly  be  dispensed  with. 
It  might  almost  be  said  that  the  war  could  not  have  been  won  with- 
out them.  It  is  true  also  that  the  great  hydroelectric  developments 
now'  existing  at  Niagara  Falls  furnish  a  spectacle  of  beauty,  grand- 
eur, and  sublimity  almost  rivaling  the  Falls  and  rapids  themselves. 
The  problem  is  to  develop  a  policy  which  will  insure  preservation  of 
the  natural  scenery  in  so  far  as  justifiable,  and  at  the  same  time  har- 
monize if  possible  Avith  present  power  development  and  future  indus- 
trial needs.  At  first  glance  it  would  seem  that  no  harmony  was  pos- 
•sible,  that  power  development  must  give  way  to  scenic  preservation. 
A  careful  study  of  all  the  facts  makes  it  clear  that  this  is  not  the 
case;  that  the  utmost  harmony  can  readily  be  made  to  prevail  be- 


76        DR'EKSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  KIVER. 

tween  the  two  apparently  conflicting  interests,  and,  strano:e  as  it  may 
at  first  seem,  that  the  scenic  preservation  may  be  promoted  by  a 
further  development  of  power,  with  its  great  enhancement  of  com- 
mercial advantages. 

GO.  Character  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls. — This  very  satisfactory  con- 
dition arises  because  of  the  peculiar  character  and  growth  of  the 
Horseshoe  Falls.  AVhile  this  falls  discharges  16  times  as  much  water 
as  the  American  Falls,  and  has  a  crest  line  2.6  times  as  long,  j'^et  it  is 
often  held  to  be  inferior  as  a  spectacle  to  the  lesser  American  Falls. 
It  would  seem  then  that  for  some  reason  its  production  represented 
waste  and  inefficienc5^  An  analysis  of  the  situation  makes  the  rea- 
sons apparent.  The  crest  line  forms  a  deep  curve  which  makes  it 
impossible  to  see  more  than  about  half  of  the  falls  at  a  time,  except 
from  one  viewpoint  in  Canada.  In  the  central  1,000  feet  of  the  crest 
line,  situated  deep  in  the  curve,  more  than  80  per  cent  of  the  flow  over 
this  falls  plunges  down  over  the  cliff  behind  a  thick  cloud  of  mist. 
This  part  of  the  waterfall  is  seldom  more  than  partially  visible,  and 
then  only  under  favorable  conditions  of  wind  which  blows  the  spray 
to  one  side.  It  seems  to  be  a  fact  that  perhaps  more  than  half  of  the 
water  flowing  over  this  cataract  adds  nothing  at  all  to  the  grandeur, 
unless  it  be  somewhat  in  the  form  of  noise,  while  it  greatly  injures 
the  scenic  effect  by  causing  a  cloud  of  spray  which  hides  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  falls  almost  perpetually.  Meanwhile  the  ends  of  the  crest 
line  are  never  M^ell  covered  with  water,  and  frequently  are  bare,  leav- 
ing them  very  unattractive  in  appearance. 

61.  Erosion  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls. — Not  onh'^  does  the  present 
great  concentration  of  water  in  the  apex  of  the  deep  notch  in  the 
crest  line  of  Horseshoe  Falls  represent  an  absolute  loss  both  to  power 
development  and  to  scenery,  but  it  forms  a  very  destructive  agent, 
eroding  the  crest  line  at  its  point  of  greatest  recession  at  the  rate  of 
5  feet  a  year.  The  recession  causes  a  greater  concentration  of  flow, 
and  the  greater  concentration,  in  turn,  more  rapid  and  more  con- 
centrated recession.  It  has  been  remarked  aptly  that  the  Horse- 
shoe Falls  is  "  committing  suicide."  Not  only  is  this  a  fact,  but 
furtiiermore,  it  seems  inevitable  that  if  this  destructive  erosion  re- 
mains unchecked  the  crest  will,  in  a  very  few  hundred  years,  have 
receded  to  a  point  where  it  will  receive  the  water  now  flowing  to  the 
American  Falls,  thus  utterly  destroying  this  beautiful  spectacle, 
probably  the  best  single  feature  of  all  the  scenic  wonders  in  the  lo- 
calit3^ 

62.  Horseshoe  Falls  remedial  workf^. — The  remedy  is  to  construct 
a  submerged  dam  or  weir  in  the  center  of  the  rapids  just  above 
the  crest  of  Horseshoe  Falls.  This  would  spread  the  water  from 
tiie  center  of  the  falls  toward  the  ends.  Even  then  it  would  be  ad- 
vantageous, both  to  the  spectacle  and  in  checking  erosion,  to  divert 
more  water  aroimd  the  falls;  and  this  would  be  available  for  generat- 
ing power.  The  construction  would  be  unusual  and  diflicult,  but 
it  is  simple  in  principle  and  there  appears  no  reason  why  it  is  not 
pi'articable.  or  why  it  woidd  not  be  reasonably  low  in  cost.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  works  should  not  be  designed  until  mon^  thorough 
surveys  have  been  executed,  and  extensive  experiments  made  on 
large  models. 

G.'i.  It  is  confidently  believed  that  the  works  as  proposed  would 
greatly  reduce  erosion  of  the  crest  line,  increase  the  beauty  of  the 


AVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       77 

spectacle,  and  at  the  same  time  permit  increased  diversion  for  power 
production.  A  submerged  weir  or  dam  Avas  first  proposed  in  1906, 
and  the  idea  was  presented  to  Congress  in  1908  in  Senate  Document 
No.  105,  Sixty-second  Congress,  First  session,  page  15,  as  follows: — 

The  dam,  if  properly  planned,  would  serve  to  change  the  direction  of  the 
flow,  so  as  to  increase  the  streams  that  feed  the  Falls  at  Terrapin  Point  and 
at  the  Canadian  shore.  The  decrease  in  the  mighty  vohinie  that  overflows 
the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe  would  not  he  nrticeahle.  If  built,  Canada  and  the 
United  States  should  do  the  actual  work  under  some  form  of  international 
agreement.  A  very  direct  result  of  the  construction  of  this  submerged  dam 
would  be  a  diminution  in  the  rate  of  recession  of  the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe. 
This  in  itself  is  extremely  desirable. 

64.  American  Falls  remedial  uwrks. — It  is  desirable  that  the  flow 
over  the  American  Falls  be  increased  slightly,  especially  if  further 
diversions  of  water  from  Niagara  River  above  the  Falls  are  made. 
The  only  remedial  works  required  for  this  purpose  consist  of  loose 
rock  dumped  on  the  bottom  of  the  river  above  Goat  Island  and  the 
first  cascade.  This  dump  is  already  partially  constructed,  and  it  is 
believed  would  be  completed  by  the  power  companies  without  expense 
to  the  Government,  with  spoil  excavated  from  such  new  power  de- 
velopment works  as  may  be  constructed  later, 

65.  Present  effects  of  diversions  on  the  Falls  and  rapids. — It  is  in- 
disputable that  the  present  diversions  of -water  from  Niagara  Eiver 
for  power  development  purposes  have  had  some  detrimental  effect 
on  the  Falls,  and  on  the  depths  of  water  in  Niagara  River  and  Lake 
Erie.  This  has  been  demonstrated  as  a  scientific  certainty.  The 
only  distinctly  visible  effects,  however,  are  at  the  ends  of  the  crest 
of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  and  even  there  they  are  masked  by  the  effects 
due  to  recession  of  the  apex  of  the  crest  line,  and  by  changes  in 
stage  of  Lake  Erie.  Statements  as  to  the  changed  appearance  of 
the  Falls  are  sometimes  made  by  persons  whose  utterances  carry 
weight,  either  to  show  that  present  diversions  have  greatly  injured 
the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls,  or  asserting  the  contrary.  The  mere 
fact  of  these  contradictions  point  to  error.  As  a  matter  of  fact  few 
if  any  of  these  observers  have  taken  into  account  the  changes  in 
stage  of  Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo,  largely  due  to  wind,  which  cause  the 
volume  of  flow  over  the  Falls  to  change  from  hour  to  hour,  day  to 
day,  and  year  to  year.  Such  an  observer  might  well  have  seen  the 
Falls  on  two  occasions,  on  one  of  which  the  volume  of  flow  due  to  lake 
stage  was  twice  what  it  was  on  the  other  occasion.  Such  statements 
have  no  significance  if  unaccompanied  by  data  as  to  the  prevailing 
stages  of  water.  These  matters  are  brought  out  in  Section  E — 1,  Ap- 
pendix C,  where  many  photographs  illustrative  of  the  facts  are  pre- 
sented. The  injury  already  done,  which  is  not  extensive,  would 
be  repaired  by  the  proposed  remedial  works.  The  effects  of  diversion 
on  the  Whirlpool  and  Lower  Rapids  are  beneficial  up_  to  a  certain 
point,  the  spectacle  being  greatest  at  moderately  low  river  stages. 

66.  Allowable  diversion  around  the  Falls  and  rajnds. — If  the 
remedial  works  whose  design  has  been  outlined  above  are  provided, 
it  is  believed  a  total  diversion  of  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  may  be 
made  around  the  Falls,  and  40,000  around  the  Whirlpool  and  Lower 
Rapids  without  injury  to  the  scenic  beauty,  and  without  endanger- 
ing the  ice  discharging  capacity  of  the  Falls  or  rapids,  these  diver- 
sions to  be  divided  equally  between  Canada  and  the  United  States. 


78        DH'ERSIOX   OF  AVATEE  FROM    GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

After  these  diversions  have  been  effected  it  is  quite  possible  that  ob- 
servation will  show  that  further  diversion  is  permissible,  especially 
should  the  possibilitv  of  utilizing  further  diversions  at  medium  or 
high  stage  only  be  considered. 

G7.  The  (juantities  stated  in  the  preceding  paragraph  were  arrived 
at  after  considerable  stud}',  as  related  in  Appendix  C.  The  effects 
at  low-water  .stages  are  the  critical  considerations.  Under  the  very 
infrequent  condition  when  the  total  river  flow  is  130,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  the  flow  over  the  Falls  would  be  50,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  of  which  5,000  Avould  pass  over  the  American  Falls.  The 
flow  over  the  Horseshoe  Falls  would  then  be  about  twice  as  large  per 
foot  of  crest  line  as  the  flow  over  the  American  Falls  under  average 
conditions,  and  more  than  three  times  as  large  as  during  this  very 
abnonnal  low-water  condition.  The  45,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
flowing  down  the  rapids  above  Horseshoe  Falls  would  provide  50 
per  cent  more  water  per  foot  of  width  of  channel  than  past  experi- 
ence has  shown  necessary  in  the  American  channel  leading  to  the 
American  Falls  for  the  prevention  of  ice  jams.  The  possibility  of 
dangerous  ice  jams  forming  in  the  AMiirlpool  Ifapids  or  Lower 
Kapids  appears  much  greater  than  in  the  rapids  above  the  Falls.  It 
is  important  also  that  the  scenic  beauty  should  not  be  injured  at  very 
low  stages.  A  careful  study  of  photographs,  proliles,  gauge  records, 
and  other  evidence  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  diversions  around 
these  raj^ids  should  be  limited  to  40.000  cubic  feet  per  second  until 
the  effects  of  this  diversion  can  be  observed. 

(J8.  Propoisltlons  for  ^itUismg  divei'sioiu  with  greater  economy. — It  is 
in  the  realm  of  power  development  that  great  opportunities  lie  for  the 
more  economical  use  of  water  diverted  from  the  (ireat  Lakes,  and  these 
opportunities  are  greatest,  and  of  most  importance  at  Niagara  Falls. 
Of  the  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  permitted  by  treaty  to  be  diverted 
from  Niagara  River  on  the  United  States  side  above  the  Fails,  500  is 
now  allotted  to  the  Hydraulic  Race  Co.,  of  Lockport,  and  19,500  to 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  of  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.  The  500  cubic 
feet  per  second  delivered  to  Lockport  is  used  inelHcientiy  and  inter- 
mittently. As  yet  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  does  not  use  all  of 
its  allotted  water  and  of  that  a  part  is  not  yet  utilized  efficiently.  On 
the  average  about  17,290  cubic  feet  per  second  are  used  to  develop 
245,0(J0  horsepower.  This  company  is  now  extending  its  plant  under 
authority  of  tlie  department,  and  in  partial  compliance  with  recom- 
mendations embodied  in  the  interim  report  of  March  2,  1918.  This 
extension  will  contain  three  large,  modern  generating  units  of 
highest  efficiency,  totaling  100,000  horsepower,  and  will  make  pos- 
sible use  of  the  full  19,500  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  and  greatly 
impi-ove  the  efficiency  of  the  plant  as  a  whole.  The  head  used  is 
that  between  the  ( "lii|)pawa-(irass  Island  pool,  above  the  Falls,  and 
the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool,  dii-ectly  below  the  Falls.  With  a  further 
extension  of  the  i)laut  operating  under  this  head,  and  another  ex- 
tension covering  the  head  of  ^^'hiJ•lpool  and  Lower  Rapids,  this  di- 
version of  19,500  cubic  feet  per  second  can  be  made  to  produce  a 
total  of  about  580,000  horsepower. 

09.  On  the  Canadian  side  a  diversion  of  3G,00()  cubic  feet  per 
second  for  jjower  d('V('l()i)ment  is  allowed  by  treaty.  At  present  it 
is  estiniat_ed  that  33,325  cubic  f(>et  per  .second  are  diverted  i)roduc- 
ing  388,570  horsepower,  which  indicates  a  poor  average  efficiency. 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       79 

70.  It  is  to  be  recognized  that  in  the  matter  of  determining 
methods  for  securing  greater  economy  and  efficiency  of  water  diver- 
sions, Congress  has  indicated  no  apparent  intention  of  delegating 
decision  to  the  Chief  of  Engineers  or  the  Secretary  of  War,  hut  has 
provided  in  pending  legishition  for  a  special  Federal  Power  Com- 
mission to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  these  matters.  Study  of  methods 
is  however  understood  to  be  called  for  in  this  report. 

71.  Several  schemes  for  further  development  or  improvement  of 
present  plants  at  Xingara  Falls  have  been  worked  out  in  con- 
siderable detail  during  the  course  of  this  investigation.  They  are 
presented  more  fully  in  Section  F,  Appendix  D,  together  with  out- 
line plans  and  estimates.  What  seemed  to  be  the  best  ideas  and 
suggestions,  from  whatever  source,  were  utilized.  More  than  20 
other  projects  which  were  presented  were  examined  carefully.  Data 
for  these  studies  were  obtained  largely  from  surveys  for  this  inves- 
tigation and  partly  from  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  and  other 
sources. 

72.  The  fundamental  assumptions  as  to  the  general  character 
of  all  the  preliminary  desigiis  and  estimates  are  set  forth  in  Ap- 
pendix D.  There  also  are  given  the  unit  costs  adopted,  which 
were  arrived  at  with  special  care.  The  matter  of  economic  sizes  of 
principal  parts  of  the  projects  was  given  due  consideration.  It  is 
important  to  note  that  such  power  developments  will  now  cost  prob- 
ably more  than  tw^ice  what  they  would  have  cost  under  the  market 
conditions  of  10  years  ago. 

73.  Single-stage  and  two-stage  'projects. — The  most  general  divi- 
sion of  proposed  water-power  clevelo])ments  at  Niagara  Falls  is  into 
single-stage  and  two-stage  projects.  The  former  contemplates  using- 
the  water  under  a  single  head  of  about  310  feet,  with  the  generating 
machinery  all  in  one  station.  The  latter  provides  for  dividing  the 
total  head  into  two  parts  at  about  the  level  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist 
Pool,  using  the  water  first  in  one  station  at  the  side  of  this  pool 
under  a  head  of  about  220  feet,  and  then  again  under  a  head  of  about 
90  feet  in  a  second  station  situated  well  down  in  the  Lower  Gorge 
toward  Lewiston,  A  few  remarks  regarding  the  relative  merits 
of  the  two  schemes  will  be  presented  farther  on. 

74.  Proposed  plant  using  entire  diversion  and  total  head. — Three 
types  of  installation  for  utilizing  in  a  single  stage  the  entire  diver- 
sion and  total  head  have  been  considered.  The  first  provides  for 
a  power  house  somewhere  on  the  upper  river  with  water  wheels  in 
a  deep  pit,  the  discharge  from  the  Avheels  passing  to  the  lower  river 
through  a  tailrace  tunnel.  The  second  calls  for  an  intake  on  the 
upper  river  and  a  tunnel  from  it  to  a  power  house  in  the  gorge  of 
the  lower  river.  The  third  is  similar  to  the  second,  except  that  the 
tunnel  is  replaced  b}^  an  open  canal.  Plans  providing  a  combination 
of  these  ideas  are  possible,  but  seem  to  offer  no  advantages. 

75.  Tailrace  tunnel  proposition. — In  such  a  project  the  most  eco- 
nomical location  places  the  intake  and  power  house  in  Upper  Niagara 
River  on  or  near  the  shoal  just  upstream  from  Grass  Island,  and  the 
tunnel  outfall  in  the  Lower  Rapids,  not  far  downstream  from  the 
Devils  Hole.  The  location  is  shown  on  Plate  No.  33,  and  certain  gen- 
eral outlines  of  the  design  on  Plate  No.  34.  A  summary  of  the  esti- 
mate appears  in  Appendix  D.  The  total  estimated  construction  cost, 
on  the  assumptions  previously  noted,  is  $52,220,000.     The  estimated 


80        DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

total  power  output  is  584,000  horsepower,  making  the  estimated  con- 
fitruction  cost  $89.40  per  horsepower.  The  estimated  time  of  devel- 
opment is  three  years  for  first  power  and  five  years  for  completion. 

76.  Pressure  tunnel  proposition. — The  economic  location  of  this 
project  is  much  tlie  same  as  that  of  the  tailrace  tunnel  proposition, 
the  intake  being  on  Grass  Island  Shoal  and  the  power  house  in  the 
Lower  Gorge  below  Riverdale  Cemetery.  The  general  plan  is  shown 
on  Plate  No.  33  and  outline  details  on  Plates  Nos.  35,  3G,  and  37. 
The  total  horsepower  developable  by  this  plant  at  mean  stage  with 
20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  would  be  about  588,000  horsepower.  The 
estimated  cost  is  $50,803,000,  or  $86.40  per  horsepower. 

77.  Power  canal  proposition. — A  thorough  study  of  possible  routes 
for  a  power  canal  led  to  the  selection  of  the  one  indicated  on  Plate 
!No.  39  as  the  most  economical.  It  extends  from  an  intake  just  south 
of  Conners  Island  to  Riverdale  Cemetery,  just  above  Fish  Creek. 
A  heavy  concrete  ice  diverter  is  provided  across  the  canal  entrance. 
The  power  house  in  the  gorge  is  nearlv  identical  with  that  of  the 
pressure  tunnel  proposition.  The  estimated  total  horsepower  is 
591,000,  and  estimated  cost  $43,579,000,  making  the  estimated  cost 
per  horsepower  $73.70. 

78.  Compai'ison  of  preceding  projects. — The  above-given  estimates 
show  the  first  cost  of  the  canal  proposition  lower  than  either  tunnel 
proposition.  The  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance  would  be 
greater,  but  upon  the  assumptions  in  the  estimates,  not  enough  to 
overbalance  the  difference  in  fixed  charges.  The  Tailrace  Tunnel 
plan  has  several  inherent  disadvantages  which  make  it  of  very  doubt- 
ful advisability.  These  are  tlie  expected  presence  of  considerable 
ground  water  in  the  low-level  tunnel  during  construction,  the  diffi- 
culty of  unwatering  the  tunnel  in  case  of  accident  or  needed  repairs, 
and  the  difficulty  of  regulating  surges  in  the  tunnel.  The  most  im- 
portant objection  to  the  Pressure  Tunnel  plan  is  that  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  shut  down  the  entire  plant  for  a  short  time  and  drain  the 
tunnel  in  order  to  repair  or  remove  obstructions  from  the  penstock 
valves.  This  difficulty  is  not  regarded  as  controlling;  it  could  be 
obviated  by  extending' the  tunnel  up  to  a  surface  f(n"e  bay,  and  using 
long  penstocks,  or  by  other  means.  The  only  formidable  objections 
to  the  Power  Canal  plan  is  the  presence  of  an  open  canal  through 
or  near  the  city,  and  the  uncertain  costs  of  maintenance  due  to 
climatic  conditions.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  it  could  not  be 
made  less  unsightly  than  the  present  canal,  and.  in  fact,  even  attrac- 
tive in  appearance.  It  would,  however,  partially  prevent  the  use  of 
valuable  land  for  other  purposes,  form  a  dividing  line  disadvanta- 
geous to  street  and  sewer  systems,  and  cause  the  city  <)r  the  company 
some  extra  expense  for  building  and  maintaining  bridges  as  the  city 
grew.  Further  consideration  and  comparison  of  these  propositions 
are  given  later  when  the  cost  of  production  of  power  is  taken  up. 

79.  Proposed  plants  dividinr/  diversion,  hut  using  full  head  in  one 
stagf. — There  seems  to  be  no  advantage,  but  rather  a  disadvantage  in 
using  2'».0()0  rnl)ic  feet  per  second  in  two  or  more  plants  under  the 
full  head  rather  than  in  one  plant.  In  case  of  a  total  diversion  of, 
say.  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second  on  the  American  side  in  a  single 
stage,  the  advisability  of  dividing  this  into  two  plants  should  be 
given  nnreful  consideration.     For  a  canal  project  one  plant  Avould 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  IXITEU.       81 

appear  preferable,  while  for  a  tunnel  project  the  single  tunnel  would 
be  too  large,  making  a  division  into  two  plants  advisable. 

80.  Proposed  plants  dividing  diversion  and  dlvidirig  head. — A 
number  of  schemes  have  been  proposed  whereb}^  both  the  head  and 
the  diversion  were  divided  between  several  plants.  There  seems  to 
be  no  advantage  in  any  of  these  as  a  wholly  new  plant.  Of  those 
which  involve  the  retention  of  some  of  the  existing  plants,  only  one 
seemed  to  merit  further  consideration.  The  project  involves  the  re- 
tention and  use  of  the  present  hydraulic  canal,  and  station  3  of  the 
hydraulic  plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  and  has  been  named 
the  "  Compound  two-stage  proposition."  The  upper  stage  portion 
corresponds  closely  to  the  project  of  the  Hydraulic  JPower  Co.,  which 
has  been  apj^roved  by  the  department. 

81.  Compound  two-stage  proposition. — This  proposition  includes 
retention  and  use  of  present  station  3  of  the  hydraulic  plant  of  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  a  slight  enlargement  of  the  present  hy- 
draulic canal  by  deepening,  construction  of  a  tunnel  paralleling  the 
€anal  from  Niagara  River  at  Port  Day  to  a  new  power  house  just 
upstream  from  present  station  3,  and  construction  of  a  long  tunnel 
of  large  diameter  conducting  the  w^ater  discharged  from  these  power 
houses  to  a  new  power  house  near  Riverdale  Cemetery,  in  the  Lower 
Oorge,  where  it  would  be  used  again  under  a  head  of  about  90  feet. 
A  portion  of  the  upper  stage  part  of  this  project  has  been  under 
construction  since  June,  1918,  under  authority  of  the  Secretary  of 
War,  including  deepening  the  present  canal  and  building  a  power 
house  near  station  3  containing  three  generating  units  of  approxi- 
mately 33,000  horsepower  each.  Note  is  made  of  the  fact  that  plans 
and  estimates  have  been  modified  from  time  to  time  so  that  the  out- 
line plans  and  estimate  herein  presented  do  not  correspond  exactly 
either  to  those  submitted  in  the  interim  report  or  to  those  now  in 
force  at  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  successor  to  the  Hydraulic 
Power  Co.  The  question  of  using  the  water  released  from  the  Niagara 
Falls  plant  in  a  single  development  instead  of  as  a  part  of  the  com- 
pound two-phase  development  under  the  approved  plan  is  being  con- 
sidered by  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co. 

82.  The  general  outlines  of  the  plans  herein  presented  are  shown 
on  Plates  Nos.  33,  42,  and  45.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  upper  stage 
improvement  is  $21,183,000,  which  represents  a  cost  of  $51.80  per 
horsepower  for  the  total  power  then  available  under  the  upper  stage. 
The  estimated  time  of  development  is  three  and  one-fourth  years  for 
completion. 

83.  The  lower  stage  portion  of  the  plant  consists  of  a  large  tunnel 
extending  from  the  powerhouses  on  the  shore  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist 
Pool  to  the  Lower  Gorge  at  Riverdale  Cemetery,  a  power  station  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  tunnel,  and  a  large  spillway  just  upstream  from 
the  lower  powerhouse.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  lower  stage  plant 
is  $34,298,000,  and  the  estimated  total  horsepower  is  164,000,  making 
the  cost  per  horsepower  $209.10. 

84.  There  are  several  reasons  why  it  is  preferable  to  take  the 
water  for  the  second  stage  development  directly  from  the  upper 
stage  powerhouses  rather  than  to  permit  these  latter  powerhouses 
to  discharge  into  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  and  then  to  divert 
the  water  from  this  pool  near  the  railroad  bridges,  thus  saving 

27880—21 6 


82     di\t:rsiox  of  water  from  great  lakes  and  Niagara  river. 

about  one  mile  of  tunnel  lenf^th.  The  first  reason  is,  it  will  avoid 
trouble  with  ice  which  would  undoubtedly  be  very  serious  in  the 
Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool;  second,  it  will  prevent  the  great  losses  in 
power,  reduction  in  efficiency,  and  difficulties  of  operiition  arising 
from  the  large  range  of  stage  of  this  pool;  third,  it  will  avoid  the 
costly  and  ditiicult  construction  of  an  intake  which  would  have  to  be 
carried  down  deep  to  provide  against  being  unwatered  when  the 
pool  is  lowered  by  diversions  of  water  around  the  rapids;  and  fourth, 
it  will  avoid  agam  separating  trash  and  weeds  from  the  water. 

85.  For  the  entire  combined  plant  of  the  compound  two-sta*;e 
proposition  the  estimated  cost  is  $55,481,000.  The  power  then  avail- 
able will  be  about  573,000  horsepower,  making  the  cost  $96.80  per 
horsepower  for  the  power  then  available. 

86.  The  critical  element  of  this  scheme  is  the  operation.  By  means 
of  relief  valves,  and  a  bj^-pass  at  the  upper  plant,  and  also  by 
proper  electrical  interlocking  of  circuit  breakers  and  controls,  it 
must  be  positively  assured  that  the  supply  of  water  to  units  operat- 
ing at  the  downstream  powerhouse  does  not  fail  in  order  to  prevent 
great  danger  of  damage  at  the  lower  station. 

87.  Projyosed  plants  using  full  diversion  hut  dividing  head. — ^A 
two-stage  proposition  independent  of  the  old  power  developments 
was  planned  in  outline,  as  shown  on  Plates  Nos.  33,  46,  47,  and  48, 
and  was  named  the  "  Simple  two-stage  proposition."  Its  upper  stage 
part  is  much  like  the  upper  stage  tunnel  portion  of  the  compound  two 
stage  proposition,  while  the  lower  stage  portions  of  the  two  proposi- 
tions are  ahnost  identical  except  in  length  of  tunnel.  The  cost  of  the 
full  development  is  estimated  at  $61,227,000,  the  total  horsepower 
at  580,000,  and  the  cost  per  horsepower  at  $105.60.  The  estimated 
time  of  completion  of  this  project  is  four  and  one-half  years  for  the 
upper  stage  and  four  and  one-fourth  for  the  lower  stage.  They 
might  be  built  simultaneously  or  separately,  as  desired. 

88.  Proposed  power  development  combined  with  ship  canal. — In  an 
earlier  part  of  this  report,  imder  the  caption,  "Proposed  navigation 
canals,  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,"  mention  was  made  of  various 
routes  for  a  canal  in  L'^nited  States  territory  connecting  Lakes  Erie 
and  Ontario,  which  have  been  proposed  during  the  past  100  years  or 
more,  and  the  fact  was  brought  out  that  the  La  Sallc-Lewiston  route 
proposed  by  the  United  States  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  ^Vater- 
ways  in  1900  still  offers  the  greatest  advantages  for  such  a  waterway 
and  the  lowest  cost.  The  estimates  given  in  these  earlier  paragraphs 
cover  a  navigation  canal  only.  The  La  Salle-Lewiston  route  offers  the 
greatest  advantages  also  for  a  combined  power  and  ship  canal.  In 
order  to  provide  for  a  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for 
power  through  such  a  canal  without  dangerously  high  currents,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  the  cross  section  much  larger  than  is  necessary  for 
the  ship  canal  which  provides  for  no  power  development.  The  cross 
section  proposed  is  400  feet  wide  by  30  feet  deep  in  shallow  cuttings, 
and  300  feet  wide  by  40  feet  in  deep  cuttings.  The  mean  current  in. 
such  u  canal  would  be  2.3  miles  per  hour. 

89.  Lnder  the  plans  presented  in  Appendix  D,  and  on  plates  Xos. 
49  to  51,  the  water  for  power  generation  is  taken  from  the  side  of  the 
sliip  canal  about  3,000  feet  above  the  upper  locks  through  a  long  row 
of  submerged  arches  piercing  a  massive  concrete  wall.  From  the  inlet 
bay  behind  the  arches  a  short-power  canal  conducts  the  water  to  a 


DIVERSION   OP   WATER  FROM   GREAT  I^KES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       83 

fore  bay  at  the  edge  of  the  bluff  just  downstream  from  Eiverdale 
Cemetery.  The  power  house  in  the  Gorge  is  simihir  to  that  of  the 
power  canal  proposition.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  entire  project 
is  $198,412,000,  which  is  $324.70  per  horsepower  for  the  estimated 
total  capacity  of  646,000  horsepower.  The  cost  of  the  part  necessitated 
for  power  purposes,  including  excavation  of  the  excess  cross  section  of 
canal,  is  estimated  at  $03,000,000,  or  $97.50  per  horsepower.  The 
time  of  construction  is  estimated  at  8  to  10  years. 

90.  The  combined  ship  and  power  canal,  described  above,  is  esti- 
mated to  cost  $19,833,000  more  than  the  sum  of  the  costs  of  a  200- 
foot  ship  canal  for  navigation  only,  and  the  power-canal  proposition 
previously  described ;  and  to  produce  20,000  more  horsepower. 

91.  Plants  proposed  hy  various  interests. — Careful  consideration 
has  been  given  to  projects  presented  by  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co., 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  Empire  Power  Corporation,  Hugh  L. 
Cooper  &  Co.,  Leonard  H.  Davis  for  Union  Carbide  Co.,  Niagara 
Gorge  Power  Co.,  T.  Kennard  Thompson,  and  others.  Many  of 
these  projects  are  of  great  merit,  while  others  appear  to  have  little 
or  none.  Brief  descriptions  and  comments  are  given  in  Appendix  D, 
section  F  9.  It  is  believed  that  there  is  nothing  of  particular  value 
in  the  projects  which  is  not  embodied  in  the  various  propositions 
already  presented,  some  of  the  ideas  already  presented  having  come 
directly  from  the  propositions  submitted  by  the  parties  named  above 
in  this  paragraph. 

92.  C omparison  of  proposed  developments. — The  costs  given  in  the 
preceding  paragraphs  covering  the  various  projects  do  not  include 
the  entire  capital  costs,  nor  even  the  whole  of  what  might  be  termed 
construction  costs.  Thus  the  general  overhead  items,  properly  part 
of  construction  costs,  which  have  been  omitted  in  each  case,  are  costs 
of  promoting  interest  in  the  proposition,  of  obtaining  funds,  of  or- 
ganizing a  managing  company,  and  of  legal  services  involved  in  pro- 
motion, financing,  and  organizing.  The  fundamental  item  of  pur- 
chase of  any  necessary  rights  from  existing  power  companies  has 
not  been  included.  The  development  expense  involved  in  building 
up  a  market  for  power  consumption,  and  making  the  enterprise  a 
going  concern,  also  properly  a  part  of  capital  cost,  has  been  omitted. 
The  costs  given  are  called  construction  costs.  They  include  pur- 
chase of  necessary  land  and  rights  of  way,  and  construction  required 
in  providing  a  plant  to  produce  electric  energy  at  generator  voltage 
on  the  bus  bars  of  the  power  station.  All  expense  pertaining  to  trans- 
formation and  transmission  of  electric  energy  has  been  omitted. 

93.  The  omissions  just  mentioned  have  appreciable  effects  on  the 
capital  cost  of  each  proposition,  and  are  unequal  in  their  effects  on 
different  propositions.  There  are  differences  in  the  probable  operat- 
ing costs  also.  To  make  a  comparison  of  the  propositions  which 
takes  into  account  in  so  far  as  possible  the  differences  thus  arising, 
an  estimate  has  been  made  of  the  cost  of  producing  power  in  each 
case. 

94.  Any  proposition  except  the  compound  two-stage,  could  be  made 
a 'development  of  a  second  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  first  20,000 
second-feet  having  been  developed,  under  a  two  or  more  permittee 
cooperation  plan.  Assuming  a  load  factor  of  90  per  cent  and  a  power 
factor  of  90  per  cent  and  omitting  fixed  charges  on  the  original  over- 
head expenses  and  also  fixed  charges  on  the  original  development 


84        PIVKRSION   OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT  I^AKES   AND  NIAG.UIA  RIVER. 

exi)onst\  the  cost  per  horsepower  per  annum  on  the  bus  bars  in  the 
power  station  is  estimated  as  shown  in  Table  No.  4: 

Tahle  No.  4. — Potrcr  (lcv(lo[mient  by  second  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per 

second. 


No. 


Proposition. 


Power  OanaHpar.  77) 

I'ressiire  Tunnel  (par.  76) . 
Tailrace  Tiinnel  (par.  7.5). 
Simple  two-stage  (par.  87) 


Esti- 
mated 

cost  per 
horse- 
power per 

annum. 


SIO.OO 
11.30 
11.60 
13. 9( 


These  are  rough  estimates  only,  and  are  not  as  accurate  as  the  con- 
struction cost  estimates  previously  given,  being  based  on  less  reliable 
data.  They  ser\'e,  however,  to  indicate  the  relative  advantages  of  the 
different  propositions  and  are  believed  to  be  worthy  of  careful  con- 
sideration. They  are  probably  all  much  loAver  per  horsepower  per 
annum  than  the  ultimate  actual  cost  of  delivering  power  on  the 
premises  of  the  most  favorably  situated  customer,  because  of  The 
items  of  cost  which  have  not  been  included. 

1)5.  It  is  to  be  assumed  that  it  might  be  desirable  to  adopt  a  one-or- 
more-permittee  independent  plan,  under  which  the  first  diversion  of 
20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  is  to  be  regarded  as  not  de- 
Aeioped.  In  such  case  any  one  of  the  propositions  might  be  employed, 
but  the  costs  would  necessarily  be  increased  by  the  amount  required 
to  compensate  any  interests  involved.  With  this  condition  added  to 
the  assumptions  involved  in  table  No.  4,  production  costs  have  been 
estimated  as  shown  in  table  No.  5. 

Table  No.  5. — Power  development  by  first  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 


No. 


Proposition. 


Power  (anal  (par.  77) 

Pressure  Tunnel  (par.  76) 

TailHK-e  Tunnel  (par.  7.5) , 

Simple  iwo-stage  (par.  .S7) 

Conipounl  two-stage  (par.  81) 


Esti- 
mated 

cost  per 
horse- 
power 
per 

annum. 


$14.90 
16.30 
1.5.  70 
18.00 
17.00 


'J'iie  comments  with  regard  to  Table  No.  4  apply  with  equal  force 
to  Table  No.  5. 

*J0.  Two-stage  versus  single-stage  project. — As  regards  financing, 
a  two-stage  development  has  a  decided  advantage  over  a  single-stage 
development  in  that  only  the  upper  stage  need  be  developed  at  first, 
nearly  two-thirds  of  tlie  total  ultimate  power  being  provided  at 
about  iialf  the  total  ultimate  cost.  This  is  approximately  true  of 
either  the  compound  or  single  two-stage  propositions,  in  lessening 
the  capital  co.st  for  the  time  being  and  thus  keexjing  down  the  fixed 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROIVI   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       85 

charges.  Moreover,  first  power  could  be  produced  sooner,  and  less 
unproductive  expenditure  would  have  to  be  carried.  This  would 
lead  to  a  sounder  finanical  condition  during  construction;  and  so, 
probably,  to  the  flotation  of  bonds  on  better  terms. 

97.  The  matter  of  fixed  charges  due  to  costs  of  promotion,  organi- 
zation, purchase  of  rights,  development  of  market,  and  going  con- 
cern, enter  into  the  question  of  financing  to  an  extent  not  predeter- 
minable. 

98.  In  discussing  the  various  propositions,  the  production  cost  only 
has  been  dwelt  upon.  A  chance  for  profit  is  essential  to  the  best 
interests  of  such  an  enterprise  in  order  to  induce  men  to  undertake 
the  risks  involved,  and  to  spur  them  on  to  their  best  endeavors.  As 
regards  profits,  and  the  accumulation  of  an  undivided  surplus  avail- 
able for  reinvestment  in  the  development,  during  the  period  of  con- 
struction, the  two-stage  plan  is  superior  to  the  single-stage  plan. 

99.  Ejfect  of  rate  of  poioer  absorj)tion. — In  comparing  the  relative 
merits  of  the  single-stage  and  two-stage  propositions,  a  very  impor- 
tant consideration  is  the  effect  of  rate  of  absorption  of  power.  By 
rate  of  absorption  of  power  is  meant  the  total"  quantity  of  power 
which  will  be  demanded  and  used  in  any  year,  over  and  above  what 
was  used  in  the  preceding  year.  The  estimates  heretofore  given  were 
based  on  wartime  demands  for  power,  assuming  that  any  power 
developed  at  Niagara  Falls  would  find  immediate  use  in  industry  as 
soon  as  it  was  produced.  The  peace  time  rate  of  absorption  in  the 
past  has  been  less  than  half  as  great.  When  power  is  absorbed  less 
rapidly,  construction  interest  ultimately  amounts  to  more.  In  this 
respect  the  two-stage  plan  is  decidedly  superior  to  the  single-stage 
fjian,  and  the  advantage  increases  as  the  rate  of  absorption  of  power 
decreases. 

100.  C omparison  of  ultimate  incomes. — AVhat  a  hydro-electric  gen- 
erating station  has  to  sell  is  electric  energy,  expressed  in  kilowatt- 
hours,  horsepower  hours,  or  horsepower-years,  and  the  ultimate  num- 
ber of  kilowatt-hours  produced  is  a  measure  of  the  ultimate  income 
obtained.  The  two-stage  proposition  has  an  advantage,  during  the 
first  few  years  after  construction  is  commenced,  over  the  single-stage 
proposition,  because  power  is  produced  so  much  sooner.  As  time 
goes  on,  however,  the  single-stage  production  overtakes  and  sur- 
passes, the  two-stage  production  unless  the  rate  of  absorption  of 
power  is  very  low.  If  this  comparison  is  made  on  the  basis  of  total 
amount  of  energy  produced  per  dollar  of  construction  cost,  the  power 
canal  proposition  overtakes  the  compound  two-stage  proposition  in 
13|  years,  and  thereafter  surpasses  it.  Such  comparisons  are  depend- 
ent on  the  various  items  of  the  estimates  of  cost  and  time  of  develop- 
ment, and  are  of  little  value  for  the  reason  that  the  computed  time 
in  which  one  will  overtake  the  other  varies  a  great  deal  with  com- 
paratively slight  changes  in  these  estimates. 

101.  Smnmary  of  cortifarhon  of  single-stage  and  two-stage  prop- 
ositions.— To  sum  up  the  comparison  of  the  single-stage  and  two- 
stage  propositions : 

There  is  shown  in  favor  of  the  single-stage  proposition — 

1.  Lower  construction  cost  per  horsepower. 

2.  Lower  unit  cost  of  power  production. 

3.  Greater  total  financial  return  per  dollar  invested,  except  in  case  absorp- 
tion of  the  power  developed  takes  place  at  a  very  slow  rate. 


86        DIVEKSIOX    OF   V.'ATKR   FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

TlitM-e  is  shown  iu  favor  of  the  two-stage  proposition — 

1.  IiK-reasing  advantii.uo  as  rate  of  power  absorption  decreases. 

2.  Superiority  of  couipouud  two-stage  proposition  at  very  low  power  absorp- 
tion rate. 

3.  Easier  financing. 

4.  First  power  produced  sooner. 

5.  Better  credit  maintained. 

6.  Total  return  from  sale  of  power  greater  for  first  few  years. 

7.  In  case  of  suspension  of  construction  activities  before  completion  there 
would  be  (a) smaller  capital  cost  per  horsepower  produced;  (b)  less  unproduc- 
tive expenditures  carried. 

102.  The  foregoing  analysis  indicates  that  for  utilizing  the  present 
authorized  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  from 
Niagara  Kiver  there  is  very  little  to  choose  between  the  compound 
two-stage  proposition  and  the  power  canal  proposition. 

103.  The  study  further  shows  that  for  a  second  development,  de- 
signed to  utilize  an  additional  and  similar  diversion  of  20,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  a  power  canal  proposition  similar  to  that  presented 
is  less  costly  than  any  other. 

104.  The  power  canal  proposed  would  not  be  navigable,  and  it 
could  not  properly  be  made  a  part  of  a  navigable  waterway.  No 
combination  of  power  development  with  navigable  canal  from  upper 
to  lower  river  is  justifiable  on  the  basis  of  power  production.  The 
La  Salle  to  Lewiston  route  is  the  best  for  a  ship  canal.  It  would  be 
cheaper  to  construct  this  canal  of  200-foot  width  and  30-foot  depth 
for  navigation  use  only,  and  also  construct  the  canal  for  power  pur- 
poses only,  than  to  construct  the  combined  power  and  ship  canal. 
(Far.  90.) 

105.  Previously  in  this  report,  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  40,000 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  may  safely  be  diverted  around  the 
Whirlpool  and  Lower  Eapids,  this  being  the  total  for  both  sides. 
The  wisdom  of  diverting  any  more  in  the  light  of  the  present  knowl- 
edge is  doubted,  and  it  is  felt  that  this  amount  should  be  diverted 
first,  and  observation  of  the  resultant  effects  noted  before  further 
diversions  are  permitted.  It  was  also  pointed  out  that  at  least 
80,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  might  be  diverted  around  the 
Falls  from  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  Fool  to  the  Maid-of-the-Mist 
Fool,  this  latter  diversion  being  permissible  only  on  condition  that 
adequate  remedial  works  be  constructed  just  above  Horseshoe  Falls. 

106.  In  dealing  with  the  question  of  the  development  of  power 
at  Niagara  Falls  the  purpose  of  this  report  has  been  to  so  present 
the  actual  conditions  as  they  exist,  the  possible  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem as  deduced  from  those  conditions  and  the  solutions  presented 
by  interested  parties  independently,  as  to  enable  the  constituted  au- 
thority to  take  such  action  either  on  the  whole  subject  or  any  one 
phase  of  it,  as  may  seem  best. 

107.  Effects  of  diversions  upon  lake  Uvels. — It  is  well  understood 
by  engineers  who  have  studied  the  question,  that  each  of  the  Great 
Lakes  constitutes  a  natural  storage  basin  discharging  through  an 
outlet,  and  that  any  increased  flow  of  water  from  the  basin  through 
an  enlarged  original  outlet,  or  through  a  new  outlet,  causes  a  lowering 
of  the  lake  surface.  Such  increased  flow  is  a  diversion  of  water  from 
the  lake.  The  amount  of  lowering  can  not  be  measured  directly  by 
water  gauges  on  the  lakes,  as  the  elevation  of  the  lake  surface  is  sub- 
ject to  constantly  varying  fluctuations  due  to  various  other  causes. 


DIVERSIOlsr  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       87 

If,  however,  the  laws  governing  the  discharge  of  the  connecting  rivers 
are  known,  the  amount  of  lowering  can  be  computed  by  simple 
mathematical  processes.  These  discharge  laws  have  been  determined 
by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  from  a  long  series  of  measure- 
ments on  the  outflow  rivers. 

108.  The  outlets  on  tlie  lakes. — The  outlet  of  Lake  Superior  is 
through  the  St.  Marys  River.  The  natural  flow  of  this  river  has 
been  changed  by  the  construction  of  the  piers  of  the  International 
Railroad  Bridge,  by  filling  in  along  both  shores,  by  the  construction 
of  canals  and  locks  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  by  the  diversion  of 
water  for  power  development,  and  by  the  construction  of  regulating 
works.  At  the  present  time  only  about  25  per  cent  of  the  original 
cross-section  of  the  rapids  and  33  per  cent  of  the  discharging  ca- 
pacity is  open  to  free  flow.  Present  plans  and  construction  con- 
template further  extension  of  the  regulating  works  to  the  full 
width  of  the  open  river.  When  these  are  complete  the  outflow  from 
Lake  Superior  will  be  brought  under  full  control. 

109.  The  natural  outlet  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  is  through 
the  St.  Clair  River.  This  river  has  but  little  fall,  and  the  discharge 
from  the  lake  depends  not  only  upon  the  elevation  of  Lake  Huron 
but  also  upon  that  of  Lake  St.  Clair,  which  in  turn  is  affected  by 
changes  in  the  elevation  of  Lake  Erie.  There  appears  to  have  been 
no  important  change  in  the  regimen  of  this  river  during  the  last 
24  years, 

110.  Lake  St.  Clair  discharges  through  the  Detroit  River.  This 
river  is  of  the  same  type  as  the  St.  Clair  and  its  flow  depends  upon 
the  elevations  of  Lake  St.  Clair  and  Lake  Erie.  ^  Comparatively  few 
discharge  measurements  have  been  made  on  this  river,  and  its  h}^- 
draulic  relations  are  not  as  accurately  known  as  those  of  the  other 
rivers.  There  is  some  evidence  that  a  change  in  the  regimen  of  this 
river  occurred  about  1890.  Another  change  was  made  by  the  build- 
ing of  the  Livingstone  Channel  cofi'erdam  in  1908.  When  the  coffer- 
dam was  opened  in  1912  it  was  found  that  the  remaining  portions 
of  the  dam  and  the  various  dumps  compensated  for  the  excavation 
of  the  channel,  and  the  discharge  laws  were  the  same  as  before  the 
cofferdam  was  built. 

111.  The  Niagara  River  is  the  natural  outlet  of  Lake  Erie._  The 
discharge  of  this  river  depends  upon  the  elevation  of  Lake  Erie,  but 
is  modified  somewhat  by  the  diversion  of  water  from  the  river  itself. 
Only  very  minor  changes  in  the  regimen  of  this  river  have  occurred 
in  recent  years. 

112.  The  natural  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario  is  through  the  St.  Law- 
rence River.  The  controlling  section  is  the  Galop  Rapids,  the  dis- 
charge of  which  is  governed  by  the  elevation  of  Lake  Ontario.  Va- 
rious works  in  connection  with  the  Canadian  improvements  to  naviga- 
tion have  altered  the  regimen  of  these  rapids  materially  at  different 
times.     Since  1903  conditions  have  remained  constant. 

113.  The  discharge  equations  of  all  these  rivers  have  been  deter- 
mined by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey,  and  are  presented  in  Sec- 
tion G  2  of  Appendix  E. 

114.  Effect  of  ice  on  Hver  floio  and  lake  levels. — The  equations  for 
determining  the  flow  through  the  various  connecting  rivers  of  the 
Great  Lakes  system  apply  only  during  open  season  conditions.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  months,  when  there  is  more  or  less  ice  in  the  rivers,  the 


88        DIVERSIOX   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RH'ER. 

flow  is  retarded,  tliis  retardation  amoiintino;  in  some  of  the  rivers 
at  times  to  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of  the  normal  flow.  Durinir  the 
three  winter  months  the  flow  of  the  St.  Marys  River  is  retarded  on 
the  averagfe  to  the  extent  of  about  2,800  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
effect   on  Lake  Superior  is  only  a  few  hundredths  of  a  foot. 

115.  On  the  St.  Clair  and  Detroit  Kivers  the  effects  of  ice  are 
more  serious.  Jams  or  blockades  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  at 
times  hold  back  large  quantities  of  water.  The  estimated  effect  for 
the  two  rivers  is  a  reduction  in  the  yearly  mean  flow  amounting  to 
about  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  effect  is  to  raise  the  level 
of  Lake  Huron  during  the  winter  months  and  lower  Lake  Erie. 
During  the  summer  an  increase  in  the  river  flow  results  which  tends 
to  restore  the  normal  levels,  but  before  ('(juilibrium  is  attained  an- 
other winter  intervenes,  and  thus  Lake  Huron  is  maintained  at  a 
higher  level  than  it  would  be  if  no  ice  were  formed. 

116.  The  ice  effect  on  the  Niagara  River  is  not  very  well  de- 
termined, but  is  known  to  be  quite  small.  The  estimate  is  that  it 
keeps  the  yearly  mean  stage  of  Lake  Erie  about  seven-hundredths 
of  a  foot  higher  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

117.  On  the  St.  Lawrence  River  a  good  deal  of  data  as  to  the  ice 
effect  is  available.  The  total  ice  effect  is  estimated  to  be  equivalent 
to  a  reduction  of  4,400  cubic  feet  per  second  in  the  j'early  mean  dis- 
charge. This  leaves  Lake  Ontario  high  in  the  spring,  but  owing 
to  the  small  area  and  large  outflow  of  the  lake,  normal  conditions 
are  practically  restored  before  the  following  winter. 

118.  The  question  of  ice  effect  has  not  always  been  well  understood, 
and  its  incorrect  treatment  has  in  the  past  often  led  to  erroneous 
conclusions  regarding  the  hydrology  of  the  Great  Lakes  system. 
An  admirable  analysis  of  these  effects  is  given  in  section  G3  of  Ap- 
pendix E. 

119.  llydrological  data. — An  analysis  of  the  hydrology  of  the 
Great  Lakes  was  made.  This  was  based  on  extensive  rainfall  records 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  the  stream  run-off  reports  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  and  the  H^^dro-Electric  Power 
Commission  of  Ontario,  and  the  river  discharge  measurements  and 
water  gauge  records  of  the  United  States  Lake  Survey.  The  net 
.supply  for  each  lake  was  computed  for  the  period  1905-1914,  in- 
clusive, and  from  this  the  outflow  during  the  same  period  was  sub- 
tracted. The  result  was  the  evaporation  from  the  lake  surface. 
These  evaporation  values  are  reasonably  consistent  among  themselves, 
and  agree  with  the  meager  evaporation  data  available.  This  indi- 
cates that  the  adopted  discharge  formulas  are  consistent,  and  that 
there  are  no  gross  discrepancies  or  omissions  in  the  hydrologic  data. 

These  studies  are  described  and  the  results  tabulated  in  section 
G  4  of  Appendix  E. 

120.  Effects  of  present  diversiotis. — The  ultimate  effect  of  diver- 
sions upon  the  levels  of  the  lake  from  which  they  are  drawn  is  a  func- 
tion of  the  rate  of  diversion  and  of  the  law  of  discharge  through  the 
main  outlet.  When  these  are  known  the  lowering  effect  of  the  di- 
version can  be  computed.  The  discharge  laws  are  well  determined 
from  the  lake  survey  measurements,  and  the  rates  of  diversion  have 
been  carefully  estimated  from  all  the  available  data.  Using  these 
quantities  the  effects  on  the  different  lakes  have  been  computed  for 
high,  mean,  and  low  stages  of  the  lakes. 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       89 


121.  VV^ith  conditions  as  they  were  in  1896,  Lake  Superior  would 
have  been!  lowered  nearly  3  feet  by  the  present  diversions  for 
power  and  navigation.  That  the  surface  has  not  been  so  loAvered  is 
due  to  various  obstructions  placed  in  the  rapids,  includinp;  the  con- 
trolling works.  It  is  expected  that  when  the  controlling  works  are 
completed,  and  the  several  power  canals  are  enlarged  to  ultimate 
proposed  capacity,  the  needs  of  navigation  can  be  served,  a  minimum 
of  60,000  cubic  feet  per  second  can  be  used  for  power,  and  the  level 
of  Lake  Superior  can  be  regulated  within  a  maximum  range  of  2.5 
feet,  and  ordinarily  within  a  range  of  1.5  feet,  or  between  elevations 
602.1  and  603.6. 

122.  The  only  diversion  from  Lake  Michigan-Huron  which  has 
any  important  effect  upon  lake  levels  is  that  of  the  Sanitary  District 
of  Chicago.  This  diversion  through  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 
amounts  to  a  yearly  average  of  about  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second. 
An  ultimate  diversion  of  14,000  cubic  feet  per  second  through  this 
canal  and  through  the  Calumet-Sag  branch,  now  under  construction, 
is  contemplated.  The  diversion  at  Chicago  causes  a  lowering  of  all 
water  levels  from  the  lower  sills  of  the  locks  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
to  tide  water  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  amount  of  lowering 
caused  by  the  present  diversion  at  mean  stage  is  shown  in  table 
No.  6. 


Table  No.  6. 


-Lowering  in  feet  at  mean  stage  due  to  present  diversions  of  ivater  from 
the  Great  Lakes. 


Diversion. 

Amount, 
in  cubic 
feet  per 
second. 

mch- 

igan- 
Huron. 

St.  Clair. 

Erie. 

Niagara 

River  at 

Chip- 

pawa. 

St.  Law- 
rence 
Ontario.    River  at 
Lock  No. 
25. 

Chicago  Drainage  Canal 

8,800 

4,500 

700 

1,000 

50,885 

0.43 
.03 

0.35 
.09 
.01 

0.41 
.21 
.03 
.01 
.10 

0.23 
.12 

0.42 

0.62 

.03 
.60 

Niagara  power  companies 

.01 

.05 

Total  

.47 

.50 

.76 

.98 

.42 

.62 

123.  From  Lake  Erie  the  Welland  Canal  diverts  about  4,500  cubic 
feet  per  second,  and  the  Black  Eock  Ship  Canal  about  700  cubic  feet 
per  second.  These  diversions  low^er  Lakes  Michigan,  Huron,  St. 
Clair,  and  Erie.  At  Niagara  Falls  six  different  companies  use  water 
for  power  development.  Some  of  these  cause  a  lowering  in  Lakes 
Michigan,  Huron,  St.  Clair,  and  Erie,  while  others,  which  divert 
water  below  the  first  cascade,  have  only  a  local  effect.  The  amount  of 
these  lowerings  is  given  in  Table  No.  6. 

124.  There  are  no  diversions  from  Lake  Ontario  or  the  upper  St. 
Lawrence  Kiver  except  a  small  amount  for  the  Canadian  canals. 
The  building  of  the  Gut  Dam  in  1903  has  permanently  raised  these 
waters  by  about  0.56  foot.  Below  the  Galop  Rapids  there  are  several 
diversions  which  cause  local  lowering  in  certain  parts  of  the  St. 
Lawrence. 

125.  The  whole  matter  of  the  effects  of  present  diversions  upon 
lake  levels  is  treated  in  Section  G  5  of  Appendix  E. 

126.  Effects  of  proposed  diversions. — The  effects  of  the  proposed 
increases  in  the  diversions  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  will  be  completely 


90        Dn*EBSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  L.VKES  AXD  NIAG.VKA  RIVER. 

neutralized  by  the  operation  of  the  completed  controllinp;  works. 
At  Chicago  the  proposed  increase  of  the  diversion  to  14.000  cubic 
feet  per  second  would  increase  the  present  lowering  by  more  than  50 
per  cent.  The  completion  of  the  new  Welland  Canal  and  the  in- 
creased use  of  the  Barge  Canal  will  cause  farther  lowerings.  If 
the  diversion  at  Niagara  Falls  be  ultimately  increased  to  80,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  and  no  compensating  works  provided,  there 
would  be  a  very  large  lowering  of  the  river,  and  a  notable  amount 
in  the  lakes  above.  The  computed  lowering  at  mean  stage  which 
would  result  from  the  various  proposed  diversions  is  shown  in  Table 
No.  7. 

Table  No.  7. — Effect  in  feet  at  mean  stage  of  -proposed  diversions  from  the  Great  Lakes. 


Diversion. 

Proposed 
increase. 

Lakes 
Michi- 
gan and 
Huron. 

Lake 
St.  Clair. 

Lake 
Erie. 

i 
Niagara  i     t  -,.- 

j 

Sf.Law- 
rence 

River  at 
l>ock 

No.  25. 

Chicago  Drainage  Canal 

5,200 

1,000 

700 

48,000 

0.25 
.01 

0.21 
.02 

0.23 
.05 
.01 
.22 

0.13            0.24 
,03    

0.37 

.02    

Niagara  power  companies 

.03 

.10 

1.25  ' 

Total  eiTect  of    proposed    in- 

1 
.29              .33 

.51 
.76 

1.43  !            .24 
.98  j           .42 

.37 

.47 

.50 

.62 

.76 

.83 

1.27 

2.41  1           .66 

i 

.99 

This  matter  is  treated  at  greater  length  in  section  G  6  of  Appen- 
dix E. 

127.  Remedial  worhs. — These  lowerings  of  the  lake  levels  cause 
a  serious  loss  to  the  navigation  interests  and  the  general  public,  the 
nature  and  amount  of  wliich  is  discussed  later  in  this  report.  The 
restoration  and  maintenance  of  the  natural  levels  therefore  becomes  a 
matter  of  importance. 

128.  There  are  three  general  methods  by  which  a  restoration  of 
depths  on  the  lakes  may  be  sought — first,  the  deepening  of  all  harbors 
and  channels  affected  by  the  artificial  lowering  of  water  levels; 
second,  the  construction  of  regulating  works  in  the  outlets  of  the 
lakes  to  raise  the  levels  of  the  lakes  and  to  control  their  elevations 
witiiin  fixed  limits;  third,  the  contraction  of  the  outlets  by  means  of 
fixed  obstructions  which  will  raise  the  levels  of  the  lakes  without 
greatly  affecting  their  natural  fluctuations. 

129."^  The  first  method  is  considered  altogether  too  expensive,  and 
has  other  unsatisfactory  features.  It  is  recommended  only  for  a  few 
special  cases.  The  second  has  frequently  been  proposed,  but  upon 
inve.stigation  it  is  found  to  be  less  simple  than  it  appears.  It  in- 
volve.^ obstructions  to  navigation  and  difficulties  with  ice.  More- 
over, it  has  been  shown  that  efficient  regulation  of  one  lake  tends  to 
aggiavate  the  fluctuations  of  those  below  it.  This  system  has  been 
adopted  at  the  Soo,  where  circumstances  are  particularly  favorable 
to  it.  l)ut  its  suitabilitv  for  the  lower  lakes  is  problematical.  The 
third  method  is  the  cheapest  and  simj)lest,  and  is  considered  the 
most  desirable.  It  is  already  operating  successfully  in  the  case  of  the 
Gut  Dam. 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LiVKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       91 

130.  In  section  G  7  of  Appendix  E  the  works  needed  at  various 
places  to  compensate  for  the  effects  of  all  diversions,  present  or  pros- 
pective, are  considered  in  some  detail  It  is  concluded  that  the  project 
is  entirely  feasible  and  that  tlie  expense  will  not  be  excessive  in 
view  of  the  benefits  received.  The  works  involved  include  wing  walls 
or  other  methods  of  narrowing  the  channels  at  the  head  of  each  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  Rapids,  a  long  submerged  rock  weir  above  the 
rapids  at  Niagara  Falls,  and  a  series  of  such  weirs  near  the  head  of 
the  Niagara  Kiver  and  in  the  upper  reaches  of  the  St.  Clair  Eiver. 
To  effect  the  required  deepening  in  Lake  St.  Clair  and  at  the  head  of 
the  Detroit  River  it  was  thought  that  dredging  would  be  most  satis- 
factory. 

131.  The  design  of  these  works  suggested  above  must  be  preceded 
by  extensive  surveys  and  studies.  The  building  of  models  on  a  fairly 
large  scale  for  experimentation  prior  to  final  adoption  of  designs 
appears  desirable.  The  construction  of  the  final  works  should  be  pre- 
ceded and  accompanied  by  the  maintenance  of  a  number  of  automatic 
water  gauges  at  critical  points  on  the  rivers.  It  is  highly  desirable 
that  these  gauges  be  installed  as  soon  as  possible  in  order  that  sev- 
eral years'  records  may  be  available  before  construction  is  com- 
menced. 

132.  Economic  effect  of  diversions  upon  navigation. — The  Great 
Lakes  system  forms  one  of  the  world's  greatest  highways  for  water- 
borne  transportation..  The  Great  Lakes  fleet  moves  more  than  100,- 
000,000  tons  of  freight  each  season.  The  greater  part  of  this  com- 
merce is  in  the  so-called  "  bulk  freight,"  consisting  of  iron  ore,  coal, 
grain,  and  limestone.  This  is  carried  in  a  peculiar  type  of  vessel 
known  as  the  "  bulk  freighter."  The  bulk  freighters  are  highly  spe- 
cialized boats  which  have  been  developed  by  the  conditions  of  the 
lake  trade.  These  vessels  are  from  280  to  625  feet  in  length  and 
have  a  carrying  capacity  of  from  3,000  to  15,000  short  tons.  Most 
of  them  can  be  loaded  to  a  draft  of  about  22  feet.  They  are  the 
most  economical  carriers  in  the  world,  their  rates  usually  being  less 
than  one-tenth  of  a  cent  per  ton-mile,  and  sometimes  only  a  third  of 
that  amount.  Rail  rates  are  several  times  as  much,  often  being  at 
least  10  times  the  water  rates.  The  annual  saving  over  the  cost  of 
moving  this  same  freight  by  rail  exceeds  a  quarter  of  a  billion 
dollars. 

133.  Under  the  conditions  of  100  years  ago,  the  only  ships  which 
could  navigate  the  Great  Lakes  system  and  enter  the  harbors  were 
small  vessels  drawing  about  5  feet  of  water.  The  United  States  has 
spent  about  $135,000,000  in  improving  the  harbors,  deepening  and 
straightening  the  channels,  and  building  locks  on  the  St.  Marys  and 
Niagara  Rivers.  The  Canadians  have  done  similar  work  on  a  smaller 
scale.  As  a  result  there  is  now  available  a  ship  channel  through  and 
between  the  upi^er  lakes  with  a  controlling  depth  of  21  feet  at  mean 
stage.  All  the  important  harbors  have  corresponding  depths.  From 
Lake  Erie  through  the  Welland  Canal,  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  to  tidewater  at  Montreal,  the  controlling  depth  is 
14  feet. 

134.  The  immense  traffic  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  a  direct  result  of 
these  improvements  of  navigation,  and  the  movement  of  such  large 
amounts  of  freight  at  such  low  rates  is  directly  due  to  the  greater 


92        DIVEKSIOX   OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

depths  thus  made  avuihible.  Vessel  owners  keep  ck)se  track  of  the 
staire  of  water,  and  take  advantaf^e  of  every  period  of  hi<;h  stage  to 
load  their  boats  to  greater  draft.  During  times  >vlien  low  stages 
prevail  they  are  correspondingly  handicapped  and  the  carrying  ca- 
pacitj'  of  the  fleet  is  materially  reduced. 

18o.  As  already  shown,  the  existing  diversions  of  Avater  from  the 
Great  Lakes  have  caused  a  considerable  lowering  of  the  lake  levels, 
and  further  diversions,  with  consequent  further  lowerings.  are  con- 
templated. The  average  loss  caused  by  a  reduction  of  one-tenth  of 
a  foot  in  the  available  draft  amounts  to  $44.57  for  one  trip  of  a  bulk 
freighter  on  the  upper  lakes,  or  $590,000  per  year  for  the  whole  fleet. 
For  the  smaller  vessels  engaged  in  trade  through  the  AVelland  and 
St.  Lawrence  Canals  the  average  loss  caused  by  a  lowering  of  one- 
tenth  of  a  foot  is  $4L40  for  each  trip  and  $70,000  per  year  for  the 
whole  fleet. 

136.  The  amounts  by  which  the  various  lakes  have  already  been 
lowered  by  existing  diversions  have  been  given  in  Table  No.  6.  The 
total  loss  to  the  bulk  freight  trade  caused  by  this  lowering  is  esti- 
mated at  $4.71:^,000  per  year.  If  all  the  contemj^lated  diversions 
listed  in  Table  No.  7  should  be  effected  the  resulting  lowering  would 
increiiSe  the  annual  loss  to  $7,825,000. 

187.  Of  the  loss  now  occurring,  $2,86G,000  per  year  is  due  to  the 
diversion  of  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second  by  the  Sanitary  District  of 
Chicago.  This  is  60  per  cent  of  the  total  loss. and  is  $326  per  year 
for  each  cubic  foot  per  second  of  diversion.  The  diversion  of  the 
power  companies  at  Niagara  Falls  taking  water  from  points  above 
the  first  cascade,  equivalent  in  effect  to  the  diversion  of  23.000  cubic 
feet  per  second  from  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  Pool,  causes  an 
annual  loss  of  $526,000.  This  is  11  per  cent  of  the  total  loss  and  is 
$23  per  year  for  each  cubic  foot  per  second  of  effective  diversion. 

138.  The  total  loss  to  navigation  amounts  to  a  direct  tax  upon  the 
transportation  of  iron  ore.  coal,  and  grain — that  is.  upon  steel,  fuel, 
and  food,  three  fundamental  necessities  of  modern  life.  The  Great 
Lakes  traffic  is  an  absolutely  essential  part  of  the  American  steel 
industry,  and  plays  an  important  part  in  the  distribution  of  grain 
and  coal.  The  l)ulk  freisfhter  of  the  lakes  carries  each  year  about 
80  per  cent  of  the  Nation's  production  of  iron  ore,  more  than  20  per 
cent  of  the  combined  wheat  crops  of  the  TTnited  States  and  Canada, 
and  about  5  per  cent  of  the  coal  i)roduction  of  the  T'nited  States. 
The  co.st  of  all  these  products  to  the  general  public  is  increased  by 
the  diversions. 

A  thorough  study  of  this  subject  is  presented  in  Appendix  II, 
Section  T. 

139.  Effect  upon  riparian  interests. — The  effect  of  diversions  of 
water  from  the  Great  Lakes  upon  riparian  interests  on  these  lakes 
and  their  connecting  waters  is  small.  The  lower  lake  levels  uncover 
a  slightly  greater  width  of  beach,  but  this  is  usually  neither  an  ad- 
vanta<re  noi"  a  disadvantage  to  the  riparian  owner.  In  a  few  places, 
notably  on  Maumee  and  Saginaw  Bays  and  at  St.  Clair  Flats,  there 
is  lowland  which  is  somewhat  increased  in  value  when  low  stages  of 
the  lakes  permit  the  harvesting  of  marsh  hay.  There  is  also  a  small 
amount  of  low-lying  land  which  is  very  valuable  for  truck  garden- 
ing, but  is  so  low  that  in  j'cars  of  high  stage  it  is  too  wet  for  use. 


DIVEKSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER,       93 

Any  lowering  of  the  lake  levels  works  to  the  advantage  of  the  own- 
ers of  these  lands. 

140.  In  the  sheltered  Avaters  of  the  Great  Lakes  the  lowering  of 
water  levels  works  serious  hardship  to  many  of  the  riparian  owners. 
In  such  places  there  are  a  great  many  boathouses,  dredged  slips, 
and  small  private  docks.  These  are  built  to  suit  the  prevailing  stages 
of  the  lake,  and  their  value  is  much  impaired  at  low  stages. 

141.  With  the  data  at  hand  it  is  impossible  to  evaluate  these  vari- 
ous advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  effects  of  diversions.  The 
experience  of  the  War  Department  has  been  that  many  more  coni- 
plaints  are  received  because  of  low  stage  than  because  of  high.  It  is 
believed  that  this  matter  of  riparian  interests  constitutes  but  a  very 
minor  part  of  the  problem  of  lake  levels.  It  is  discussed  in  somewhat 
greater  detail  in  Section  H  2  of  Appendix  F. 

142.  Value  to  Chicago  of  its  diversion. — In  Section  B  3  of  Ap- 
pendix F  the  question  of  the  value  to  Chicago  of  its  diversion  is 
treated.  There  are  no  unbiased  data  covering  this  matter  in  exist- 
ence, and  the  estimates  herein  given  are  based  upon  the  testimony 
of  the  expert  witnesses  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  in  the 
case  of  the  United  States  v.  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago.  The 
ex  parte  nature  of  this  testimony  is  at  least  partly  counteracted  by 
the  rise  in  wages  and  prices  which  has  occcurred  since  these  witnesses 
made  their  studies. 

143.  The  general  estimate  arrived  at  was  that  the  present  diversion 
of  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second  has  a  value  to  the  city  of  Chicago  of 
about  $7,000,000  a  year,  or  $800  i^er  cubic  foot  per  second  per  annum. 

144.  Value  to  the  puhlic  of  the  effect  on  power  froditction. — The 
various  diversions  which  are  used  to  develop  electric  power,  produce 
power  at  a  much  lower  cost  than  is  possible  with  plants  developing 
power  from  coal.  It  is  estimated  that  a  new,  300- foot  head  plant  at 
Niagara  Falls  could  sell  large  blocks  of  continuous  power  at  the 
switchboard  at  generator  voltage  for  $19  per  horsepower-year,  while 
a  steam-electric  station  of  the  most  modern  type  would  have  to  charge 
■$50.70  for  the  same  class  of  power.  The  saving  by  the  use  of  hy- 
draulic power  is  $31.70  per  horsepower-year,  or  $834  a  year  for  each 
cubic  foot  per  second  diverted. 

145.  The  present  Niagara  developments  are  less  efficient  than  those 
proposed  and  develop  m.uch  less  power  from  a  given  diversion.  The 
value  of  the  water  which  they  now  divert  is  estimated  at  $500  per 
cubic  foot  per  second,  or  about  $25,000,000  a  year  for  the  total 
diversion  of  the  five  companies  at  the  Falls. 

146.  In  addition  to  this  saving  of  money,  there  is  a  further  value 
in  the  conservation  of  the  coal  supply  of  the  Nation,  and  in  the 
great  impetus  wdiich  cheap  power  gives  to  the  various  electro-chem- 
ical industries. 

147.  The  other  power  diversions  on  the  Great  Lakes  have  a  value 
similar  in  nature,  but  less  in  amount,  than  those  at  Niagara  Falls. 

148.  C omparison  of  effects  and  values. — ^The  various  studies  pre- 
sented in  the  earlier  parts  of  Section  H  show  that  the  present  diver- 
sion of  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second  through  the  Chicago  Drainage 
Canal  has  an  estimated  value  to  the  people  of  the  Sanitary  District 
of  Chicago  of  perhaps  $7,000,000  a  year.  This  diversion  damages 
some  riparian  interests  and  is  of  value  to  others.     On  the  whole, 


94        Dn^ERSION    OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  L.\KES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

riparian  interests  are  probably  more  damajred  than  benefited.  The 
damage  to  the  shipi^ing  trade  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  estimated  at 
$2,866,000  a  year. 

149.  It  appears  that  at  present  the  total  benefits  derived  from  the 
diversi(m  exceed  the  total  damages  about  in  the  ratio  of  5  to  2.  but 
unfortunately  the  benefits  and  damages  are  not  received  by  the  same 
people.  It  is  no  satisfaction  to  the  one  who  is  injured  to  be  assured 
that  some  one  else  is  benefiting  in  a  greater  degree.  A  reasonable 
expenditure  by  the  Sanitary  District  for  compensating  works  will 
be  sufficient  to  remedy  nearly  all  the  harmful  results  in  so  far  as  navi- 
gation interests  are  concerned.  Complete  estimates  of  tlie  cost  of 
compensation  were  not  made,  but*  $500,000  a  year  should  certainly 
be  sufficient  to  care  for  compensation  for  the  Chicago  diversions  for 
the  next  one  or  two  decades.  If  the  time  comes,  however,  as  it  may 
in  20  or  30  years,  when  the  diversions  at  Niagara  Falls  are  limited 
because  of  the  lack  of  M^ater  in  Niagara  River,  the  value  of  water  at 
Niagara  Falls  will  have  to  be  charged  against  the  Chicago  diversion. 
This  has  been  given  as  $834  per  cubic  foot  per  second  per  annum, 
the  value  to  Chicago  being  only  $800.  How  these  values  would 
change  during  the  next  20  or  30  years  is  a  matter  of  speculation,  but 
it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  value  of  coal  will  increase, 
making  wat^r  power  more  valuable,  while  advancements  in  sanitary 
science  will  render  the  use  of  water  for  sewage  dilution  less  urgent, 
and  hence  less  valuable.  A  similar  case  may  arise  in  connection  with 
St.  Lawrence  power  developments.  It  thus  appears  that  in  due 
course  of  time  the  value  of  this  diversion  per  cubic  foot  per  second 
is  likely  to  be  much  greater  than  at  present  for  power  uses  along 
the  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence  Rivers  than  for  sanitation  at  Chicago 
and  power  development  in  Illinois. 

150.  In  case  of  the  Niagara  diversions  the  beneficial  results  of 
the  diversion  are  three  or  four  times  as  great,  while  the  damage  done 
is  only  one-fifth  as  much.  The  estimated  figures  are — benefits,  $25,- 
000,000  per  annum ;  damages,  $526,000  per  annum.  The  annual  cost 
of  compensating  for  the  elFect  of  these  diversions  is  only  a  few  thou- 
sand dollars. 

151.  The  other  diversions  are  of  minor  importance.  In  each  case 
the  damage  done  is  small  and  the  estimated  cost  of  compensation  is 
small.  This  cost  could  easily  be  borne  by  those  who  receive  the 
benefit  of  the  diversion. 

152.  The  adjustment  of  these  conflicting  interests  hinges  mainly 
on  the  settlement  of  the  long-continued  dispute  about  the  Chicago 
diversion.  On  the  one  hand  are  the  needs  of  our  greatest  inland 
city  under  its  present  system  of  sewage  disposal.  On  the  other  hand 
are  all  the  rij)arian.  power,  and  navigation  interests  of  Lakes  Michi- 
gan. Huron,  St.  Clair,  Erie,  and  Ontario  and  also  of  the  St.  Marys 
River  below  the  locks,  and  the  St.  Clair,  Detroit,  Niagara,  and  the 
St.  Lawrence  Rivers.  The  Sanitary  District  does  not  dispute  the 
fact  that  other  sanitary  measure  can  be  adopted,  and  that  other  lake 
cities  not  situated  near  the  summit  of  a  divide  are  being  driven 
to  adopt  them :  it  argues  only  that  the  expense  is  enormous  and 
prohibitive.  The  Sanitary  District  no  longer  denies  injury  to  navi- 
gation on  the  lakes,  and  to  riparian  owners,  including  those  along 
thousands  of  miles  of  lake  and  river  shores  in  Canada;  it  claims 


DIVEESION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       95 

only  tliat  the  actual  injury  is  comparatively  slight,  and  much  less 
than  the  amount  claimed  by  the  Federal  Government. 

153.  If  conditions  could  be  restored  to  those  existmg  in  1890,  and 
the  city  of  Chicago  should  ask  permission  to  divert  water  for  use  in 
such  a'  sewage  disposal  system  as  they  now  have,  the  request  would 
and  should  be  refused.  It  would  undoubtedly  appear  that  the  bene- 
fits to  be  obtained  would  not  be  commensurate  with  the  damage 
which  would  be  caused.  If  the  question  were  to  be  decided  solely  on 
the  basis  of  the  most  economical  use  of  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes 
the  solution  would  involve  restriction  of  the  diversion  to  the  amount 
required  for  purposes  of  navigation,  and  adoption  of  other  methods 
of  sewaoje  disposal.  i      i.  • 

154.  Unfortunately  the  matter  can  not  be  disposed  of  in  such 
simple  manner.  The  vast  sums  of  money  invested  by  the  district 
demand  some  protection,  and  the  city  can  not  properly  be  deprived 
of  its  dilution  water  until  some  other  method  of  protecting  its  water 
supply  has  been  provided.  It  might  be  possible,  under  Congressional 
sanction,  to  arrange  a  program  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  the 
diversion  and  retiring  of  the  bonds,  together  with  a  corresponding 
development  and  substitution  of  a  sj^stem  of  sewage  disposal  by 
screening,  filtration,  sterilization,  and  similar  processes. 

155.  Another  solution  would  be  the  authorization  of  a  permanent 
diversion  through  the  Drainage  Canal  sufficient  in  amount  to  satisfy 
the  present  needs  of  the  disposal  system,  the  district  agreeing  that 
this  amount  would  never  be  increased  and  that  the  needs  of  the  future 
growth  of  the  city  would  be  satisfied  by  some  different  method.  Con- 
sideration should  be  given  to  the  fact  that  under  the  existmg  system 
a  diversion  of  nearly  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  occasionally  re- 
quired to  prevent  the  run-off  from  violent  storms  from  entering  the 
lake,  with  consequent  pollution  of  the  water  supply.  Under  tins 
plan  the  district  would  be  required  to  pay  for  the  construction, 
operation,  and  maintenance  of  remedial  works  which  would  maintain 
normal  lake  levels  and  prevent  the  diversion  from  damaging  navi- 
gation or  riparian  interests,  thus  compensating  the  paramount  in- 
terest of  navigation;  and  a  license  fee  should  be  charged  to  com- 
pensate the  general  public  for  the  loss  of  the  waterpower  which 
could  be  developed  by  the  use  of  this  water  along  the  Niagara  and 
St.  Lawrence  Rivers,  this  to  be  based  in  general  upon  the  difference 
in  the  available  heads. 

156.  International  matters  involved.— Previous  to  the  appointment 
of  the  International  Waterways  Commission  there  was  no  interna- 
tional supervision  of  the  use  of  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes.  In 
each  country  such  diversions  as  were  desired  were  made  without  con- 
sulting the  other  country,  and  usually  without  any  thought  of  the 
possibility  of  causing  any  damage  to  any  one.  In  the  early  days 
most  of  the  diversions  were  small  and  the  international  interests 
were  affected  chiefly  in  theory  rather  than  by  the  infliction  of  any 
actual  damage.  It 'is  not  recalled  that  either  country  felt  itself  ag- 
grieved by  any  diversion  made  outside  its  boundaries. 

157.  Between  1890  and  1905  this  state  of  affairs  was  radically 
altered.  The  construction  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  and  of 
the  large  power  developments  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  Niagara 
Falls,  aroused  public  interest  in  the  use  of  lake  waters,  while  the 
occurrence  of  unusually  low  lake  stages  in  the  early  nineties  alarmed 


96        Dn*ERSIOX   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

the  shipping]:  interests.  Studies  of  the  relation  between  diversion 
and  lake  lowerin<x  were  undertaken  by  the  Government.  In  1902 
the  International  Waterways  Commission  was  aj^pointed  to  consider 
such  matters,  and  its  action  resulted  in  the  nejrotiation  of  the  treaty 
of  1910  and  the  appointment  of  the  International  Joint  Commission. 

158.  The  International  Waterways  Commission  laid  down  the  fol- 
lowing general  principles  applicable  to  the  diversion  of  water  from 
the  Great  Lakes: 

1.  In  all  navigable  waters  the  use  for  navigation  purposes  is  of  primary  and 
paramount  right.  The  Great  Lakes  system  on  the  boundaiy  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  and  finding  its  outlet  by  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  sea  should 
be  maintained  in  its  integrity. 

2.  Permanent  or  complete  diversions  of  navigable  waters  or  their  tributary 
streams  should  only  be  permitted  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  the  use  of 
locks  in  navigation  canals. 

3.  Diversions  can  be  permitted  of  a  temporary  character  where  the  water  is 
taken  and  returned,  when  such  diversions  do  not  interfere  in  any  way  ^vith 
the  interests  of  navigation.  In  such  cases  each  country  is  to  have  a  right  to 
diversion  in  equal  quantities. 

iti  *****  H: 

6.  A  permanent  joint  commission  can  deal  much  more  satisfactorily  with  the 
settlement  of  all  disputes  arising  as  to  the  application  of  these  principles  and 
should  be  appointed. 

159.  In  the  above  the  term  "  permanent  diversions  "  is  understood 
to  mean  diversions  from  the  Great  Lakes  sj^stem  to  some  other  water- 
shed (e.  g.  the  diversion  at  Chicago),  while  "diversions  of  a  tem- 
porary character"  is  taken  to  mean  diversions  of  water  which  is  re- 
turned to  the  Great  Lakes  sj'^stem  (e.  g.  the  diversions  at  Niagara 
Falls).  The  term  "domestic  purposes"  is  understood  to  cover  all 
ordinary  sanitary  uses. 

160.  To  these  principles  another  may  well  be  added,  as  follows: 

Diversions  of  water  from  tributaries  of  the  Great  Lakes,  unless  the  water  is 
returned  to  the  same  tributary,  shall  be  considered  as  diversions  from  the  lakes. 

161.  Principle  1  is  generally  recognized  by  all  the  parties  inter- 
ested. Principle  2  is  not  disputed,  but  it  is  coming  to  be  recognized 
that  when  such  diversions  are  large  they  necessitate  the  construction 
of  remedial  works  which  will  prevent  any  serious  lowering  of  the 
lake  levels  being  caused  by  them. 

162.  Principle  3  has  been  applied  to  the  diversions  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  and  is  recognized  as  a  correct  general  principle.  The  present 
treaty  wath  Great  Britain,  however,  makes  an  exception  in  the  case 
of  the  Upper  Niagara  River  and  allow^s  a  diversion  of  36,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  in  Canada  and  only  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in 
the  United  States.  There  were  good  reasons  for  this  discrimination 
at  the  time  the  treaty  Avas  framed,  but  some  of  them  no  longer  exist 
and,  if  the  remedial  works  described  in  Appendix  C  ai-e  built,  the 
situation  will  be  completely  altered  and  their  will  remain  no  reason 
why  an  equal  division  of  diversions  under  principle  3  should  not  be 
made. 

163.  There  are  Canadian  diversions  from  Lake  Erie  across  the 
Niagara  Peninsula  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  another  one  is  proposed. 
Mqual  American  diversions  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario  as  al- 
lowed l>y  princijde  3  would  be  possil)le.  but  from  an  economic  stand- 
jjoint  they  would  be  undesirable.  For  this  reason  it  is  felt  that  no 
further  Canadian   diversions  of  this  character  should  be  allowed, 


DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       97 

and  that  tlie  existin<r  divei'sions  should  be  limited  to  the  present 
amounts. 

1C)4.  Principle  6  has  ])eoii  accepted  by  botli  countries,  and  the  In- 
teinational  Joint  (^mimission  has  been  in  existence  for  several  years. 

165.  The  principle  that  diversions  from  tributaries  be  considere<l 
to  be  diversions  from  the  hikes  is  needed  in  the  interest  of  clearness. 
It  has  usually  been  followed  without  comment  in  discussions  of  the 
lake  levels  problem,  but  it  was  not  incorporated  in  the  treaty.  With- 
out it  there  is  a  possibility  of  frustrating  the  purpose  of  the  treaty 
by  making  large  diversions  from  tributaries  in  cases  where  the  In- 
ternational Joint  Commission  would  have  forbidden  them  if  they 
were  made  directly  from  the  lake.  In  such  cases  the  court  procedure 
provided  might  Avell  be  unsatisfactory  to  those  claiming  damage. 

1G6.  The  construction  and  maintenance  of  compensating  or  regu- 
lating works  is  another  matter  which  requires  international  action. 
Such  works  would  affect  lake  levels  within  the  boundaries  of  both 
countries.  They  have  often  been  proposed  to  correct  lake  lowerings 
which  Avere  the  result  of  several  diversions,  some  in  one  country  and 
some  in  the  other.  It  appears  desirable  that  such  works  should  be 
constructed  under  joint  supervision  and  paid  for  by  an  equitable 
international  apportionment  of  the  cost. 

167.  The  same  statements  applj^  to  the  remedial  works  in  the 
Horseshoe  Eapids,  which  are  described  in  Appendix  C. 

168.  Treaty  provisions. — Matters  pertaining  to  the  diversion  of 
water  from  boundary  waters  between  the  United  States  and  Canada 
are  now  controlled  hy  a  treaty  ratified  on  May  5,  1910.  The  text 
of  this  treaty  is  quoted  in  full  in  Section  1 2  of  Appendix  G.  In  the 
interest  of  clearness,  and  to  avoid  possible  future  complications,  it 
is  deemed  advisable  to  modify  Articles  II  and  III  of  this  treaty  so 
as  to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  International  Joint  Commission 
to  cover  the  diversion  of  water  from  streams  and  lakes  tributary  to 
boundary  waters. 

169.  Article  V  of  the  treaty  deals  with  the  diversions  of  water 
from  the  Niagara  River  for  powder  production.  For  reasons  given  in 
Appendix  G,  the  considerations  which  caused  the  unequal  division 
of  water  between  the  two  countries,  as  provided  in  this  article,  are 
no  longer  operative.  Under  plans  outlined  in  Appendices  C  and  D 
a  much  greater  diversion  than  that  authorized  in  Article  V  can  be 
allowed,  while  at  the  same  time  the  scenic  preservation  will  be  cared 
for  in  the  best  possible  manner.  A  new  treaty  should  provide  for 
the  diversions  stated  in  Appendix  i\  namely,  each  country  to  be 
allowed  to  divert  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  around  the  Falls  and 
Lower  Eapids,  and  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  additional  around 
the  Falls  alone.  It  would  be  well  to  provide  also  for  the  possibility 
that  operation  under  this  plan  may  show  still  greater  diversions  to 
be  permissible. 

170.  A  modification  of  the  introductory  sentence  of  Article  V  is 
also  desirable.  It  now  reads  that  the  parties  consider  that  "  it  is 
expedient  to  limit  the  diversion  of  waters  from  the  Niagara  River 
so  that  the  level  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  flow  of  the  stream  shall  not  be 
appreciably  affected."  It  is  an  historical  fact  that  one  of  the  chief 
reasons  for  the  negotiation  of  this  treaty  was  the  desire  to  preserve 

27880—21 ^T 


98        DIVERSION   OF   WATEE   FROM   GREAT  L.\KES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  rapids:  therefore  this  reason  might 
Mell  be  added  to  tho^e  given  in  the  text  quoted. 

171.  In  the  attempt  to  operate  large  h3^droelectric  plants  very 
close  to  an  authorized  limit  of  diversion,  occasional  accidental  peak 
loads  may  cause  an  unintentional  overstepping  of  the  limit.  If 
these  are  not  permitted  the  plant  must  habitually  be  operated  at  less 
than  the  allowed  load,  thus  reducing  the  total  output  of  power. 
For  this  reason  it  would  seem  that  the  treaty,  and  the  permits  is- 
sued under  it,  should  not  penalize  such  occasional  accidental  excess 
diversions. 

172.  It  is  believed  that  no  modification  of  the  treaty  will  be  re- 
(|uired  in  order  to  allow  the  construction  of  compensating  works 
other  than  the  "  remedial  works  "  in  the  Horseshoe  Rapids.  Such 
matters  can  be  handled  by  joint  legislative  action  in  the  two  coun- 
tries, and  by  the  International  Joint  Commission. 

173.  Interests  of  various  States. — Eight  of  our  States  and  two 
provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  abut  upon  the  waters  of  the 
(ireat  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  Kiver,  and  are  affected  by  diversions 
of  these  waters.  Six  other  States  on  the  Mississippi  River  below  the 
point  wdiere  the  diversion  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  is  received 
have  at  least  a  theoretical  interest  in  that  diversion.  These  States 
and  provinces  have  a  total  population  of  about  61,000,000  people, 
containing  53  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  continental  United 
States  and  63  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

174.  The  State  of  Missouri  claimed  a  vital  interest  in  the  Chicago 
diversion  on  the  ground  that  it  endangered  the  health  of  residents  of 
St.  Louis  and  other  places.  \Vhen  they  sought  relief  by  a  suit  in 
equity,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  dismissed  the  suit 
"  without  prejudice  "  on  the  ground  that  the  plaintiffs  had  failed  to 
prove  damage.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  case  may  some  day  be 
reopened. 

175.  The  other  States  on  the  Mississippi  have  but  a  theoretical 
interest  in  the  Chicago  diversion.  The  aid  which  it  affords  to  low- 
Avater  navigation  is  very  small  above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri 
River  and  trifling  below  that  point.  The  additional  height  of  floods 
which  it  causes  is  of  no  practical  importance. 

170.  The  States  abutting  on  the  Great  Lakes  all  suffer  damage 
from  the  diversions  made  in  two  of  them,  namely,  Illinois  and  Xew 
York.  The  nature  and  extent  of  this  damage  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed. 

177.  Such  controversies  as  arise  from  these  diversions,  where  a 
numl^er  of  States  are  damaged  by  diversions  which  benefit  another 
State  appear  to  fall  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. This  view  has  not  always  been  accepted,  and  the  claim  of 
Illinois  that  the  diversion  of  water  from  the  lake  adjacent  to  its 
shores  is  a  purely  domestic  matter  with  which  neither  the  United 
States  nor  any  single  State  can  interfere,  except  in  a  damage  suit, 
is  now  before  a  Federal  court.  It  is  hoped  that  a  decision  in  this 
case  (T^nited  States  of  America  v.  The  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago) 
will  afford  a  permanent  settlement  of  this  question. 

178.  The  State  of  New  York  has  admitted  the  right  of  the  United 
States  to  i>lace  a  limit  on  the  diversions  of  water  from  the  Niagara 
River,  but  insists  that  the  only  right  of  the  Federal  Government  is 
to  fix  a  limit  to  the  total  diversion,  and  that  it  is  within  the  province 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   (JREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.       99 

of  the  State  to  allot  this  diversion  to  various  power  companies  or 
utilize  the  diversion  itself,  and  to  regulate  the  manner  in  which  it 
may  be  used. 

The  contrary  view  is  that  the  (iovernment  may  <!;rant  permits  for 
certain  parts  of  the  diversion  and  may  make  such  permits  condi- 
tional upon  the  attainment  of  certain  efficiencies,  the  maintaining  of 
certain  rates,  or  the  observance  of  any  other  conditions  it  sees  fit 
to  impose.  This  latter  view  would  appear  to  be  more  in  accordance 
with  the  trend  of  recent  legislation,  and  recent  decisions  of  the 
Supreme  Court. 

179.  Rate  control  and  regulation. — The  water  power  of  the  Niagara 
Eiver  constitutes  a  natural  monopoly.  The  amount  of  power  devel- 
opable there  will  always  be  limited,  and  can  always  be  sold  profitably 
at  a  price  much  lower  than  the  average  cost  of  power  throughout  the 
country.  Therefore  there  can  never  be  any  permanent  condition 
of  competition  among  the  various  companies  developing  Niagara 
power,  and  the  natural  operation  of  economic  laws  will  not  of  itself 
keep  the  rates  down  to  a  reasonable  figure.  When  new  power  houses 
are  built  a  temporary  situation  may  occur  in  which  there  is  more 
power  capacity  than  the  existing  market  can  absorb,  and  for  a  time 
vigorous,  and  even  destructive,  competition  might  exist,  but  such 
a  condition  could  not  continue.  In  a  few  years  a  market  sufficient  to 
use  the  total  output  of  the  power  plants  would  be  built  up,  and  non- 
competitive conditions  w^ould  return.  The  only  survival  of  the  period 
of  competition  would  be  such  long-term  contracts  as  might  have 
been  made  for  power  at  unprofitably  low  rates,  and  such  excess 
charges  to  new  customers  as  might  be  made  in  an  attempt  to  make 
good  the  deficiencies. 

180.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  the  privilege  of  developing  the 
water  power  of  the  Niagara  River  will  always  constitute  a  monopoly. 
Whether  that  privilege  be  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a  single  com- 
pany or  divided  among  a  number  of  independent  concerns  w'ill  have 
no  effect  upon  its  monopolistic  character,  nor  will  it  make  any  per- 
manent difference  in  the  selling  price  of  power,  except  that  the  lesser 
overhead  costs  of  a  single  large  company  might  enable  such  a  con- 
cern to  do  a  profitable  business  at  a  slightly  lower  rate. 

181.  It  has  become  a  well  established  principle  in  this  country  that 
the  rates  charged  by  a  monopolistic  or  semi-monopolistic  public 
service  corporation  ought  to  be  controlled  and  regulated  by  some 
executive  branch  of  the  State  or  National  Governments.  This  prin- 
ciple applies  with  full  force  to  the  corporations  developing  Niagara 
power.  The  proper  basis  for  rate  making  by  any  regulating  com- 
mission is  usually  expressed  by  saying  that  the  company  shall  receive 
a  "  fair  return  upon  the  fair  value  "  of  its  property. 

182.  Recom/niended  treaty  provisions. — It  is  recommended  that  the 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  proclaimed  May  13, 1910,  be  modified  in  the 
following  particulars : 

(1)  That  the  wording  of  the  treaty  be  altered  to  extend  the  juris- 
diction of  the  International  Joint  Commission  to  include  diversions 
from  tributaries  of  boundary  waters  except  in  the  case  of  diversions 
from  a  tributary  which  are  returned  to  the  same  tributary. 

(2)  That  the  words,  "  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  rapids," 
be  inserted  in  the  first  sentence  of  Article  V  after  the  word  "  Erie.'* 


100     Dn'EESIOX   OF  WATER   FROM    GREAT   I^MvES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

(3)  That  the  diversion  of  water  from  Niagara  River  below  the 
Falls  be  specifically  limited  in  the  same  manner  as  the  diversion  from 
the  Xia<rara  Kiver  above  the  Falls. 

(4)  That  the  ti-eaty  provide  for  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  remedial  works  of  the  nature  outlined  in  Section  F  of  this  report: 
such  works  to  be  built  under  the  su])ervision  of  the  International 
Joint  Commission,  or  of  some  other  international  body  created  for 
the  purpose;  the  remedial  works  to  be  so  desig^ned  and  constructed 
that  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  will  be  restored  and  preserved 
when  80.000  cubic  feet  of  Avater  per  second  is  diverted  from  the 
Niagara  River  above  the  Falls:  the  expense  of  constructing;  and 
niaintainin<r  said  works  to  be  l)orne  equally  by  the  hi^rh  contract- 
ing parties. 

(5)  That  the  limits  of  diversion  from  the  Niagara  River  above 
the  Falls  M'hich  the  high  contracting  parties  may  permit  within  their 
i-espective  jurisdictions  be  raised  from  20.000  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second  on  the  United  States  side  to  40.000  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second,  and  from  36,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  on  the  Cana- 
dian side  to  40,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second. 

(6)  That  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  the  water  so  diverted  upon 
each  side  of  the  river  shall  be  returned  to  the  Niagara  RiA'er  at  some 
jioint  or  points  upstream  from  turning  point  number  134  of  the  inter- 
national boundary  line  adopted  August  15,  1913,  by  the  International 
WaterAvays  Commission  under  Article  IV  of  the  treaty  between  the 
United  States  of  America  and  the  United  Kingdom  of  (xreat  Britain 
and  Ireland,  signed  April  11,  1908;  and  that  if  any  part  of  the  re- 
maining diversion  be  returned  to  the  Niagara  River  at  any  point  an 
equal  or  smaller  amount  may  be  again  diverted  from  any  point  far- 
ther down  stream. 

(7)  That  the  limits  given  above  be  stipulated  to  apply  to  the 
amount  actually  diverted  at  any  instant,  and  that  accordingly  the 
w^ords  "  in  the  aggregate  "  and  "  daily  "  be  stricken  out  of  Article  V 
of  the  present  treaty  wherever  they  occur:  that  it  be  recognized  that 
small,  brief,  accidental  violations  of  the  provisions  of  a  diversion 
permit  must  be  allowed  if  the  holder  of  the  permit  is  to  obtain  the 
full  value  thereof,  and  that  therefore  such  violations  shall  be  per- 
mitted under  such  regulations  as  the  International  Joint  Commission 
shall  provide. 

(8)  That  five  years  after  the  completion  of  the  remedial  works  the 
international  Joint  Commission,  or  some  other  body  constituted  for 
the  purpose,  shall  inform  the  high  contracting  parties  whether  or  not. 
in  its  opinion,  further  diversions  of  water  from  the  Niagara  River 
for  power  development  can  be  made,  either  continuously  or  inter- 
mittently, without  serious  injury  to  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and 
rapids,  the  integrity  of  the  river  as  a  bovmdary  stream,  or  appre- 
ciable lowering  of  lake  levels.  That,  if  this  opinion  be  favorable  to 
the  further  diversion  of  water,  the  commission  or  l^ody  shall  in- 
dicate the  amount  of  further  diversion  which  may  j^roperly  be  al- 
lowed, and  the  conditions  by  which  permits  should  l)e  limited. 

183.  Recommended  use  of  diversions. — In  regard  to  the  use  of  the 
various  diversions  of  water  from  the  Cireat  Lakes  and  Niagara  River. 
the  following  recommendations  are  made. 

(1)  That  no  change  be  made  in  the  method  of  dealing  with  di- 
versions whose  primai-y  use  is  for  navigation  pur]-)oses. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      101 

(2)  That  Federal  control  of  the  diversion  at  Chicago  and  in  the 
vicinity  be  established  by  such  measures  as  are  necessary,  provided 
the  United  States  courts"  do  not  uphold  the  present  apparent  right 
Oi  the  Federal  (Tovernnient  to  regulate  the  diversions  there;  the 
Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  being  permitted  to  divert  from  Lake 
Michigan  and  its  tributaries  a  total  quantity  of  water  not  exceeding 
at  any  time  a  flow  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second;  under  the  con- 
ditions that  the  Secretary  of  War  shall  supervise  the  diversions  as 
he  deems  best,  that  the  expense  of  supervision  shall  be  paid  for 
promptly  at  stated  intervals  by  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago, 
that  no  dangerous  conditions  shall  be  created  in  navigable  waters, 
that  the  Sanitary  District  agrees  to  be  responsible  for  any  damage 
claims  arising  because  of  the  di Aversion,  that  it  shall  pay  its  share 
as  determined  by  the  Secretary  of  War  of  the  cost  of  such  compen- 
sating works  as  "the  Federal  Government  considers  necessary  because 
of  diversions  of  Avater  from  the  Great  Lakes  system,  that  it  agrees 
not  to  request  or  make  any  diversion  in  excess  of  that  herein  stated, 
that  it  shall  pay  to  the  LTnited  States  for  water  used  for  power  pur- 
poses at  a  rate  per  cubic  foot  to  be  based  upon  the  relative  value  of 
the  power  as  developed  and  that  which  could  have  been  developed  by 
its  use  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  along  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and 
that  it  does  all  in  its  power  to  secure  any  State  authority  needed  to 
enable  it  to  undertake  the  establishment  of  provisions  for  sewage 
disposal  other  than  by  dilution  and  when  so  enabled  provides  as 
rapidly  as  necessary  such  sewage  disposal  facilities  as  are  needed  to 
care  for  the  growth  of  the  district. 

(3)  That  consideration  be  Avithheld  on  all  proposals  for  water 
diversions  for  combined  navigation,  power,  and  sanitary  purposes, 
unless  of  far  reaching  importance  and  effects  and  consistent  with 
plans  approved  by  the  International  Joint  Commission  as  remedial 
against  the  pollution  of  boundary  waters. 

(4)  That  the  present  method  of  controlling  the  power  diversions 
at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  be  not  disturbed. 

(5)  That  the  total  diversion  through  the  Welland  Canal  for  power 
develo])ment  be  limited  strictly  to  the  present  amount. 

(6)  That  the  diversion  through  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal 
for  power  development  be  limited  to  the  500  cubic  feet  per  second  now 
allowed. 

(7)  That,  as  soon  as  a  treaty  has  been  negotiated  with  Great 
Britain  along  the  lines  indicated  in  section  (k) ,  additional  permit  or 
permits  be  granted  so  as  to  make  the  permitted  diversion  from 
Niagara  River  above  the  Falls  on  the  United  States  side  40.000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  one-half  of  which  is  returned  to  the  river  in  the  Maid- 
of-the-Mist  pool. 

(8)  That  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  International  Joint  Commis- 
sion, or  a  special  board  of  engineers  be  requested  to  prepare  plans  and 
estimates  in  detail  for  a  comprehensive  system  of  compensating 
works  for  restoring  the  levels  of  all  the  lakes  and  their  outflow  rivers, 
these  plans  to  be  submitted  to  the  International  Joint  Commission  for 
approval,  with  the  intent  that  such  works  be  constructed,  and  paid  for 
jointly  by  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

184.  It  is  fitting  and  proper  to  formally  acknowledge  the  valuable 
services  rendered  in  the  conduct  of  this  investigation  and  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  report  thereon  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Richmond,  Assistant  En- 


102      DIVERSIOIS""  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

gineer,  by  First  Lieut.  Albert  B.  Jones.  Engineers,  United  States 
Armv.  and  by  Maj.  Kobert  S.  Hardy,  Engineers,  United  States  Army. 
JSIr.  l^ichmond  has  devoted  himself  untiringly  and  loyally  to  the  work 
from  its  beginning  and  to  his  ability  and  energy  are  due  in  large 
measure  any  merit  in  its  results.  Lieut.  Jones  has  contributed  to  the 
work  a  high  degree  of  skill  and  intelligence  particularly  in  the  elabor- 
ate computations  on  comparison  of  power  projects  and  in  his  report 
on  the  preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls.  Maj. 
Hardy,  who  was  under  my  direction  but  a  short  time,  and  then  in 
addition  to  other  important  duties,  rendered  valuable  assistance. 

185.  Acknowledgment  is  made  of  the  many  courtesies  extended 
by  the  officials  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  of  the  Province  of 
Ontario  in  furnishing  information  and  in  extending  facilities  for 
visiting  works  under  their  control  under  war  conditions. 

180.  Acknowledgment  is  also  made  to  the  officials  of  the  depart- 
ment of  public  works  of  the  State  of  New  York  and  of  the  State 
engineer's  office  for  imj)()i'tant  information. 

187.  Valuable  cooperation  and  assistance  was  also  rendered  by  the 
district  engineers  of  the  several  engineer  districts  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
particularly  by  Asst.  P^ngineer  F.  G.  Ray,  in  charge  of  the  United 
States  Lake  Survey. 

188.  To  the  officials  of  the  power  companies  at  Niagara  Falls.  N.  Y., 
and  Canada,  I  am  indebted  for  many  courtesies  and  much  valuable 
information. 

189.  Aclaiowledgment  is  also  made  for  valuable  suggestions  from 
Hugh  L.  Cooper  e^  Co..  11.  D.  Johnson,  consulting  engineer,  AUis- 
Chalmers  Manufacturing  Co.  and  I.  P.  Morris  &  Co. 

J.  G.  Warren, 
Colonel^  Corps  of  Engineers^  United  States  Army. 


Appendix  A. 
DESCRIPTION  OF  DIVERSIONS. 


[Sections  A,  R,  and  C  of  Mr.   RichmoiuV.s  report.] 

From :  W.  S.  Richmond,  assistant  engineer. 
To  :  The  Division  Engineer,  Lakes  Division,  Buffalo,  N.  1 . 
Subject:  Transmitting  report  on  investigation  of  water  diversion 
from  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  River. 

1.  There  is  submitted  herewith  report  on  investigation  of  water 
diversion  from  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  River. 

2.  It  is  divided  into  nine  sections,  as  follows : 
Section  A :  Diversions  for  navigation  purposes. 
Section  B :  Diversions  for  sanitary  purposes. 
Section  C:  Diversions  for  power  purposes. 
Section  D :  Field  and  office  operations. 

Section  F:  Propositions    for    utilizing    diversions    with    greater 
economy. 

Section  G :  Effects  of  diversions  on  lake  levels. 

Section  H :  Economic  value  of  diversions. 

Section  I :  International  and  interstate  matters  involved. 

Section  K :  Recommendations. 

Section  L :  Acknowledgments. 

W.  S.  Richmond, 
Assistant  Engineer. 


SCOPE  OF  REPORT. 

This  report  treats  of  diversions  of  water  from  the  Great  Lakes, 
whether  for  navigation,  sanitary,  or  power  purposes.  All  diversions 
of  sufficient  magnitude  to  be  considered  worthy  of  mention  have 
been  included,  a  statement  of  the  character,  quantity,  and  effect  of 
each  being  given  as  briefly  as  seemed  consistent  with  clearness. 
Both  present  and  proposed  diversions  are  considered.  Comparatively 
little  is  given  of  the  voluminous  historical,  technical,  and  legal 
details  involved,  although  the  main  points  are  presented.  The 
major  portion  of  the  report  is  devoted  to  the  Niagara  diversions. 

The  territory  involved  in  a  comprehensive  consideration  of  these 
diversions  is  the  entire  drainage  area  or  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes 
above  St.  Regis,  N.  Y.,  66  miles  above  Montreal,  the  place  at 
which  the  St.  Lawrence  River  passes  entirely  into  Canada.  This 
area  is  approximately  300,000  square  miles,  of  which  59.5  per  cent 
lies  on  the  United  States  side  of  the  international  boundary  line. 

103 


104      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  total  area  is  somp^vhat  larjier  than  that  of  Texas,  aiuj  about  U 
times  the  size  of  France.  The  land  area  on  the  United  States  side 
of  the  line  is  trreater  than  the  combined  area  of  tlie  New  England 
States  and  New  York  State.  It  includes  practically  the  whole  of 
the  State  of  Michigan  and  ])ortions  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Ohio.  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York.  The  land  area  on  the 
Canadian  side  comprises  a  large  part  of  the  Province  of  Ontario. 
The  population  of  the  basin  area  is  estimated  to  be  15.000,000,  of 
Avhich  about  2.000.000  are  in  Canada.  At  least  16  cities  of  over 
50,000  population  are  located  within  its  boundaries.  The  Avater 
surface  area  alone  is  95.205  square  miles,  and  60,975  square  miles 
of  this,  or  64  per  cent,  is  in  the  United  States.  The  main  shore  line 
involved  exceeds  8,300  miles  in  length.  The  total  developable 
Avater  power  is  estimated  to  be  approximately  10,000,000  horsepower, 
far  more  than  half  of  which  is  in  the  United  States.  The  water 
power  already  developed  within  this  area  is  roughly  one  million 
horsepower  in  the  United  States,  and  one  and  one-half  million 
horsepower  in  Canada.  The  lake  commerce  in  1917  Avas  carried  in 
more  than  1.000  vessels  of  an  average  registered  tonnage  exceed- 
ing 2,000  tons,  about  90  per  cent  of  the  vessels  having  a  registered 
tonnage  of  over  100  tons.  Avhile  41  vessels  had  a  dead-weight  ton- 
nage of  13,000  tons  or  more.  The  maximum  length  of  freight 
steamer  was  625  feet,  maximum  beam  64.2  feet,  and  maximum  draft 
used,  21.9  feet.  The  total  freight  passing  through  Detroit  Kiver 
during  the  navigation  season  of  1917  was  95,000,000  tons,  valued  at 
approximately  $1,250,000,000.  There  is  a  not  inconsiderable  lake 
commerce  which  does  not  pass  through  Detroit  River.  The  length 
of  steamer  track  from  Montreal  to  Duluth  is  1,340  miles,  and  from 
Montreal  to  Chicago  it  is  1,260  miles. 

The  drainage  area  under  consideration  is  depicted  on  plate  1.  on 
Avhich  are  shoAvn  the  outlines  of  the  (Jreat  Lakes  and  connecting  and 
outfloAv  riAers,  the  outline  of  the  entire  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes 
aboA-e  St.  Regis,  the  outline  of  the  drainage  basin  of  each  individual 
lake,  the  international  boundary  line  through  the  lakes,  and  the 
general  location  of  AvaterAvays  through  Avhich  Avater  is  di^'erted  from 
the  (ireat  Lakes,  or  tributaries  of  the  Great  Lakes,  together  Avith 
other  (lata  of  a  general  character. 

Diversions  of  Avatei's  of  the  Great  T>akes  basin  will  first  be  treated 
under  the  three  divisions  of  navigation,  sanitation,  and  poAver  de- 
Aelopment.  Some  di\'eisions  pertain  to  only  one  of  these  uses,  some 
to  tAvo.  and  others  to  all  three.  Where  they  pertain  to  two  or  more 
uses  they  wiU  be  treated  under  each  division  concerned,  the  remarks 
in  each  case  1)eing  confined  in  so  far  as  practicable  to  the  particular 
use  under  fonsideration.  Kacli  diversion  Avill  be  described  upon  its 
first  mention  in  the  report. 

Skction  a. 

DIVERSIONS  FOR  NAVICATION  PURPOSES. 

].    ST.   MARTS  FALLS  CANAL. 

The  total  diversion  of  Avater  from  St.  Marys  River  for  navigation 
purposes  is  about  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second  on  the  average  for  the 
entire  year,  the  rate  reaching  approximately  1,400  cubic  feet  per  sec- 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     105 

ond  as  an  average  for  the  busiest  month  of  the  season  of  navigation. 
In  1887  the  average  annual  rate  of  diversion  was  only  150,  and  the 
increase  to  date  has  been  gradual.  It  is  estimated  that  the  fourth 
lock,  to  be  opened  in  1919,  will  require  an  annual  average  divei-- 
sion  of  about  350  cubic  feet  per  second.  These  figures  include  the 
diversions  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  All  these  diversions  are  made 
at  the  head  of  the  rapids,  and  are  returned  to  the  river  within  2  miles 
of  the  points  of  diversion.  In  the  following  paragraphs  the  char- 
acter of  the  diversions  is  explained  more  at  length.  Tliere  are  other 
and  much  larger  diversions  at  the  same  place  for  power  development, 
and  these  are  described  in  Section  C  of  this  report. 

Description  of  St.  Marys  River. — St.  Marys  River  forms  the  out- 
let of  Lake  Superior,  connecting  the  eastern  end  of  the  lake  with  the 
northern  end  of  Lake  Huron  by  a  somewhat  circuitous  route  66 
miles  long  by  the  westerly  channel,  and  75  miles  long  by  the  easterly 
channel.  Through  this  passage  flow  the  surplus  waters  of  Lake 
Superior,  a  volume  averaging  75,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
drop  in  water  level  from  Superior  to  Huron  averages  20.7  feet  (over 
a  period  of  years),  19.4  feet  of  this  occurring  in  a  rapids  three- 
fourths  of  a  mile  long  near  the  head  of  the  river,  abreast  of  the  city 
of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich.  The  surface  levels  of  the  lakes  vary  con- 
stantly, causing  variations  in  the  volume  of  water  discharged  through 
the  river  and  producing  changes  in  the  fall  of  water  level  from  above 
to  below  the  rapids.  This  local  fall  varies  between  the  limits  of  17 
and  21  feet.  The  general  outline  of  the  river  is  shoAvn  on  the  map 
designated  as  plate  2. 

Commerce  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie. — There  is  a  large  lake  commerce 
between  communities  on  Lake  Superior  and  points  on  the  lower  lakes 
during  those  months  of  the  year  when  the  harbors  and  river  chan- 
nels are  not  choked  with  ice.  The  season  of  navigation  on  Lake 
Superior  opens  late  in  April  and  closes  early  in  December.  During 
the  season  of  1917  there  were  22,885  vessel  passages  past  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  made  by  1,182  vessels.  The  total  freight  carried  was  89,- 
813.898  tons,  valued  at  $1,196,922,183.  The  average  freight  rate 
Avas  0.121  cents  per  ton  per  mile.  The  type  of  lake  vessel  prin- 
cipally used  is  shown  in  photograph  No.  1.  Sometimes  as  many 
as  50  Vessels  are  tied  below  St.  Marys  Eapids  in  a  blockade  as  in- 
dicated in  the  photograph.  This  commerce  follows  the  natural 
and  improved  waterways  of  the  westerly  channel  of  St.  Marys 
River.  At  Sault  Ste.  Marie  it  passes  around  the  rapids  in  arti- 
ficial canals  about  1  mile  long.  Locks  are  provided  to  overcome 
the  difference  in  Avater  level  already  described,  there  being  several 
locks,  so  that  a  number  of  A'^essels  may  be  accommodated  at  the 
same  time,  although  each  lock  oA^ercomes  the  entire  fall  in  one  lift. 
There  are  at  present  three  locks  on  the  United  States  side  and 
one  lock  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  river.  A  single  canal  serA^es 
the  Canadian  lock.  On  the  American  side  there  are  two  canals, 
the  South  canal  serving  both  the  Poe  and  Weitzel  Locks,  and  the 
North  canal  noAV  serving  the  third  lock  and  designed  also  to  serve 
the  fourth  lock  now  under  construction.  The  arrangement  of  locks 
and  canals  is  well  sIioaa^u  on  the  map  marked  plate  3. 

Lochs  and  caiials. — The  first  canal  and  lock  at  the  "  Soo  "  as  the 
locality   about   St.  Marys   Rapids   is   known,  were   constructed   in 


100      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FRU.M   GREAT  I^VKEs  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

1797  and  179b  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  river  by  the  Northwest 
Fur  Co.  Tlie  lock,  sliown  in  photograph  No.  2,  was  88  feet  long, 
b  feet  «  inclies  wide,  with  a  lift  of  9  feet.  A  towpath  was  made 
along  the  shores  for  oxen  to  track  bateux  and  canoes  through  the 
upper  part  of  the  rapids.  The  picture  sliows  the  lock  as  restored. 
It  was  destroyed  by  United  States  troops  in  1811. 

The  first  canal  on  the  American  side  was  built  in  lb53  to  1855, 
and  was  Iniown  as  the  State  Canal.  It  was  IjV  miles  long,  Gl 
feet  wide  at  tlie  bottom,  and  100  feet  wide  at  the  water  surface. 
There  were  two  tandem  locks  of  masonry,  each  350  feet  long  by 
70  feet  wide,  with  a  lift  of  about  9  feet.  The  depth  in  the  canal 
was  about  13  feet  and  m  the  locks  about  IH  feet,  at  the  sta^e  of 
water  then  prevailing.  The  locks  are  shown  in  photograph  No.  8. 
They  were  destroyed  in  1888  b}^  excavations  for  the  present  Poe 
Lock. 

The  Weitzel  Lock,  515  feet  long,  80  feet  wide  in  chamber  nar- 
rowing to  60  feet  at  the  gates,  with  17  feet  depth  of  water  on  the 
miter  sills,  was  built  by  the  United  States  in  the  years  1870  to 
1881.  During  the  same  period  the  canal  w-as  correspondingly 
deepened,  and  w^as  widened  to  160  feet  at  its  widest  part,  narrow- 
ing at  the  International  Bridge  to  108  feet;  and  the  stone  slope 
walls  were  replaced  Avith  timber  piers  having  a  vertical  face. 
Present  depth  on  miter  sills  at  low  water  is  13  feet. 

The  Canadian  Canal  is  1^  miles  long,  150  feet  wide  at  the  top 
and  142  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  has  a  lock  900  feet  long  and  60 
feet  wide.  It  was  built  in  the  years  1888  to  1895.  It  was  con- 
structed with  a  depth  of  23  feet  in  the  canal  and  22  feet  on  tlie 
miter  sills  at  the  mean  stage  prevailing  at  that  time.  At  present 
stages  the  upper  approach  to  the  lock  has  a  depth  of  21^  to  24 
feet,  the  lower  approach  19  to  20  feet,  and  the  depth  on  miter  sills 
is  about  19  feet. 

The  Poe  Lock,  800  feet  long,  100  feet  wide,  and  having  22  feet 
of  water  on  the  sills,  was  built  by  the  United  States  in  the  j^ears 
1887  to  1896.  Present  low- water  depth  on  the  miter  sills  is  18  to 
19  feet.     Tlie  average  depth  on  miter  sills  in  1917  w^as  20.3  feet. 

The  third  lock  is  1,350  feet  long,  80  feet  wide,  and  has  24J  feet  of 
water  upon  its  miter  sills  at  existing  stages.  It  was  built  in  the 
years  1908  to  1914,  and  was  opened  to  traffic  October  21,  1914. 

The  fourth  lock,  now  under  construction,  is  shown  in  photograph 
No.  4  as  it  appeared  May  26,  1917.  It  is  to  be  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions as  the  tliird  lock.     It  is  now  nearly  completed. 

Since  1892  tlie  <'anal  leading  to  the  Weitzel  and  Poe  Locks  has 
been  widened  to  270  feet,  except  where  the  width  is  restricted  i)y 
the  pier  of  the  International  Bridge  and  the  movable  dam  to  two 
jiassages  of  108  feet  each,  and  deepened  to  24  feet  in  its  upper  reach. 
Since  1908  the  United  States  has  built  another  canal,  north  of  the 
first,  leading  to  the  new  third  lock,  and  designed  to  serve  the  fourth 
lock  also.  It  is  310  feet  wide  above  the  locks,  narrowing  to  282 
feet  at  the  railway  bridge,  and  widening  to  300  feet  at  the  up|)er 
end.     Least  <le])tli  of  water  is  24i  feet. 

I*liotogra]>h  No.  5  shows  the  Weitzel  Lock  before  the  building  of 
the  Poe  Lock.  Photograph  No.  6  is  a  view  of  all  three  United  States 
locks  as  they  now  exist.  No.  7  is  a  view  of  the  down-streani  end  of 
the  Canadian  Lock. 


DIVERSION  OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      107 

Considerable  dredo^irig  has  been  done  in  the  St.  Marys  River  down- 
stream from  the  locks.  The  Lake  George  route  was  first  improved. 
a  channel  Avith  12-foot  draft  being  provided  before  1869.  By  l'^'*^'' 
this  had  been  increased  to  16  feet.  The  route  via  Hay  Lake  and 
Mud  Lake  in  the  west  channel  was  then  improA'ed  until  in  1894  n 
20-foot  depth  had  been  provided.  Betterment  of  channels  has  been 
continued  since  that  time  with  a  view  to  providing  a  21-foot  depth 
at  lowest  stage  of  Avater,  and  separating  upbound  from  doAvnboun<l 
traffic  in  certain  reaches. 

To  date  the  United  States  has  expended  approximately  $24,000,- 
000  on  the  construction  of  the  locks,  canals,  and  channels  of  St. 
Marys  RiA^er.  Cost  of  operating  and  repairing  the  locks  and  canals 
is  about  $125,000  per  annum.  The  Canadian  Lock,  canal,  and  ap- 
proaches cost  roundly  $5,000,000. 

From  1855  to  1881  the  American  canal  Avas  controlled  by  the 
State  of  Michigan,  and  tolls  were  charged  to  cover  operating  and 
repair  expenses,  the  rate  at  first  being  6^  cents  per  registered  ton, 
which  Avas  gradually  reduced  to  2-i  cents.  Similarly  the  minimum 
charge  for  lockage  of  a  boat  was  reduced  from  $5  to  $3.  Since  con- 
trol Avas  transferred  to  the  United  States  in  1881,  the  American 
canal  has  been  free  for  public  use  by  all  nations.  Likewise  at  the 
Canadian  canal  no  tolls  haAe  been  collected  for  either  foreign  or 
domestic  commerce. 

The  foregoing  description  has  been  given  in  order  to  make  clear 
the  character  and  importance  of  the  diA^ersions  of  Avater  from  St. 
Marys  River  for  navigation  purposes.  These  diversions  comprise 
the  Avater  used  in  locking  boats  up  and  down,  that  used  in  operating- 
gates  and  valves  of  the  Poe  and  Weitzel  Locks,  and  the  leakage 
through  the  locks.  This  Avater  passes  around  St.  Marys  Rapids  in 
the  three  navigation  canals  above  described.  The  Government  oAvns 
a  small  hydroelectric  poAver  plant  in  the  rapids.  It  is  operated  by 
the  Edison  Sault  Electric  Co.,  from  Avhom  poAver  is  purchased  for 
operating  the  third  lock  and  for  lighting  locks  and  approaches.  The 
Avater  diverted  for  this  purpose  Avill  be  considered,  along  Avith  that 
used  by  other  power  plants  at  the  Soo,  later  in  this  report  under  the 
heading  of  diversions  for  power  development  purposes. 

Dredging  the  West  Neebish  Channel  has  caused  a  considerable 
change  in  distribution  of  flow  betAveen  this  channel  and  Middle  Nee- 
bish.  but  this  does  not  constitute  a  diA^ersion  of  water  from  the  river. 

Diverslonfi. — During  the  months  of  January,  February,  and  March 
each  year  traffic  is  completely  suspended  because  of  ice,  the  lock 
gates  are  closed,  and  the  locks  pumped  out  and  kept  empty.  During 
this  time  there  is  no  diversion  for  naA'igation  other  than  a  slight 
leakage,  Avhich  amounts  to  less  than  100  cubic  feet  per  second  for 
all  the  locks. 

During  the  operating  season  of  1917,  April  to  December,  both  in- 
clusive, the  general  average  and  highest  monthly  average  uses  of 
water  for  navigation  purposes,  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  were  as 
giA^en  in  the  folloAving  table,  Table  No.  8.  The  Weitzel  Lock  was  not 
in  operation  in  1917.  The  aA^erage  recorded  use  of  water  for  navi- 
gation purposes  during  the  season  of  navigation  Avas  177  cubic  feet 
per  second  in  1887,  and  it  increased  gradually  to  a  ma:^imum  of  1,411 
cubic  feet  per  second  in  1916.     Considering  the  entire  12  months  of 


108      Dn'EKSIOX   UF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  L.\KES  AND  NIAGARA  PaVER. 

the  yeiir.  the  diversion  of  waters  oi'  St.  Marvs  River  for  navigation 
uses  is  now  roundly  1.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  havintr  increased 
gradually  to  this  amount  from  a  divereion  of  only  about  loO  cubic 
teet  per  second  in  1887.  It  is  estimated  that  the  fourth  lock  will  re- 
quire an  average  of  450  cubic  feet  per  second  during  the  navigation 
season  and  25  cubic  feet  per  second  during  the  winter,  or  an  average 
for  the  entire  year  of  approximately  350. 

Table  No.  S. — Approximate  water  diversion  at  locks,  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  1917. 


Xame  of  lock  and  use. 


Cubic  feet  per  second. 


Average    I    Average 
for  season  :  for  highest 

April-      I     month 
December.;  (August). 


Weitzel:  , 

Lockage 0  0 

Operation I  0  i  0 

Leakage j  39  ;  39 

Total 

Poe: 

Lockage 

Operation 

Leakage 

Total 

Third: 

Lockage 

Leakage 

Total 

Canadian: 

Lockage 

Leakage 

Total 

AU  locks: 

Lockage 

Oj>eration 

Leakage 

TotaL 1,084  1.367 


1       39 

39 

290 

S 

98 

393 
10 
9S 

396 

501 

339 
:       128  ! 

467 
128 

467 

595 

141 
41 

191 
41 

1S2 

232 

770 

8 

!       306 

l.Jol 

10 

306 

2.  CHICAG<:>  SANITARY  CANAL  AND  ILLINOIS  AND   MICHIGAN   CANAL. 


For  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  no  direct  diversion  of  waters 
of  the  (rreat  Lakes  through  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal.  A 
••^mall  part  of  the  water  diverted  through  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 
enters  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  at  Joliet.  Formerly  water 
was  diverted  directly  from  Lake  Michigan  through  the  Chiciigo 
River,  entering  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  at  Bridgeport.  The 
amount  thus  diverted  seldom  exceeded  boO  cubic  feet  per  second. 
In  addition  there  was  a  small  diversion  from  the  Calumet  River,  i. 
tributary  of  Lake  Michigan.  Of  this  diversion  it  is  believed  no  more 
than  3(<i)  cubic  feet  per  second  at  the  very  most  was  recjuired  for  navi- 
gation purpose.-;. 

The  diversion  through  the  Chicago  Sanitar}'  Canal  averaged  about 
8.S0<»  cubic  feet  per  -econd  in  1917.  although  daily  averages  ran  as 
high  as  10,0<)0.  and  the  discharge  in  the  lower  part  of  the  canal 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     109 

reached  17,500  cubic  feet  per  second  for  a  short  time.  The  entire 
diversion  was  for  sanitary  purposes.  As  a  secondary  matter,  how- 
ever, this  water  was  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  generation 
of  power,  an  average  flow  of  about  6,800  cubic  feet  per  second  being 
utilized  for  this  purpose.  It  is  estimated  that  500  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond would  be  ample  to  serve  any  navigation  requirements  of  the 
present  canal.  Should  the  Des  Plaines  and  Illinois  Rivers  be  im- 
proved to  accommodate  navigation  of  8-foot  draft  to  the  Mississippi. 
a  diversion  of  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second  might  be  required  to  m.eet 
the  needs  of  navigation  only. 

Descriptions  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  and  the  Chicago 
Sanitary  Canal  are  given  in  the  succeeding  paragraphs  of  Section  A 
of  this  report,  together  Avith  statements  concerning  features  per- 
taining mainly  to  navigation.  The  sanitary  and  power  features  are 
treated  in  Sections  B  iind  C,  respectively. 

The  general  location  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  the  Chi- 
cago Sanitary  Canal,  and  the  Illinois  Eiver  are  shoAvn  on  plate  No.  1. 
The  route  of  the  canals  above  Joliet  is  more  clearly  shown  on  plate 
No.  4. 

Description  of  Illinois  route. — The  surface  of  Lake  Michigan  is 
approximately  580  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  The  city  of 
Chicago,  at  the  west  side  of  the  southerly  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  is 
built  on  nearly  level  ground  whose  surface  is  generally  15  to  25  feet 
above  the  lake.  Near  the  western  edge  of  the  city,  10  miles  from  the 
lake,  is  the  Des  Plaines  Eiver,  paralleling  the  lake  shore.  At  a  point 
almost  abreast  of  the  center  of  the  city  the  river  turns  and  follows 
a  southw^esterly  direction.  At  this  point  the  surface  of  the  Des 
Plaines  is  about  10  feet  above  the  lake.  A  shallow,  narrow  valley 
or  depression  extends  from  this  point  eastward  to  the  south  branch 
of  Chicago  River,  its  bottom  being  5  to  15  feet  above  the  lake. 
Through  this  depression  a  part  of  the  w^aters  of  Des  Plaines  River 
formerly  flowed  in  times  of  freshet,  and  the  early  ex])lorers  were  able 
at  such  times  to  navigate  canoes  and  bateaux  across  the  divide  which 
normally  separates  the  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi 
Valleys.  It  is  through  this  depression  in  the  divide  that  the  Chi- 
cago Sanitary  and  Ship  Canal  and  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal 
were  constructed.  A  somewhat  similar  depression,  about  10  miles 
farther  south,  extends  from  the  Des  Plaines  River  to  the  Calumet 
River.  Along  this  route  the  Calumet-Sag  Drainage  Canal  is  noAv  be- 
ing constructed.  The  old  Calumet  feeder  of  the  Illinois  and  Michi- 
gan Canal  was  constructed  in  this  depression.  The  Calumet  RiAer 
discharges  into  Lake  Michigan,  as  did  the  Chicago  River  before  it 
was  reversed  and  made  to  discharge  into  the  sanitary  and  ship  canal. 
Plate  5  gives  a  small  map  of  the  region  around  Chicago  showing  the 
features  just  enumerated. 

The  Des  Plaines  River  joins  the  Kankakee  River  15  miles  below 
Joliet.  forming  the  Illinois  River,  which  is  273  miles  long,  and 
empties  into  the  Mississippi  River  about  38  miles  above  St.  Louis. 
The  total  fall  in  water  surface  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Mississippi 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  River  is  about  165  feet.  The  United 
States  has  improved  the  river  for  navigation  purposes  from  La  Salle 
at  the  foot  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  to  Grafton,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi.     In  this  length  of  about  223 


no      DIVERSION   OF  WATKR  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

miles  the  fall  is  ai)pr<>.\iinatelv  IM)  feet.  The  available  draft  at  low 
water  in  the  Illinois  River  between  La  Salle  and  Peoria  is  G  feet^ 
though  not  for  the  full  projected  width  of  200  feet.  Between  Peoria 
and  the  Mississippi  River  there  is  an  available  depth  of  5i  feet,  re- 
ferred to  level  of  low  water  of  1901,  except  at  tw<^  bars,  where  shoal- 
in^^  has  rechiced  the  depth  to  4  feet.  There  are  four  locks  in  the 
Illinois  River  between  La  Salle  and  the  Alississsippi,  each  850  feet 
louix  and  75  feet  wide,  with  7  feet  depth  on  the  miter  sills.  At  each 
lock  the  water  surface  of  the  uj)])er  level  is  held  uj)  by  a  dam.  i:)ro- 
vidino;  slack-water  navigation.  The  first  two  locks  below  La  Salle — 
one  at  Henry,  196  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  one  at 
Copperas  Creek,  137  miles  above  the  mouth — are  operated  by  the 
State  of  Illinois  and  tolls  are  collected.  This  charge  is  $1.50  on 
boats  of  150  tons  and  under,  and  on  larger  boats  is  1  cent  per  ton 
measurement.  The  other  two  locks — one  at  La  Grange,  78  miles 
above  the  mouth,  and  one  at  Kampsville,  31  miles  above  the  mouth — 
are  operated  by  the  United  States  and  are  free  from  tolls. 

The  Illinois  and  Mississippi  Canal  connects  the  Illinois  River  at 
a  point  2f  miles  above  Hennepin  and  13  miles  below  La  Salle  with, 
the  Mississippi  River  at  Rock  Island.  It  does  not  use  waters  of  the 
Great  Lakes  Basin. 

The  portion  of  the  Des  Plaines  and  Illinois  Rivers  between  Joliet 
and  La  Salle  has  not  been  used  to  any  extent  for  navigation  since  the 
])ioneer  days  when  this  natural  waterway  formed  the  only  practical 
route  to  the  West  and  carried  the  primitive  commerce  of  the  times  in 
canoes  and  bateaux.  The  fall  from  above  the  State  dam  at  Joliet  to 
La  Salle  is  about  100  feet,  the  distance  being  G6  miles.  At  the  State 
dam  at  Joliet  there  is  a  fall  of  about  11  feet.  At  Marseilles  there  is 
a  private  dam  providing  a  fall  of  about  11  feet.  There  is  no  lock  at 
the  Marseilles  dam.  These  dams  and  the  jiower  developments 
located  at  them  will  be  described  later  in  this  report  under  the 
heading  of  ''Diversions  for  power  pur|iosos." 

On  August  26.  1905.  a  board  of  engineers  reported  to  the  Chief  of 
Engineers.  United  States  Army,  plans  and  estimates  for  a  navigable 
v.aterway  14  feet  deep  from  Lockport.  111.,  by  way  of  the  Des 
Plaines  and  Illinois  Rivers  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  River  and 
thence  by  way  of  the  Mississippi  River  to  St.  Louis.  Mo.  Plans  and 
estimates  were  also  presented  for  a  7-foot  waterway  and  for  an 
S-foot  M-aterway  from  Ottawa,  111.,  down  the  Illinois  River  to  La 
Salle.  111.  The  14- foot  waterway  was  to  have  locks  600  feet  long  and 
80  feet  wide.  Below  La  Salle  the  locks  and  dams  were  to  be  removed 
and  the  14-foot  depth  maintained  by  a  minimum  discharge  of  10,500 
cubic  feet  per  second.  No  opinion  Avas  expressed  as  to  the  advis- 
r.bility  of  undertaking  any  of  these  projects.  The  report  is  pub- 
lished as  IIou.se  Document  No.  263,  Fifty-ninth  Congress,  first  session. 

A  report  submitted  by  another  Board  of  Engineers  on  August  15, 
1913.  published  as  Hou.se  Dofument  No.  762,  Sixty-third  Congress, 
second  session,  recommends  the  construction  of  a  navigable  Avater- 
way  excavated  1 1  feet  deep  but  calculated  to  serve  vessels  draAving  8 
or  9  feet,  extending  from  Lockport,  111.,  by  way  of  the  Des  Plaines 
and  Illinois  Rivers  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  and  thence  by  Avay  of 
the  Mississippi  to  St.  Louis.  The  State  of  Illinois  Avas  to'  pay  the 
cost  of  the  waterway  from  Lockport  to  Utica,  7  miles  above  La  Salle. 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVElt.     Ill 

The  remainder  of  the  route  was  to  be  constructed  at  the  expense  of 
the  United  States  and  Avas  estimated  to  cost  $1,050,000  for  the  portion 
in  the  Illinois  River,  Avith  $115,000  annuallv  for  maintenance;  and 
$3,710,000  for  the  portion  in  the  Mississippi  "River,  Avith  $125,000  an- 
nually for  maintenance.  The  old  locks  beloAA^  La  Salle  Avere  to  be 
altered  sliohtly  but  maintained  Avith  their  present  horizontal  dimen- 
sions of  75  by  350  feet.  The  channel  Avas  to  be  160  feet  wide  in 
canal  and  200  feet  in  open  river.  The  board  proposed  that  the  new 
locks  above  La  Salle  should  be  600  feet  lonjx,  80  feet  aa  ide,  and  Avitli 
11  feet  of  Avater  on  the  miter  sills,  but  was  agreeable  to  the  propo- 
sition that  the  State,  in  its  cooperative  efforts,  should  build  them 
larger  if  it  Avished.  The  State  proposed  that  the  portion  of  the 
Avaterway  which  it  AA^as  to  build,  namely,  that  aboA^e  Utica,  should 
have  a  AA^etted  channel  300  feet  wide  and  24  feet  deep  from  the  Lock- 
port  poAA'er  house  for  5-|-  miles  to  the  Brandon  Bridge,  just  beloAv 
Joliet,  and  from  there  to  Utica  a  channel  9  feet  deep  and  200  feet 
wide  at  bottom  for  the  present,  to  be  deepened  to  at  least  14  feet  later. 
It  proposed  the  construction  of  fiA^e  locks,  the  uppermost  beside  the 
Lockport  poAA'er  house  at  the  doAvnstream  end  of  the  Chicago  Drain- 
age Canal,  the  next  at  Brandon  Bridge,  and  the  last  at  Utica.  Each 
lock  Avas  to  be  80  by  900  feet  in  horizontal  dimensions,  with  24  feet 
of  water  on  the  miter  sills.  On  November  3,  1908,  the  people  of  the 
State  of  Illinois  voted  for  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  per- 
mitting a  bond  issue  of  $20,000,000  for  the  construction  of  such  a 
AA'aterway.  Several  years  later  $5,000,000  of  this  Avas  appropriated 
but  no  construction  AA'ork  was  undertaken,  because  the  necessary  co- 
operative arrangement  with  the  Federal  Government  was  not  effected. 
It  Avas  estimated  that  $20,000,000  would  provide  for  the  excavating 
noted  above  for  the  lock  at  Lockport  and  for  the  four  dams  and 
power  houses  at  the  other  lock  sites,  and  possibly  for  the  other  four 
locks  also. 

The  Board  of  Engineers  considered  a  volume  of  fioAv  of  water  of 
1,000  cubic  feet  per  second  more  than  sufficient  for  such  a  waterAvay. 

THE    ILLINOIS    AND    MICHIGAN    CANAL. 

The  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  extends  from  a  point  on  the  South 
Branch  of  the  Chicago  River  in  the  city  of  Chicago  southwesterly  to 
La  Salle,  111.,  Avhere  it  enters  the  Illinois  River,  Its  length  is  97 
miles  and  its  fall  is  142  feet  at  Ioav  water  stages  of  Lake  Michigan  and 
the  Illinois  River.  Its  point  of  beginning  is  5|  miles  from  Lake 
Michigan,  measured  along  the  Chicago  River.  From  this  point  it 
passes  westward  across  the  low  divide,  through  the  natural  depres- 
sion in  the  land  surface  preA'iously  described,  about  T  miles  to  the 
A^alley  of  the  Des  Plaines  RiA^er.  Following  along  the  southeasterly 
side  of  the  valley  of  this  river,  it  enters  the  river  in  the  city  of  Joliet 
32  miles  from  its  point  of  beginning.  It  proceeds  but  a  short  distance 
in  the  riA-er  channel,  and  then,  at  the  State  Dam,  leaves  the  river  on 
its  northerly  side,  following  the  northwesterly  rim  of  the  valley  of 
the  Des  Plaines  RiA^cr  to  the  junction  of  the"^  Des  Plaines  Avith  the 
Illinois,  and  thence  along  the  northerly  side  of  the  Illinois  RiA^er  to 
La  Salle.  Construction  of  the  canal  "began  in  1836  and  Avas  com- 
pleted in  1848.  The  canal  had  a  surface  width  of  60  feet,  a  bottom 
Avidth  of  36  feet  in  earth  sections  and  48  feet  in  rock,  and  a  depth  of 


112      niVERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

water  of  G  feet.  All  bridges  over  the  canal  were  fixed,  the  minimum 
clearance  bein«^  about  11  feet.  The  locks  were  110  feet  long  and  lb 
feet  wide,  having  a  depth  of  6  feet  of  water  on  the  sills.  There  were 
15  lift  locks  and  one  guard  lock. 

As  originally  constructed  there  Avas  at  the  head  of  the  canal  a  sum- 
mit le\el  -2<>\  miles  long  Avhich  was  S  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake 
Michigan  and  was  fed  from  the  Des  Plaines  and  Calumet  Kivers,  as 
Avell  as  by  a  lift  wheel  from  the  Chicago  River.  The  water  from 
Calumet  Iviver  was  conducted  through  the  Sag  Valley  in  a  feeder 
canal  16^  miles  long.  The  summit  level  was  cut  down  in  1866  to 
1871.  While  the  summit  level  existed  it  did  not  supply  sufficient 
Avater  to  the  reach  of  canal  extending  from  Ottawa  upstream  toAvard 
.Toilet.  To  make  an  ade;iuate  supply  available  the  Kankakee  feeder 
Avas  constructed.  This  feeder  canal  received  Avater  from  the  Kanka- 
kee River  at  a  point  several  miles  above  its  junction  witli  the  Des 
Plaines,  and  conducted  it  to  the  lUionis  and  Michigan  Canal  at  a 
point  about  1  mile  abo\e  the  junction.  The  feeder  Avater  passed 
over  the  Des  Plainer  River  in  an  aqueduct  just  before  entering  the 
canal.  After  the  summit  IcA-el  had  been  cut  down  this  feeder  became 
unnecessary  and  Avas  abandoned.  The  Fox  River  feeder  receiv^ed 
water  from  the  Fox  River  several  miles  north  of  Ottawa,  and  con- 
<lucted  it  to  the  canal  at  a  point  in  OttaAva  nearly  a  mile  beyond  the 
aqueduct  Avhich  carries  the  Illinois  and  ^lichigan  Canal  OA^er  Fox 
RiAer.  This  feeder  also  has  been  abandoned  and  some  portions  of  it 
have  been  filled  in.  The  total  cost  of  building  the  canal,  including 
cutting  doAvn  the  summit  leA'el,  was  $9,513,000. 

During  the  first  30  years  of  its  operation  the  canal  Avas  much  used 
and  it  earned  a  very  substantial  revenue.  In  1879  the  net  receipts 
oAer  expenses  of  operating  up  to  that  time  Avere  $2,934,000.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  a  total  amount  of  $5,880,000  had  been  received  from  the 
sale  of  canal  lands.  More  than  300.000  acres  of  public  land  had 
been  donated  the  State  by  the  Federal  GoA^ernment  as  an  aid  in 
financing  the  canal  and  a  large  portion  of  this  Avas  sold.  As  late  as 
1902  there  Avas  a  revenue  from  tolls  of  approximately  $30,000  a  year. 
NoAv.  the  State  receiA-es  A^ery  little  from  tolls,  and  has  received  A^ery 
little  since  about  1905.  There  is  a  revenue  from  land  rentals,  ice 
privileges,  and  rental  of  Avater  for  poAver  development,  Avhich,  to- 
gether Avith  the  receipts  from  tolls,  enables  keeping  the  canal  open 
for  navigation,  but  is  inadequate  to  meet  the  expense  of  repairs  or 
dredging  to  maintain  a  ]>roper  depth  of  channel. 

There  Avas  some  interruption  of  navigation  in  the  vicinity  of  Joliet 
folloAving  1905  due  to  operations  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chi- 
cago. Tlie  canal  has  fallen  into  disuse  and  poor  rejmir.  In  1916  it 
was  navigated  by  a  very  feAV  boats,  mostly  small  pleasure  craft.  Its 
available  draft  had  been  reduced  in  places  to  -U  feet.  In  1918  the 
Federal  (iovernment  Avas  dredging  to  restore  this  44-foot  draft.  The 
Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  is  a  State  ])roject.  and  is  under  the 
State  dei)artment  of  public  Avorks  and  buildings. 

hivemu/iis. — From  the  time  of  the  ojiening  of  the  Illinois  and 
Michigan  Canal  in  1H48  to  the  opening  of  the  lock  of  the  Main 
Drainage  Canal  on  July  13,  1910,  Avater  was  diverted  from  Lake 
Michigan  through  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  into  the  Des 
Plaines  River.     The   diversion  was  chiefly   for  sanitary   purposes. 


Photograph    Nc.   S.— VVEITZEL    LOCK    AT    SAULT    STE.     MARIE. 
Before  construction   of  the   Poe   Lock. 


Photograph    No.    8.  — ILLINOIS     AND     MICHIGAN     CANAL. 


■aMiifl 

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W-\M^           '  ^  '9^-- 

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Photograph    No.    9.— FOX      RIVER     AQUEDUCT.      ILLINOIS     AND      MICHIGAN     CANAL. 


Photograph    No.    10.  -ANOTHER    VIEW    OF    FOX     RIVER    AQUEDUCT.     ILLINOIS    AND 

MICHIGAN  CANAL. 


i- 


lt»j|£*32i.., 


iiii|t|i  iituiir" 


Photograph    No.    11.— LOCK    NO.   2,    ILLINOIS    AND 
MICHIGAN     CANAL.     (Abandoned.) 


Pholopraph    No.    12.       ROCK     SECTIOrj,    r/l  A I  N     DRAINAGE    CANAL. 


Photograph    No.    1 3.    -CONTROLLI NG     WORKS.    CHICAGO     DRAINAGE    CANAL. 


Photograph    No.    U.      BEAR    TRAP     DAM,    CHICAGO     DRAINAGE    CANAL. 


Photograph    No.    15.— DRUM     DAMS    AND     LOCK,    CHICAGO     DRAINAGE    CANAL. 


Photograph    No.    16.— STATE     DAM     NO.    1,    DESPLAINES     RIVER. 


.^iLL^ 


f-Motograp'     n        ■:        ROCK     SECTION,    PRESENT    WELLAND     CANAL 


Photograph   No.   18.- 


AND    CANAL. 


Photograph    No.    19.       M.    C.    R.    R.    DRAWBRIDGE,    PRESENT    WELLAND    CANAL. 


Photograph    No.    20.  -  GUARD  GATES  AND   LOCK   NO    25    PRESENT  WELLA  N  L  i   ..'■IjAL. 


Photograph    No.   21.^SERIES    OF    LOCKS,    PRESENT    WELLAND    CANAL. 


Photograpn    No.   22.— PORT     DALHOUSIE.    ONT. 
Lock  No.  1,  Present  Welland  Canal,  on  left.     Lock  No.  1.  Old  Welland   Canal,  on  right. 


Pr,-:r   -rapt     No.    23.  -SLUICES     ADMITTING     WATER     TO     OLD     WELLAND     CANAL. 


Pf.otOsfapi'    l-i^-    24.       LOCK     AND     VIADUCT.    OLD     WELLAND    CANAL. 


^    -+- 

1   i.'.rir-.-? 

■.." 

^^Ai•^ 


Photograph    No.   25.— JUNCTION     OF    TWELVE  -  M I LE    CREEK    AND    OLD     WELLAND 

CANAL. 


I m» *i iiM 


ss^l'i 


Photograph    No.    26. --BLACK     ROCK    SHIP    LOCK. 


Photograph    No.    27.  — BLACK     ROCK     CANAL,    FERRY    STREET    BRIDGE 


Photograph    No.   28— GUARD    LOCK    NO.   72.    OLD    ERIE   CANAL,    BLACK    ROCK.    N.    Y. 


•ograph    No.   29.  — NEW    YORK    STATE    BARGE    CANAL. 

Typiral     rr.rU    certinn     u  n  Oe  r    C  O  n  ■- 1  r  ur  t  i  n  n 


•Ograph  No.  30.— NEW    YORK    STATE    BARGE   CANAL. 
Typical  earth  section. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.    113 

however.  The  quantity  required  for  navigation  is  not  known,  but 
it  was  undoubtedly  less  than  800  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  was 
abstracted  from  Lake  Michigan  or  withheld  from  the  lake  by  being 
abstracted  from  its  tributaries — the  Chicago  and  Calumet  Rivers. 
The  canal  has  discharged  as  much  as  2,100  cubic  feet  per  second  at 
Joliet  in  the  spring  when  302  cubic  feet  per  second  was  being 
pumped  in  from  the  Chicago  Kiver.  In  order  to  cause  a  large  How 
through  the  canal  it  was  necessary  to  close  the  gates  at  Chicago  and 
pump  water  into  the  canal  from  Chicago  Kiver,  raising  the  water 
surface  in  the  canal  several  feet  above  the  river  level.  A  head  of  5.7 
feet  Avas  found  to  be  required  for  a  discharge  of  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  Pumps  accepted  by  the  city  of  Chicago  in  1886  had  a 
capacity  of  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  but  the  volume  pumped 
seldom  exceeded  850  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  this  was  largely  for 
sanitary  purposes.  Since  completion  of  the  Main  Drainage  Canal 
and  Lock  the  portion  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  above 
Joliet  has  been  abandoned,  and  there  is  no  diversion  of  lake  water 
through  it.  Some  short  stretches  of  the  canal  near  Chicago  have 
been  filled  in  by  garbage  contractors.  The  flow  in  this  canal  below 
Joliet  comes  from  the  Des  Plaines  River,  wdiose  small  natural  flow  is 
greatly  augmented  by  the  large  discharge  from  the  Chicago  Main 
Drainage  Canal  which  empties  into  Des  Plaines  River  just  above 
Joliet.  The  average  discharge  of  the  Des  Plaines  River  is  roughly 
400  cubic  feet  per  second,  but  low-water  discharges  as  small  as  7 
cubic  feet  per  second  have  been  measured  and  flood  discharge  as 
large  as  11,900  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  present  discharge  of  the 
Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  just  below  Joliet  varies  between  300 
and  550  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  is  used,  up  largely  by  leakage, 
seepage,  evaporation,  and  power  development,  and  is  used  only 
very  slightly  for  locking  boats.  It  is  evident  from  the  figures  given 
above  that  normally  only  a  portion  of  this  water  is  furnished  by  the 
natural  flow  of  the  Des  Plaines  River,  the  rest  coming  from  Lake 
Michigan  by  diversion  through  the  drainage  canal. 

The  ])resent  general  appearance  of  the  canal  is  shown  in  photo- 
graph No.  8.  An  upstream  view  of  the  aqueduct  carrying  the  canal 
waterway  over  Fox  River  is  given  in  No.  9,  and  a  top  view  of 
the  same  in  No.  10.  A  photograph  of  Lock  No.  2  between  Joliet  and 
Lockport  on  the  abandoned  portion  of  the  canal  is  given  as  No.  11. 
In  this  last  picture  it  may  be  noted  that  there  is  a  very  small  amount 
of  drainage  flowing  through  this  lock. 

Traffic. — The  yearly  average  tons  of  freight  transported  on  the 
canal  from  1860  to  1916  was  544,629.  The  maximum  tonnage  for 
one  year  was  carried  in  1882  and  was  1,011,287.  The  tonnage  car- 
ried decreased  materially  from  1895,  when  railroads  were  most  active 
in  competition. 

Tolls  have  always  been  charged.  The  rate  on  coal  is  1  mill  per 
ton  per  mile,  on  lumber  5  mills  per  1,000  board  feet  per  mile,  and  on 
merchandise  2  mills  per  ton  per  mile.  In  addition  there  is  a  toll  on 
each  boat  of  3  cents  per  mile. 

It  is  reported  by  the  State  superintendent  of  the  division  of 
waterways,  under  the  department  of  public  works  and  buildings, 
that  there  is  a  widespread  demand  for  improvement  of  this  canal, 
27880—21 8 


114      DH'EKSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

and  that  a  company  has  been  formed  and  financed  to  construct  boats 
for  operation  on  it  as  soon  as  the  required  depth  is  avaihible.  The 
canal  traverses  a  popuh)US  territory  and  has  many  industries  that 
can  utilize  it  located  alon^r  it. 

Canal  lands. — An  interestinjr  point  to  note  is  that  the  act  of  Con- 
"•ress  approved  March  2.  1827,  grantino-  certain  lands  to  the  State 
in  aid  of  buildint;  this  canal  provided  that  the  lands  were  subject 
to  the  disposal  of  the  State  legislature  ''  for  the  purpose  aforesaid 
and  no  other,"  and  that  "  said  canal,  when  completed,  shall  be  and 
forever  remain  a  public  highAvay  for  the  purpose  of  the  (Tovernment 
of  the  United  States.""  The  Department  of  Justice  has  held  that  the 
State  should  maintain  the  canal  to  fulfill  its  part  of  the  contract, 
or  return  the  consideration  to  the  United  States. 

CHICACiO     SANITARY    CANAL. 

The  general  location  of  the  Chicago  sanitary  and  ship  canal  is 
shown  on  plates  1.  4.  and  5. 

Description. — The    Chicago    sanitary    and    ship    canal    parallels 
the   Illinois  and  Michigan  canal   from  a   point   on  the   west   fork 
of  the  south  branch  of  Chicago  River  to  the  canal  basin  in  Des 
Plaines  River  above  Joliet,  a  distance  of  32.85  miles.     As  projected 
the  depth  of  water  was  to  be  24.3  feet,  the  canal  prism  in  rock  was 
to  be  160  feet  wide  at  the  bottom   and  162  feet  wide  at  the  top, 
while  in  earth  the  prism  was  to  be  202  feet  wide  on  the  bottom  and 
300  feet  at  the  water  surface,  Avith  side  slopes  of  2  to  1  under  water 
and  li  to  1  above.     As  actually  constructed  the  dimensions  are  as 
follows:  From  Robey  street  in  C'hicago  to  Summit.  T.S  miles.  162  feet 
wide  at  bottom  and  226  feet  at  water  line  :  Summit  to  Willow  Springs, 
5.3  miles,  202  feet  wide  at  bottom  and  290  feet  at  water  line;  Willow 
Springs  to  the  controlling  works  at  Lockjx)!!.  14.95  miles,  160  feet 
wide  at  bottom   and    162   feet   at   water   line.     At   the   controlling 
works  there  is  a  fan-shaped  basin  with  an  extreme  width  of  502  feet. 
From  these  works  to  the  lock  at  the  power  plant  between  Lockport 
and  Joliet,  2  miles,  the  channel  is  of  irregular  width,  nowhere  less 
than  160  feet.     The  reach  from  Robey  street  to  Summit  was  exca- 
vated wholly  in  earth.     Originally  only  the  south  side  of  the  canal 
Avas  excavated,  the  bottom  width"  being  110  feet.     In  1912  to  1914 
it  was  widened  on  the  north  side  to  the  dimensions  given  aljove. 
From  Summit  to  Willow   Springs  the  excavation  was  mostly  in 
earth,  but  there  was  some  rock  in  the  bottom  of  the  prism.     I  rom 
Willow   Springs  to  Lemont  the  excavation  below   water  line   was 
largely  in  rock.     From  Lemont  to  the  end  of  the  canal  the  excava- 
tion was  almost  entirely  in  rock.     The  depth  of  water  in  the  <-anal 
upstream  from  the  power  house  is  22  to  26  feet.     The  lock  is  130 
feet  long  and  22  feet  wide,  with  12  feet  of  water  over  the  sills.     Its 
average  lift  is  36  feet.     From  the  lock  to  the  Illinois  and  Michigan 
canalliasin  at  Joliet,  2.3  miles,  through  rock,  the  canal  has  a  mini- 
mum depth  of  water  of  10  feet,  bottom  width  of  160  feet  and  top 
width  of  162  feet.    It  is  planned  bv  the  sanitary  district  to  build  a 
larger  lock  when  it  is  needed,  unless  the  80  V)y  900  foot  lock  planned 
1)V  the  State  of  Illinois  and  described  previously  is  constructed. 

'  The  entrance  of  the  canal  at  Robey  Street  is  6  miles  from  Lake 
Michigan,  measured  along  the  Chicago  River.     Originally  the  Chi- 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   CREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      115 

caco  KiA-er  was  a  slu<riiish  stream,  iioarl}'  stagnant  chirinc:  the  greater 
part  of  tlio  year,  but  having  a  rapid  current  in  rainy  seasons.  At 
times  it  discharged  not  only  the  run-off  from  its  own  Avatershed, 
but  a  (luantity  of  water  from  the  Des  Phiines  River,  whicli  passed 
over  the  low  divide  between  the  two  streams.  BetAveen  Robcy 
Street  and  the  lake  the  Chicago  River  now  has  a  least  depth  of  21 
feet  in  mid-channel  and  to  within  20  feet  of  docks,  except  for  the 
short  distance  betAveen  Robey  Street  and  Ashland  Avenue,  Avhero 
the  least  depth  is  20  feet.  The  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,  oAvner 
of  the  canal,  aims  to  secure  a  depth  of  26  feet  for  the  midstream 
Avidth  of  100  feet,  shoaling  to  16  feet  at  the  docks,  Avith  a  clear 
riA-er  Avidth  of  200  feet  between  dock  lines. 

The  controlling  Avorks  are  at  Tx)ckport,  111.,  on  the  northwest  side 
of  the  canal.  They  comprise  a  bear-trap  dam  160  feet  Avide  Avith 
a  vertical  play  of  17  feet,  and  seven  sluice  gates  of  the  Stoney  type, 
each  30  feet  wide  and  having  a  A'ertical  play  of  20  feet.  These 
AA'orks  provide  a  A'ery  efficient  means  of  controlling  the  flow  of  Avater 
through  the  canal.  To  a  limited  extent  the  canal  discharge  may  be 
controlled  at  the  power  plant,  where,  besides  the  lock,  there  are  two 
drum  dams,  one  12  feet  long  and  one  48  feet  long,  each  liaving  a 
Aertical  play  of  18  feet.  The  narrower  one  is  nearer  the  power 
house  and  is  designed  for  use  as  an  ice  run.  A  butterfly  dam  is 
located  just  below  the  controlling  works  at  Lockport.  furnishing 
means  for  closing  off  the  portion  of  canal  leading  to  the  lock  and 
poAver  house.  It  is  a  swing  bridge  affair  with  center  pivot  located 
on  a  pier  in  midstream.  There  is  a  channel  80  feet  wide  on  each 
side  of  the  center  pier. 

There  are  18  bridges  across  the  canal.  Two  of  these  are  fixed 
and  allow  a  free  passage  40  feet  wide  with  18  feet  of  headroom 
above  the  water  surface.  The  other  bridges  are  either  SAving  or 
bascule  movable  bridges,  but  12  of  these  can  not  be  opened  because 
the  operating  machinery  has  never  been  installed,  although  the 
State  law  required  that  they  should  be  operative  by  January  17, 
1909.  The  least  headroom  under  the  inoperative  movable  bridges 
is  about  16|  feet.  There  are  two  bridges  at  Lockport  with  a  clear- 
ance aboA^e  the  water  of  only  4.8  feet,  but  these  are  in  commission. 

The  Sanitary  District  began  dredging  in  the  Chicago  River  in 
1896.  Excavation  of  the  Main  Drainage  Canal  was  commenced  on 
"  ShoA^el  Day,"  September  3,  1892.  The  canal  was  first  opened  for 
the  passage  of  water  on  January  17.  1900.  The  cost  of  the  Main 
Drainage  Canal,  Chicago  River  improA-ement,  and  other  items  pro- 
viding a  navigable  waterway  from  Lake  Michigan  to  Joliet  has  been 
approximately  $50,000,000.  This  figure  does  not  include  the  items 
required  for  sanitary  or  power  development  purposes,  but  in  no  way 
necessary  for  navigation.  The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of  the 
Main  Drainage  Canal  is  roughly  $75,000. 

Traffic. — The  use  of  the  canal  for  naA'igation  is  A-ery  small.  In 
1917  there  were  160  boats  locked  through  at  the  poAver  house.  The 
largest  boat  passing  the  lock  was  75  feet  long  by  14  feet  beam,  and 
the  aA^erage  size  was  about  40  feet  by  8  feet.  In  addition  there  is 
a  traffic  on  the  canal  hauling  stone  from  Lockport  to  Chicago. 

Xo  tolls  are  charged  against  A^essels  navigating  the  canal  or  pass- 
ing the  lock. 


116      DH'ERSrON   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Diversion. — It  has  never  been  necessary  to  estimate  the  diversion 
of  water  from  Lake  Michiiran  which  wonld  be  required  to  operate 
the  draina<re  canal  as  a  navi^rable  waterway,  provided  no  sewage  or 
water  for  sewage  dihition  or  water  for  power  development  purposes 
were  discharged  into  it,  but  it  seems  probable  that  500  cubic  feet  per 
second  would  suffice  amply.  If  the  Des  Plaines  and  Illinois  River 
route  for  8-foot  navigation  is  developed,  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
may  be  required  from  Lake  Michigan. 

ilha^trations. — Photograph  No.  12  is  of  the  rock  section  of  the 
Main  Drainage  Canal.  Photograph  Xo.  13  shows  a  portion  of  the 
controlling  works,  including  the  seven  Stonej^  gates,  one  end  of  the 
bear-trap  dam.  the  control  house  for  one  end  of  the  dam,  ;ind  a 
portion  of  the  bridge  spanning  the  dam.  At  the  controlling  works 
there  are  eight  bays  without  gates,  similar  to  the  seven  bays  Avhich 
have  Stoney  gates.  Originally  it  was  thought  that  gates  might  be 
installed  in  these  bays  later,  but  this  plan  has  been  abandoned.  No. 
14  is  a  picture  of  the  bear-trap  dam.  No.  15  shows  the  drum  dams, 
the  downstream  end  and  lower  gates  of  the  jDresent  lock,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  power  house.  No.  16  is  a  view  of  State  Dam  No.  1  at 
Joliet.  The  entrance  to  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  is  on  the 
far  side  of  the  river. 

3.    WELLAND  CANAL. 

The  diversion  of  water  from  Lake  Erie  through  the  Welland  Canal 
appears  to  have  been  approximately  as  follows:  During  the  season  of 
navigation  of  1917.  4.600  cubic  feet  per  second;  during  the  follow- 
ing closed  season,  4,300;  during  the  navigation  season  of  1918,  4,400: 
during  the  closed  season,  4,100.  In  addition  there  was  a  supply  of 
about  40  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Grand  River,  a  tributary  of 
Lake  Erie.  These  figures  are  averages,  and  so.  of  course,  the  diver- 
sion has  at  times  exceeded  these  amounts.  Of  those  diversions  1,100 
cubic  feet  per  second  was  used  for  navigation,  including  lockage, 
leakage,  and  waste,  during  the  open  season,  and  800  cul)ic  feet  per 
second  during  the  closed  season.  Of  the  remainder  a  very  small 
amount  was  used  for  sanitary  purposes  and  the  balance  for  power  de- 
velopment. The  diversion  fi-om  the  Grand  River  was  begun  in  1833. 
The  diversion  direct  from  Lake  Erie  was  begun  in  1881. 

In  the  succeeding  paragraphs  there  is  given  a  general  description 
and  brief  hi.story  of  the  canal,  with  special  reference  to  the  naviga- 
tion features.    The  power  features  are  treated  in  section  C. 

Description. — The  Welland  Canal  connects  Lake  Erie  with  Lake 
Ontario.  It  is  in  Canada  5^  miles  west  of  Niagara  River  at  the 
point  where  the  distance  is  least,  and  runs  approximately  north  from 
Port  Colborne,  19  miles  west  of  Buffalo  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Erie,  to  Port  Dalhousie  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  11 
miles  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  River.  The  route  is  shown 
on  plate  No.  6.  The  mean  stage  of  liake  Erie  for  the  years  1860  to 
1917.  bf>th  inclusive  was  572.53  feet  al)ove  mean  sea  level,  on  United 
States  standard  datum :  while  for  the  same  years  the  mean  stage  of 
Lake  Ontario  was  246.18  feet;  making  the  average  drop  for  those 
years  from  upper  to  lower  lake  surface  326.35  feet. 

The  present  Welland  Canal,  which  is  26|  miles  long,  overcomes 
this  difference  in  elevation  bv  means  of  25  lift  locks  and  one  guard 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   CREAT  T.AKES  AXU  NIAGARA  RIVER.      117 

lock.  The  locks  are  270  feet  lon^^  45  feet  wide,  and  have  14  feet 
depth  of  water  on  the  miter  sills.  Maximum  available  length  for 
boats  is  255  feet.  The  avera*re  lift  is  13  feet,  the  maximum  lift  at 
any  lock  being  about  18  feet.  The  lork  valves  are  in  the  gates  and 
are  operated  by  hand.  The  gates  themselves  are  operated  electrically. 
The  guard  lock  is  at  Port  Colborne,  one-half  mile  from  the  entrance 
to  the  canal.  From  there  the  canal  extends  17  miles  at  Lake  Erie 
level,  except  for  the  slight  drop  necessary  to  create  a  flow  of  water 
toward  Lake  Ontario,  to  the  guard  gates  just  above  Lock  No.  25.  The 
distance  along  the  canal  from  the  guard  gates  to  Lock  No.  1  at  Port 
Dalhousie  is  9^  miles.  There  are  no  locks  in  flight,  and  the  levels 
between  locks  are  in  all  cases  at  least  long  enough  and  wide  enough 
to  permit  boats  to  pass.  The  depth  in  the  upper  level  is  controlled  by 
the  elevation  of  Lake  Erie.  At  low  stages  of  the  lake  the  depth  on 
the  sill  of  the  guard  lock  at  Port  Colborne,  No.  26,  is  less  than  13  feet, 
and  at  extreme  low  stage  this  depth  has  been  as  small  as  10^  feet. 
The  canal  prism  was  excavated  in  earth  except  for  a  short  rock  cut 
just  north  of  Port  Colborne,  shallow  rock  cuttings  south  of  the  guard 
gates,  and  shallow  to  heavy  rock  cuttings  at  the  lock  sites.  Bottom 
width  is  100  feet,  the  side  slopes  being  1  on  2.  At  the  city  of 
Welland,  8  miles  from  Lake  Erie,  the  canal  is  carried  over  the 
Welland  Kiver  on  a  concrete  viaduct. 

History. — A  brief  history  of  the  present  Welland  Canal  and  its 
predecessors  is  as  follows:  The  construction  of  the  first  Welland 
Canal  was  begun  in  1824  by  a  private  corporation.  In  May,  1833, 
the  canal  was  opened  from  Port  Colborne  to  Port  Dalhousie  for 
navigation.  The  depth  was  7|  feet,  the  bottom  width  of  prism 
being  26  feet  in  earth  and  15  fee"t  in  rock.  There  was  a  long  summit 
level  8  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Erie,  fed  from  the  Grand  River 
iDy  a  feeder  canal  21  miles  long,  which  ran  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion from  Dunnville  on  the  Grand  River  to  Welland  on  the  canal. 
In  1841  the  Canadian  Government  purchased  the  canal  rights  and 
in  1842  began  an  enlargement  which  was  completed  in  1850.  As 
enlarged  the  canal  prism  was  8|  feet  deep  and  26  feet  wide  on  the 
bottom,  and  the  feeder  was  increased  to  the  same  size.  Subsequent 
to  1854,  by  the  addition  of  copings  the  navigable  depth  of  the  canal, 
but  not  of  the  feeder,  was  increased  to  10  feet.  In  1872  the  Gov- 
ernment determined  on  a  scheme  for  the  general  enlargement  of  the 
canal,  the  adoption  of  the  Lake  Erie  level,  and  the  obtaining  of  a 
water  supply  from  Lake  Erie  at  Port  Colborne,  in  addition  to  the 
limited  supply  coming  through  the  feeder  from  Grand  River.  This 
canal  was  an  enlargement  of  the  old  canal  from  Port  Colborne  to 
Allanburg,  about  15  miles,  but  from  there  to  Port  Dalhousie  followed 
an  entirely  new  route  somewhat  east  of  the  old  line.  In  1882  this 
improved  canal  was  opened  for  12-foot  navigation.  When  the  aque- 
duct at  Welland  was  completed  in  1887  this  canal,  now  known  as  the 
present  Welland  Canal,  was  made  available  for  14-foot  navigation. 
The  portion  of  the  old  canal  from  Allanburg  to  Port  Dalhousie 
has  been  retained  and  is  open  to  navigation  but  has  been  used  only 
a  very  few  times  in  many  years.  It  is  three-fourths  mile  longer  than 
the  line  which  replaced  it  and  has  26  locks,  each  45  feet  wide  and 
with  101  feet  of  water  on  the  sills.  Two  of  the  locks  are  200  feet  long 
and  24  are  150  feet  long.     The  old  canal  is  used  for  water-power 


lis      DmERSIOX   OF   WATKl;   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

develojmient.  as  will  be  explained  later.  There  are  numerous  rail- 
road and  hifrh"way  bridges  spanning  the  canal.  These  are  all  swing 
bridges,  which  open  on  signal.  Many  of  them  have  very  little  clear- 
ance above  the  water  surface  when  closed. 

Cost  and  traffic. — The  original  cost  of  the  old  Welland  Canal,  in- 
cluding the  first  enlargement,  was  $7,693,824.  Subsequent  enlarge- 
ments, including  construction  of  the  present  canal,  raised  the  orimnal 
cost  to  $29,431,758.  Maintenance,  operation,  and  repairs  up  to  ISitirch 
31.  1917,  amounted  to  $10,121,846. 

The  total  amount  of  freight  carried  in  recent  vears  has  been  as 
follows:  In  191.",,  3.010.012  t(ms :  in  1916,  2,544,964  tons:  and  in  1917, 
2.490.542  tons.  Approximately  two-thirds  of  this  was  eastbound. 
The  maximum  yearly  tonnage  was  carried  previous  to  1915.  The 
number  of  vessel  passages  in  1916  was  2.552. 

Tolls  were  charged  up  to  1904,  and  since  that  time  the  canal  has 
been  free  of  tolls.  Up  to  March  31,  1917,  the  total  amount  collected 
from  tolls.  Avharfage.  harbor  dues,  water  rentals,  and  other  rents  was 
$1,560,396. 

Dive7\sions. — Nothing  is  known  of  the  quantity  of  water  originally 
supplied  from  the  Grand  River.  Evidently  the  supply  was  more 
than  the  requirement  for  navigation  uses,  for  leases  covering  the 
development  of  water  power  at  the  locks  were  made  as  early  as  1851. 
although  the  first  Lake  Erie  water  was  not  admitted  to  the  canal 
until  1881.  At  present  the  supply  through  the  Dunnville  feeder  is 
officially  reported  to  be  40  cubic  feet  per  second.  Combining  official 
reports  with  the  results  of  field  inspection,  it  has  been  computed 
that  in  1918  the  direct  diversion  from  Lake  Erie  averaged  4.400 
cubic  feet  per  second  during  the  navigation  season  and  4,100  during 
the  closed  season.  The  maximum  diversion  at  any  one  time  ran 
somewhat  above  the  mean,  but  is  not  known.  In  1917  the  diversion 
was  200  cubic  feet  per  second  greater.  The  officially  reported 
amount  used  in  lockage  and  leakage  beloAV  Allanburg  is  1.100  cubic 
feet  per  second  during  the  season  of  navigation  and  800  cul)ic  feet 
per  second  during  closed  season. 

Neic  Welland  Canal. — In  1913  work  was  commenced  on  the  New 
"Welland  Canal,  sometimes  called  the  AVelland  Ship  Canal.  This 
canal  will  be  just  25  miles  long  and  will  overcome  the  difference  in 
elevation  of  the  two  lakes  in  seven  lifts  of  46i  feet  each,  and  one 
lift,  at  the  guard  lock,  which  will  vary  from  nothing  at  all  to  12 
feet,  depending  on  the  stage  of  Lake  Erie.  From  Lake  Erie  the 
new  canal  follows  the  line  of  the  ])resent  canal  to  Allanburg.  15 
miles,  except  for  two  cut-offs,  which  straighten  the  alignment  some- 
what. The  Iluniberstone  cut-off.  so-called,  begins  H  miles  from  the 
lake  and  is  al)out  li  miles  long.  ]:)assing  to  the  west  of  the  present 
canal.  The  new  guard  lock  will  be  located  on  this  cut-off.  and  the 
])resent  canal  will  provide  a  l)y-pass  for  the  flow  of  water  around 
the  lock.  The  other  cut-off  commences  at  the  Welland  Aqueduct, 
and  follows  the  line  of  Welland  River,  just  east  of  the  present  canal, 
al)out  4  miles  to  the  town  of  Port  Robinson,  at  which  point  the  Wel- 
land River  turns  eastward  to  the  Niagara  River.  A  dam  is  to  be 
constructed  across  the  Welland  River  at  Port  Robinson,  raising  the 
Avater  level  of  the  i-iver  al)out  10  feet.  The  aqueduct  at  Welland  will 
be  remoxed.  The  level  from  the  Humberstone  guard  lock  to  Lock 
No.  7  at  Thorold,  3  miles  north  of  Allanburg,  will  ])e  maintained  at 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   tIREAT  I^VKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      119 

ele\atioii  568  feet  above  mean  sea  level.  At  AUanburg  the  new  canal 
leaves  the  present  canal,  the  new  route  lying  to  the  east  of  the  old 
as  far  as  the  Present  Lock  No.  25,  a  distance  of  about  2^  miles.  Just 
beloAv  Lock  25  the  two  canals  are  to  cross  at  grade.  From  there  the 
new  route  lies  west  of  the  old  and  runs  almost  due  north  for  3  nules 
to  another  crossing  of  the  present  canal  at  grade  a  short  distance 
downstream  from  present  Lock  No.  11.  New  Lock  No.  7  is  at  Thor- 
old.  Locks  Nos.  4.  5,  and  6  are  between  Thorold  and  the  lower 
canal  crossing.  They  are  in  flight  and  are  twins ;  that  is,  six  locks 
arranged  two  abreast  in  one  mammoth  concrete  block.  From  the 
loAver  crossing  of  the  present  canal  the  new  route  follows  the  valley 
of  Tenmile  Creek  in  a  direction  sliglitly  east  of  north  a  distance  of 
5  miles  to  Lake  Ontario.  At  the  mouth  of  Tenmile  Creek,  3  miles 
east  of  Port  Dalhousie,  an  artificial  harbor  has  been  constructed, 
known  as  Port  Weller.  Lock  No.  3  is  just  below  the  lower  crossing 
of  the  present  canal  and  Lock  No.  1  is  near  Port  Weller,  Lock  No.  2 
beino-  approximately  halfwav  in  between.  The  locks  are  to  have  a 
usabte  Avidth  of  80  feet  and 'usable  length  of  800  feet,  with  30  feet 
depth  of  water  on  the  miter  sills  at  extreme  low  stage.  They  will 
be  885  feet  long  from  hinge  to  hinge  of  the  gates.  The  lock  gates 
will  be  of  single-leaf  type.  Guard  gates  will  be  installed  above  Lock 
No.  7.  The  canal  prism  is  to  be  200  feet  wide  at  bottom,  310  feet 
wide  at  water  line,  and  25  feet  deep.  It  is  planned  that  the  canal 
may  ultimately  be  deepened  to  30  feet,  and  for  that  reason  the  locks 
and  all  masonry  structures,  such  as  retaining  walls  and  piers  are 
designed  for  the  30- foot  depth.  The  canal  excavation  is  almost  en- 
tirely in  earth,  and  the  cutting  is  something  like  30  feet  deep  on  the 
average,  although  there  is  a  50  to  60  foot  cut  about  2  miles  long, 
the  maximum  cutting  being  66  feet.  The  locks  are  founded  on  either 
limestone  or  shale  rock.  The  estimated  cost  was  $50,000,000.  On 
March  31,  1917,  construction  work  on  the  new  canal  was  postponed 
indefinitely  on  account  of  the  war. 

In  organizing  the  construction  work  the  new  route  was  subdivided 
into  nine  sections,  which  were  numbered  in  order  from  Lake  Ontario. 
Section  1  included  Port  Weller,  the  new  harbor  on  Lake  Ontario,  and 
extended  about  3  miles  from  the  outer  end  of  the  harbor,  including 
Lock  No.  1.  Section  2  was  about  4/j  miles  long,  and  included  Locks 
Nos.  2  and  3.  Section  3  was  about  2  miles  long,  and  included  the 
flight  of  twin  locks,  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6,  and  the  single  lock.  No.  7.  These 
three  sections  cover  the  route  from  Lake  Ontario  up  to  the  Lake 
Erie  level  at  Thorold.  Section  5  extended  along  the  present  canal 
from  AUanburg  to  Port  Robinson,  the  work  involving  widening  and 
deepening  the  existing  prism.  These  four  sections  were  placed  under 
contract  in  the  summer  and  fall  of  1913.  Up  to  the  date  of  suspen- 
sion of  operations  the  progress  had  been  such  that  sections  1  and  5 
were  considered  two-thirds  complete  each,  section  2  half  complete, 
and  section  3  one-third  complete.  Nothing  further  has  been  done 
to  this  new  canal  until  recently.  The  total  expenditure  upon  it  to 
date  has  been  $13,693,923. 

It  is  officially  reported  that  the  maximum  diversion  of  water  from 
Lake  Erie  required  by  the  new  canal  for  navigation  will  be  approxi- 
mately 2,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  general  location  of  the 
Welland  Canal  is  shown  on  plate.  1.    On  plate  6  the  old,  present,  and 


120      DIVERSION  OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

new  Welland  Canals  are  shown  more  in  detail,  as  well  as  their  re- 
lation to  Niagara  River.  Photographs  Nos.  17  to  22.  inclusive,  are 
illustrative  of  the  present  Welland  Canal,  -while  photoo^raphs  Nos. 
22  to  25,  inclusive,  are  illustrative  of  the  old  Welland  Canal.  Ex- 
planations are  given  beneath  the  pictures. 

4.    BLACK   ROCK  CANAL. 

Water  from  Lake  Erie  is  diverted  around  the  head  of  Niagara 
River  through  the  Black  Rock  Canal  for  a  distance  of  about  4  miles. 
At  the  low^er  end  of  the  canal  some  of  the  water  passes  into  the  head 
of  the  old  Erie  Canal.  The  rest  passes  through  Black  Rock  Lock 
out  into  Niagara  River.  There  is  a  small  leakage  from  the  Black 
Rock  Canal  into  Niagara  River  along  the  upper  portions  of  Bird 
Island  Pier.  The  amount  of  this  leakage  was  estimated  to  be  about 
250  cubic  feet  per  second.  From  the  lock  records  the  requirement 
for  lockage  and  waste  at  Black  Rock  Lock  is  approximately'  50  cubic 
feet  per  second.  In  addition  to  these  two  quantities  there  is  diverted 
down  the  Black  Rock  Canal  whatever  water  flows  in  the  Erie  Canal 
at  Black  Rock.  This  quantity  has  been  as  gi'eat  as  1.000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  Since  the  removal  of  the  dam  at  Tonawanda  in  the  early 
spring  of  1918  and  the  construction  of  the  temporary  dam  across 
the  old  Erie  Canal  at  Tonawanda,  the  flow  into  the  upper  end  of 
the  Erie  Canal  at  Black  Rock  has  been  small,  about  400  cubic  feet 
per  second.  This  has  been  spilled  into  Niagara  River  at  Tonawanda, 
except  for  what  was  lost  by  seepage  and  evaporation.  The  Erie 
Canal  as  improved  to  form  the  barge  canal  now  receives  its  western 
water  supply  from  Niagara  River  at  Tonawanda. 

Following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  canal  and  lock  of  the  Black 
Rock  Canal,  with  statements  regarding  the  navigation  features. 
The  old  power  developments  are  referred  to  briefly  in  Section  C. 

Description. — The  general  relation  of  the  Black  Rock  Canal  to 
Niagara  River  is  shown  on  plate  No.  6.  The  canal  and  lock  are 
shown  better  on  plate  No.  7. 

The  Niagara  River  breaks  out  from  Lake  Erie  over  a  ledge  of 
limestone  abreast  of  the  city  of  Buil'alo,  N.  Y.  Not  far  from  the 
lake  the  stream  is  only  1,600  feet  wide  at  its  narrowest  place.  In  this 
cross  section  it  has  a  maximum  depth  of  15  feet  at  mean  stage  and 
a  velocity  approximating  8  miles  per  hour.  The  fall  from  Horse- 
shoe Reef  Light,  at  the  head  of  the  river,  to  the  foot  of  Squaw 
Island,  3f  miles,  is  approximately  5.1  feet,  A'arying  somewhat  with 
the  stage  of  Lake  Erie.  From  Squaw  Island  the  river  slope  is  com- 
paratively gentle,  for  about  15  miles  by  the  shortest  route,  to  the 
head  of  the  rapids  above  the  Falls. 

To  aid  navigation  in  passing  this  swift  shallow  portion  of  the 
river  a  channel,  known  as  the  Black  Rock  Canal,  has  lipen  con- 
structed along  the  eastern  edge  of  the  river  from  Buffalo  Harbor  to  the 
foot  of  Squaw  Island,  The  upper  end  of  Black  Rock  Channel  is  at 
the  foot  of  Maryland  Street,  about  a  mile  from  the  north  or  main  en- 
trance to  Buffalo  Harbor.  The  channel  which  has  been  dredged 
from  the  main  entrance  of  the  harbor  to  the  canal  is  21  feet  dco]).  and 
is  400  feet  wide  from  the  southerly  end  of  the  north  breakwater  to 
the  northerly  end  of  the  State  breakwater,  abreast  the  foot  of  Georgia 
Street,  and  500  feet  wide  from  tliere  to  the  head  of  the  canal.   On  ac- 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RlVEJl.      121 

count  of  shoaling  at  the  Lake  entrance,  tlie  present  avaihable  depth  is 
about  18  feet.  The  canal  itself  is  formed  by  a  breakwater  largely 
of  rock,  known  as  Bird  Island  Pier,  extending  from  a  point  opi)osite 
the  foot  of  Maryland  Street  to  the  head  of  Scjuaw  Island,  about 
2^  miles,  and  by  the  passage  between  Squaw  Island  and  the  main 
shore.  Within  this  space,  which  is  3^-  miles  long,  and  varies  from 
220  to  1,400  feet  in  Avidth,  is  a  dredged  channel  21  fleet  deep  and 
200  feet  wide  extending  for  ^^  miles  from  the  head  of  Bird  Island 
Pier  to  the  lock  near  the  foot  of  Squaw  Island.  This  channel  is  240 
feet  wide  on  curves,  and  is  only  150  feet  wide  at  the  Ferry  Street  and 
International  bridges.  These  are  the  only  bridges  crossing  the  canal 
and  they  have  clear  openings  of  150  feet  in  each  case,  the  bridge  at 
Ferry  Street  being  of  the  bascule  type  and  the  International  Bridge 
of  the  swing  type.  The  clear  headroom  under  these  briclges  Avhen 
closed,  at  mean  stage,  is  15  feet.  The  canal  water  surface  is  at  Lake 
Jtl^rie  elevation  at  its  upper  end,  and  has  only  a  very  slight  drop  to 
the  lock. 

The  Black  Rock  Lock,  connecting  the  canal  with  the  Niagara 
Kiver  near  the  foot  of  Squaw  Island,  is  650  feet  lonp;  between  hollow 
quoins  and  TO  feet  wide,  has  a  usable  length  of  625  reet,  usable  width 
of  68  feet,  depth  of  22  feet  on  the  miter  sills  at  low  stage,  and  aver- 
age lift  of  about  5  feet.     It  is  electrically  operated  and  lighted. 

The  river  portion  of  Bird  Island  Pier,  extending  from  the  head 
of  Squaw  Island  up  to  Bird  Island,  was  constructed  by  the  State 
between  1823  and  1825  in  connection  with  the  building  of  the  Erie 
Canal.  At  this  time  the  dike  between  Squaw  Island  and  the  main 
shore  was  built  also.  These  structures,  in  fact,  formed  a  part  of  the 
Erie  Canal.  Between  1829  and  1834  the  United  States  Government 
extended  and  repaired  the  upstream  end  of  Bird  Island  Pier,  and  be- 
tween 1869  and  18T2  extended  the  pier  from  Bird  Island  to  a  point 
opposite  the  foot  of  Hudson  Street.  In  1891  and  1892  the  pier  was 
extended  900  feet  to  a  point  opposite  the  foot  of  Maryland  Street. 
About  1825,  mills  Avere  established  on  the  dike  between  SquaAV  Island 
and  the  mainland,  to  develop  water  power  provided  by  the  5-foot 
head  of  water  held  up  by  the  dike.  Water  for  power  development 
was  used  in  such  quantities  by  these  mills  as  to  create  a  current  very 
detrimental  to  canal  navigation.  To  remedy  this  condition  the  State 
constructed  an  intermediate  Avail  between  Bird  Island  Pier  and  the 
main  shore,  some  time  betw^een  1854  and  1867,  proAdding  a  separate 
channel  70  feet  wide  for  the  Erie  Canal,  adjacent  to  the  mainland. 
It  was  found  that  the  water  passing  down  this  70-foot  channel  to 
supply  the  navigation  needs  of  the  Erie  Canal  created  too  great  a 
current,  and  accordingly,  after  1871,  the  middle  wall  was  moved  out 
for  the  greater  part  of  its  length  and  the  main  bank  was  cut  back 
sufficiently  to  provide  a  channel  for  the  Erie  Canal  150  feet  AA^de. 
This  division  wall  was  ne\^er  quite  completed  at  its  downstream  end. 

Black  Rock  Lock. — Some  time  previous  to  1840  a  ship  lock  was 
built  betAveen  Squaw  Island  and  the  mainland.  It  was  of  timber, 
and  soon  decayed  and  leaked  badly.  In  1841  a  new  stone  lock  was 
commenced,  but  its  construction  was  greatly  delayed  by  financial 
difficulties  of  the  State,  and  was  not  completed  until  1851.  This 
lock,  which  was  sometimes  called  the  "sloop"  lock,  was  in  operation 
until  1913,  Avhen  it  was  removed,  between  July  and  November,  to 
make  room  for  the  new  approach  channel  to  the  present  lock.    The 


122      DIVERSION   OF  WATER    FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

old  lock  was  200  feet  loii<;.  30  feet  wide,  and  had  about  91  feet  of 
water  on  the  sills  at  mean  lake  stajze. 

Construction  of  the  present  lock  was  commenced  in  1907  and  com- 
pleted in  19i;i  The  deepening  and  widenin<r  of  the  channel  and 
buildin«y  of  Ferry  Street  Bridge  were  not  finished  until  1914.  The 
jDresent  canal  was  opened  to  navi<::ation  Au<>-ust  IT.  1914. 

Cost  and  trafjic. — The  cost  of  this  waterway  to  the  State  of  New 
York  is  not  known.  The  expenditures  upon  it  by  the  United  States 
from  1826  to  June  80,  1918,  for  new  work  total  $3,945,563,  includincr 
$1,001,578  for  the  present  lock.  The  United  States  spent  very  little 
for  maintenance  of  it  until  the  openinof  of  the  new  lock  and  channel 
in  1914.  and  the  maintenance  cost  to  the  State  is  not  known.  The 
expense  of  operation  and  maintenance  has  been  borne  by  tlie  Ignited 
States  since  the  openin<^  in  1914,  and  has  amounted  to  $52,726. 

The  maximum  number  of  vessel  passages  through  the  new  lock 
was  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1916,  and  was  9,829.  The 
number  of  vessel  passages  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1918, 
was  6,304.  Between  40  and  50  per  cent  of  these  passages  were  by 
motor  boats  or  craft  other  than  registered  vessels.  In  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1918,  the  freight  carried  through  the  lock  amounted 
to  1.632,846  tons,  and  this  was  the  maximum  carried  in  any  fiscal 
year  since  the  opening  of  the  improved  waterway.  The  value  of 
this  freight  was  $8,579,217. 

Divei'sion. — The  amount  of  water  diverted  ar(jund  the  rapids  at 
the  head  of  Niagara  River  has  never  been  known  accurately.  State- 
ments made  by  the  chief  engineer  and  canal  commissioners  of  the 
Erie  Canal  at  the  time  Bird  Island  Pier  Avas  about  to  be  constructed 
indicate  that  the  natural  discharge  of  the  river  through  the  area  shut 
off  by  this  pier  was  far  greater  than  the  flow  ever  obtaining  down 
Black  Rock  Harbor  and  the  Erie  Canal.  In  recent  years  the  dis- 
charge of  the  Erie  Canal  just  below  where  it  leaves  the  Black  Rock 
Canal  has  been  as  high  as  1.000  cubic  feet  i)er  second.  This  flow 
was  supplied  from  Lake  Erie  through  the  Black  Rock  Canal,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  small  requirements  for  lockage  at  the  Black  Rock  Sloop 
Lock,  and  whatever  water  leaked  out  at  the  lock  and  through  Bird 
Island  Pier.  At  the  present  time  the  portion  of  the  Erie  Canal  l)e- 
twe€n  Buffalo  and  Tonawanda  is  not  in  use,  the  water  level  being 
held  up  ])y  a  temporary  dam  at  Tonawanda.  The  flow  re(|uii-ed  is 
only  that  necessary  to  compensate  for  leakage,  seepage,  and  evapora- 
tion in  this  reach  of  the  old  canal.  In  addition  to  this,  however, 
there  is  spilled  into  Niagara  River  at  the  old  s])illway  at  Tonawanda 
about  400  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  new  Black  Rock  Channel  must 
carry  this  water  and  also  enough  more  to  provide  for  lockage  at  the 
new  lock,  leakage  through  Bird  Island  Pier,  and  evai)oration.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  leakage  is  ai)i)roxiinately  250  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond and  the  lockage  and  waste  at  the  lock  less  on  tlie  average  than  50 
cubic  feet  per  second.  Ahogether  it  seems  j^robable  that  the  (|uantity 
of  water  diverte<l  from  Lake  Erie  is  about  700  cubic  feet  per  second. 
300  of  wliich  is  returned  to  Niagara  River  within  a  distance  of  3^ 
miles. 

Three  photographs  are  presented  illustrating  this  waterway.  No. 
26  shows  the  new  lock  as  it  apjiears  to-day.  The  other  two,  Nos.  27 
and  28,  are  recent  views  of  the  canal.  Brief  descriptions  aiv  given 
beneath  the  pictures. 


DIVERSION"  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  J.AKES  AND  NIAGARA  lUVKR.      123 
5.    Xi:W   YORK   STATE   BARGE  CANAL. 

The  western  portion  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  was 
■opened  in  midsummer  of  1918.  There  is  no  record  of  the  quantity 
of  Avater  wliich  has  been  diverted  into  it  from  Niagara  River,  but  it 
is  lielieved  to  have  been  less  than  the  average  amount  assumed  to  be 
re(|uired  ultimately,  namely.  1,287  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  maxi- 
mum cajiacity  of  the  canal  to  Lockport  depends  on  the  stage  of  Lake 
Erie  and  on  the  dej)th  maintained  (m  the  upper  sill  of  the  first  lock. 
It  varies  roughh^  from  1,000  to  3,000  cuinc  feet  per  second.  East  of 
Lockport  the  maximum  discharge  capacity  of  the  canal  is  1,000  cubic 
feet  per  second.  P^or  navigation  use  it  seems  likely  that  a  diversion 
of  1,000  to  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second  will  be  required.  A  portion 
•of  the  water  thus  required  may  also  be  used  in  the  development  of 
power  at  Lockport  without  interfering  with  navigation. 

During  the  period  of  construction  of  the  western  part  of  the  barge 
canal,  from  1910  to  1918,  the  diversion  averaged  somewhat  less  than 
previously.  At  times  there  was  no  flow  in  the  canal  at  all  and  the 
prism  east  of  Pendleton  was  empty.  Previous  to  1910,  for  several 
vears,  the  diversion  which  then  came  from  Lake  Erie  by  way  of  the 
'I31ack  Rock  and  Erie  Canals  ranged  approximately  between  500  and 
1.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Something  like  half  of  this  amount  was 
used  for  power  development  only. 

These  diversions  from  Lake  Erie  and  Niagara  River  are  discharged 
into  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego  and  at  various  points  between  Niagara 
River  and  Irondequoit  Bay,  except  for  the  portions  lost  by  seepage 
and  evaporation. 

In  addition  a  considerable  drainage  naturally  tributary  to  Lake 
Ontario  is  diverted  into  the  barge  canal  from  Macedon  to  the  Rome 
Summit  level.  Exce]">t  for  the  losses  by  seepage  and  evaporation  this 
finds  its  way  into  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego.  There  is  also  an  average 
of  alwut  50  cubic  feet  ])er  second  from  the  Mohawk  Valley  and  35 
cul)ic  feet  per  second  from  the  Susquehanna  River  drainage  basin 
diverted  into  this  portion  of  the  canal,  and  thus  discharged  into  the 
Oreat  Lakes  system  at  Oswego. 

The  general  location  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  is  shown 
on  plate  No.  1.  On  plate  No.  8  the  portion  of  the  canal  mainly  under 
discussion  is  shown  more  in  detail. 

A  description  and  brief  history  of  the  canal  with  special  reference 
to  its  navigation  features  is  given  in  the  following  paragraphs.  In 
Part  C  of  this  report  is  a  short  treatment  of  the  power  development 
along  the  canal. 

Inscription. — The  i-)resent  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  system 
])rovides  a  waterway  of  12  feet  minimum  depth  and  not  less  than 
94  feet  width,  except  at  locks,  from  Buifalo  on  Lake  Erie,  to  the 
Hudson  River  at  Water  ford,  and  thence  on  doAvn  the  Hudson  pa'^t 
Troy  and  Albany  to  New  York  City.  The  Champlain  branch  from 
"Waterford  to  Lake  Champlain  is  of  like  dimensions,  as  are  also  the 
short  lateral  branches  at  Rochester  and  Syracuse,  the  Oswego  branch, 
connecting  the  main  canal  with  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego,  and  the 
Cayuga  and  Seneca  Canal  connecting  the  main  canal  with  Cayuga 
and  Seneca  Lakes.  The  main  or  Erie  branch  proper,  which  is  the 
improved  Erie  Canal,  has  its  western  end  in  the  Niagara  RiA^er  at  the 
mouth  of  Tonawanda  Creek,  at  Tonawanda,  N.  Y,,  and  its  eastern 


124      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   (IREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER, 

end  in  the  Hudson  River  at  AA'aterford.  The  distance  between  these 
two  jjoints.  as  measured  alon^  the  center  line  of  tlie  canal,  is  338.4 
miles.  From  Tonawanda  the  l)ar<re  canal  route  continues  up  the 
Xiatriira  Kiver  and  passes  throufrh  tlie  Black  Kock  Ship  Lock  and 
C'liannel  12.4  miles  to  a  State  terminal  at  Buffalo. 

From  AVaterford  the  route  follows  down  the  Hudson  River  2.3 
miles  to  the  lock  and  dam  at  Troy,  at  the  head  of  tidewater,  and 
then  continues  7.7  miles  farther  to  Albany,  and  thence  on  doAvn  to 
Xew  York  Cit3^  It  is  353.1  miles  from  Buffalo  to  Troy  via  the 
canal,  and  153  miles  from  Troy  to  the  Battery  in  Xew  York  City, 
or  50G.1  from  Buffalo  to  Xew  York  by  the  route  of  the  barge  canal. 
The  Champlain  Canal  is  60.7  miles  long,  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca 
Canal  27.2  miles  long,  and  the  Oswego  Canal  23.4  miles  long.  Alto- 
gether the  barge  canal  system,  counting  the  lakes,  but  not  Erie  and 
Ontario,  provides  790  miles  of  navigation  of  barge  canal  dimensions. 
In  addition  there  are  portions  of  the  older  canals  still  available  for 
use.  as  will  be  noted  later. 

Leaving  the  Xiagara  River  at  Tonawanda  the  barge  canal  follows 
a  northeasterly  direction  about  18  miles  to  Lockport.  There  it  turns 
and  follows  a  generally  easterly  direction,  approximately  parallel 
with  and  10  miles  south  of  the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  for  60  miles 
to  the  (renesee  River.  Continuing  easterly-  its  route  reaches  the  head 
of  Oswego  River  approximately  90  miles  from  the  Genesee,  as  meas- 
ured along  the  canal.  Thence  the  route  extends  on  eastward,  pass- 
ing through  the  20  miles  of  length  of  Oneida  Lake,  to  the  Rome 
Summit  level,  and  on  down  along  the  Mohawk  River  to  Albany.  It 
is  37  miles  along  the  canal  route  from  the  head  of  Oswego  River  to 
Lock  Xo.  21,  at  the  westerly  end  of  the  Rome  Summit  level.  This 
level  is  18.22  miles  long. 

From  Tonawanda  to  Pendleton,  9.58  miles,  the  canal  is  in  Tona- 
wanda Creek,  except  for  three  cut-offs  at  sharp  bends.  In  the  first 
12,000  feet  of  this  reach  the  water  surface  width  approximates  200 
feet,  and  the  depth  is  12  feet,  at  a  stage  of  565.50.  barge  canal 
datum,  which  is  564.37  on  Ignited  States  Standard  datum,  adjust- 
ment of  1903,  elevation  referring  to  the  junction  point  of  Tona- 
wanda Creek  and  Niagara  River.  For  the  remainder  of  the  dis- 
tance to  Pendleton  the  cross  section  closely  approximates  the  stand- 
ard l)arge  canal  section  in  earth,  which  is  a  trapezoid  12  feet  deep 
with  75  feet  bottom  width  and  wide  slopes  of  1  on  2.  making  tlie 
width  of  water  surface  123  feet.  The  banks  are  carried  to  a  mini- 
mum height  of  21  feet  above  the  assumed  Avater  surface,  or  14.V  feet 
above  the  bed  of  the  canal.  At  Pendleton  tlie  canal  leaves  Tona- 
wanda Creek  and  follows  a  land  line  from  there  to  a  point  consider- 
ably beyond  the  Oenesee  River.  From  Pendleton  tliree-qu;irters  of 
the  wa}'  to  Lockport  the  section  is  almost  entirely  standard  eartli 
section.  The  remaining  length  is  in  rock  cut  with  a  standard 
section  94  feet  wide  on  bottom,  and  having  vertically  channelerl  sides 
witli  6-inch  offsets  at  the  top  of  each  9-foot  lift.  The  bed  of  the 
canal  has  been  given  a  slope  toward  Lockport,  which  increases  to- 
ward Lof-kport,  and  makes  the  total  drop  from  Tonawanda  to  Lock- 
port  1.47  feet. 

There  are  two  new  standard  locks  in  flight  at  Lockport,  provid- 
ing for  a  total  drop  of  49.16  feet,  from  highest  to  lowest  sill.  These 
locks  are  Xos.  34  and  35,  and  they  carry  the  canal  down  over  what 


DIYEESION   OF  WATER  I'ROM   CHEAT  L.\KES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     125 

is  known  as  the  Niagara  escarpment.  The  next  lift  lock,  Xo.  33,  is 
3i  miles  west  of  Pittsford,  (U  miles  from  Lock  No.  34,  and  4  miles 
east  of  the  Genesee  River.  -,«..,  .. 

The  reach  of  canal  between  Ix)cks  Nos.  33  and  34  is  known  as  the 
'•long  level,"  or  "sixty-mile  level."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  has  been 
constructed  with  a  sloping  grade,  the  elevation  of  the  canal  bottom 
being  502  87  feet  at  Lockport  and  500.60  feet  at  Genesee  River,  barge 
canal  batum,  giving  a  fall  of  2.27  feet  in  60  miles.  With  the  exception 
of  the  three  (;ut-olts  on  Tonawanda  Creek  previously  mentioned  and 
a  short  cut-off  just  west  of  South  Greece,  the  new  barge  canal  follows 
the  line  of  the  old  Erie  Canal  from  Tonawanda  to  South  Greece,  a 
few  miles  Avest  of  Rochester,  where  it  takes  a  more  southerly  route 
and  passes  around  the  main  portion  of  the  city  of  Rochester,  uniting 
with  the  old  canal  line  again  at  Pittsford.  The  old  Erie  Canal  has 
been  deepened  and  widened  to  form  the  new  barge  canal,  which  for  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  length  is  confined  between  artificial  earth 
eml)ankments.  The  canal  is  constructed  throughout  for  a  low-water 
depth  of  12  feet.  The  artificial  earth  banks  rise  2|  feet  above  this 
assumed  water  level.  The  canal  crosses  the  Genesee  River  at  grade. 
This  river  rises  in  Pennsylvania  and  flows  in  a  direction  somewhat 
east  of  north  across  the  State  of  New  York  into  Lake  Ontario  at  a 
point  77  miles  east  of  Niagara  River,  as  measured  along  the  lake 
shore.  The  point  at  which  the  barge  canal  crosses  the  Genesee  is  11 
miles  south  of  the  lake  and  3  miles  south  of  the  center  of  the  city  of 
Rochester.  The  old  Erie  Canal  passes  through  the  center  of  the  city 
and  is  carried  over  the  river  on  an  aqueduct.  The  river  itself  is  to 
be  made  navigable  from  the  new^  canal  crossing  2.9  miles  northward 
into  the  heart  of  the  city,  the  river  surface  being  raised  and  regulated 
by  means  of  a  movable  dam  situated  at  the  downstream  end  of  this 
reach.  At  the  crossing  the  water  surface  of  the  Genesee  naturally 
fluctuates  between  the  extreme  low  and  high  stages  of  approximately 
607.7  feet  and  622  feet,  respectively,  barge  canal  datum.  To  obtain 
12-foot  depth  in  the  canal  the  stage  at  the  crossing  must  be  512.6  feet. 
This  is  4.9  feet  above  natural  low  stage.  The  required  minimum 
stage  of  512.6  feet  will  be  maintained  as  closely  as  possible  by  manip- 
ulation of  tlie  movable  dam.  Guard  locks  are  provided  in  the  canal, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  Genesee  a  short  distance  from  the  river,  tmd 
these  are  to  be  closed  to  protect  the  canal  and  its  banks  when  high 
floocl  stages  carry  the  river  level  more  than  a  foot  or  two  above  regu- 
lated low  stage. 

From  the  Genesee  River  to  the  head  of  Oswego  River,  about  90 
miles,  there  are  10  locks  with  lifts  varving  from  6  to  25  feet.  The 
descent  is  continuous  from  Niagara  River  to  Three  River  Point, 
at  the  head  of  the  Oswego  River,  the  fall  being  from  565.5  to 
363  feet,  barge  canal  datum,  a  drop  of  202.5  feet.  From  the  Genesee 
eastward  to  Macedon  the  canal  is  mainly  a  land  line.  From  Macedon 
to  Lyons  it  is  partly  a  land  line  and  partly  a  canalization  of  Ganar- 
qua  Creek.  At  Lyons  the  Ganarqua  enters  the  Clyde  River,  and 
the  canal  follows  the  canalized  Clyde,  except  at  sharp  bends,  to 
Montezuma,  where  the  Clyde  enters  the  Seneca  River,  the  outlet  of 
Seneca  and  Cayuga  Lakes.  From  Montezuma  to  Three  River  Point 
the  Seneca  River  has  been  deepened  and  widened,  and  rectified  at 
bends  where  necessary,  to  form  the  canal.  At  Three  River  Point 
the  Seneca  River  from  the  west  and  the  Oneida  River  from  the  east 


126      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVKR, 

imite  to  form  the  Oswefro  River.  From  this  point  the  canal  route 
ascends  to  the  Rome  Summit  level,  which  is  at  elevation  -120  feet, 
the  total  ascent  beinir  57  feet.  Leavin<r  Three  River  Point  the  canal 
follows  up  Oneida  River  to  Oneida  Lake.  passin<r  throufrh  one  lock, 
No.  23,  which  has  a  lift  of  G.9  feet.  P^ast  of  Oneida  Lake  there  are 
two  locks.  Xos.  21  and  22.  with  a  combined  lift  of  50.1  feet.  The 
canal  follows  the  valley  of  Wood  Creek  to  the  city  of  Rome.  Wood 
Creek  passes  throutrh  the  western  part  of  tlie  city  of  Rome  and 
flows  westward  while  the  Mohawk  River  passes  through  the  eastern 
part  and  flows  eastward.  At  Rome  these  streams  are  scarcely  half 
a  mile  apart,  although  the  former  is  a  tributary  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
while  the  latter  is  a  tributary  of  the  Hudson  River.  Continuing 
eastward  from  the  Rome  Summit  level  the  barge  canal  follows  the 
Mohawk  to  Waterford.  descending  40-1.8  feet  from  elevation  420  to 
elevation  15.2,  in  the  pool  above  Troy  Dam,  by  19  locks  whose  lifts 
vary  from  8  to  40.5  feet.  The  Mohawk  has  been  canalized  for  the 
greater  portion  of  this  distance.  In  general,  the  channel  has  been 
excavated  for  a  width  of  200  feet  in  the  rivers  and  lakes.  A  large 
number  of  fixed  and  movable  dams  have  been  required  to  provide 
slack-water  navigation  in  the  Clyde,  Seneca.  Oneida,  and  Mohawk 
RiA'ers.  The  portions  of  the  barge  canal  east  of  the  Rome  Summit 
level  are  of  little  interest  in  this  report,  being  outside  the  drainage 
basin  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Locks. — The  locks  of  the  barge  canal  are  of  standard  de^^ign. 
having  a  width  of  45  feet,  a  usable  length  of  311  feet,  and  a  minimum 
depth  of  12  feet  on  the  miter  sills.  They  are  constructed  of  concrete 
and  are  built  in  line  Avith  (me  side  of  the  canal  prism.  There  are  34 
lift  locks  and  2  guard  locks  on  the  Erie  branch  of  the  barge  canaL 
not  including  the  lock  at  Troy.  The  lock  gates  are  all  of  the  bi- 
valve mitering  type  with  the  exception  of  the  doAvnstream  gate  of 
Lock  Xo.  17,  at  Little  Falls,  and  the  gates  of  the  two  guard  locks  at 
Genesee  River,  which  are  of  the  lift  type.  Lock  No.  17  has  the 
highest  lift  of  any  barge  canal  lock,  namely.  40.5  feet.  The  distance 
between  gates  of  the  lift  locks  varies  Avith  conditions  from  338  to  343 
feet.  All  lock  gates  and  valves,  and  also  the  towing  capstans  situated 
on  the  lock  walls,  are  operated  electrically.  The  electric  eneriry 
employed  for  these  purposes  and  for  lighting  the  locks  is  generated 
at  the  locks,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Genesee  River  guard  locks,  where 
the  power  is  purchased  from  the  Rochester  Railway  &  Light  (^o. 
There  are  small  h^^lroelectric  power  stations  along  the  Erie  In-anch 
of  the  barge  canal,  within  the  territorv  embraced  in  this  investiira- 
tion,  at  Locks  Nos.  34,  33,  29.  28B.  28A,"27.  24,  23.  21,  and  20.  Power 
is  transmitted  from  No.  34  to  No.  35.  from  No.  33  to  No.  32,  from 
No.  29  to  No.  30.  and  from  No.  21  to  No.  22.  Thei-e  are  gasolinc-dri von 
electric  generating  units  at  Locks  Nos.  25  and  2G,  where  the  available 
head  of  water  is  only  (J  feet.  In  almost  every  case  there  are  two 
generating  units  at  each  power  station,  each  unit  having  a  50-ki!o- 
watt,  250- volt,  direct-current  generator. 

.Vt  Lockport.  previous  to  the  recent  reconstruction  of  the  Erie 
Canal  to  form  the  present  Erie  branch  of  the  barge  canal,  there  were 
five  twin-locks  in  flight;  that  is  10  locks  in  a  block  2  locks  wide  and 
5  locks  long.  Each  lock  was  110  by  18  feet,  inside  horizontal  dimen- 
sion?s,  with  7  feet  of  water  on  the  sills.    The  total  lift  Avas  57  feet. 


DIVEESION   OF  WATKR  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     127 

The  south  fli<rht  of  locks  has  been  removed  to  make  room  for  the  two 
new  stamhird-si/A'  hx-ks.  which  are  in  fii<rht.  and  overcome  the  entire 
lift.  By  a  h)werin<>-  of  the  ni)per  k>vel  the  lift  has  been  reduced 
several  feet,  the  reduction  dependinn;  upon  the  stajre  of  Lake  P>ie, 
and  beinjr  nominally  from  57  feet  to  40. IG  feet.  There  is  no  other 
place  on  the  Erie  branch  of  the  barji'e  canal  \vhere  the  locks  are  in 
flifrht  without  intervening  basins,  and  onlj^  one  other  place  on  the 
barge  canal  system,  namely,  at  Seneca  Falls,  on  the  Cayuga  and 
Seneca  branch,  where  there"^  are  two  standard  locks  in  flight.  As  in 
the  case  of  Lockport,  this  flight  overcomes  a  difference  in  elevation 
of  49  feet. 

Wasfeicays. — There  are  numerous  spillways  and  waste  gates  along 
the  barge  canal  to  facilitate  regulating  the  water  level  at  the  desired 
elevation  and  to  aid  in  preventing  washouts  of  the  banks.  On  the 
long  level  between  Lockport  and  Rochester  there  are  13  spillways 
where  water  may  be  wasted  into  small  natural  Avater  courses  flowing 
northward  into  Lake  Ontario.  These  small  streams  all  pass  uncler 
the  canal  in  culverts,  except  at  Medina,  where  an  ac^ueduct  carries 
the  canal  over  Oak  Orchard  Creek.  Each  spillway  consists  of  a 
Avaste  weir  2r)  to  170  feet  long,  having  its  crest  along  one  side  of  the 
canal,  12  feet  above  canal  bed,  and  of  two  or  more  sluice  gates. 
Each  waste  weir  is  designed  for  the  use  of  flashboards  to  provide 
for  deepening  the  canal  in  localities  where  it  may  be  desirable  and 
it  is  considered  safe  to  use  flashboards  1  foot  high.  Such  use  would 
permit  the  canal  water  surface  to  rise  within  H  feet  of  the  tops  of 
the  artificial  earth  embankments,  which  is  as  close  as  prudence 
admits,  when  consideration  is  given  to  the  Avash  and  surges  caused 
by  wind  and  passing  boats  and  to  a  reasonable  provision  for  safety 
against  washouts. 

Guard  gates  and  bridges. — There  are  a  good  many  guard  gates 
along  the  barge  canal,  to  provide  for  shutting  off  the  flow  of  water 
in  case  of  accident  to  locks,  canal  banks,  aqueducts  or  bridges.  These 
gates  are  all  of  the  lift  type,  and  are  constructed  in  two  parts  with  a 
central  pier  separating  them,  so  that  each  gate  shuts  off  half  the 
canal  prism.  The  gates  nearest  to  Niagara  River  are  at  Pendleton, 
where  the  canal  leaves  Tonawanda  Creek.  On  the  long  level,  guard 
gates  are  located  so  as  to  divide  the  canal  into  lengths  of  4  to  12  miles 
each.  The  niunber  of  bridges  crossing  the  canal  runs  into  the  hun- 
dreds. Some  of  these  are  lift  bridges,  local  conditions  having  re- 
quired that  they  should  be  close  to  the  water  surface.  Most  of  the 
bridges  are  fixed,  however,  the  required  minimum  of  clearance  above 
canal  water  surface  being  15^  feet.  There  are  no  swing  or  bascule 
bridges,  and  the  lift  bridges  are  arranged  to  be  raised  at  both  ends  and 
remain  horizontal,  spanning  the  canal  whether  raised  or  lowered, 
but  providing  the  required  clearance  when  in  raised  position. 

Branch  canals. — Cayuga  and  Seneca  Lakes  are  located  in  the  cen- 
tral western  part  of  the  State  of  New  York,  south  of  the  Erie  branch 
of  the  barge  canal.  They  are  long  narrow  lakes  running  nearly 
parallel  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  at  an  average  distance  apart 
of  about  12  miles.  They  are  deep  except  at  the  ends.  By  doing  a 
small  amount  of  dredging  at  the  shallow  ends,  and  connecting  the 
northern  ends  to  the  Erie  branch  through  a  fairly  short  canal,  called 
the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  branch,  they  have  been  made   a   part  of 


128    nm^RSiox  of  water  from  great  lakes  axd  xiagara  river. 

the  new  bartre  canal  system.  Seneca  Lake  has  its  water  surface 
at  elevation  445  feet.  It  is  34^  miles  long  and  is  3  miles  wide 
in  the  place  of  greatest  width.  The  canal  is  12i  miles  long  from  the 
northeast  corner  of  the  lake  to  its  junction  with  the  branch  from 
Cayuga  Lake,  just  north  of  the  latter  lake,  and  follows  a  direction 
somewhat  north  of  east.  It  drops  14.5  feet  by  a  lock  at  Waterloo, 
and  49  feet  by  two  locks  in  flight  at  Seneca  Falls,  reaching  elevation 
381.5  feet  at  the  junction.  This  is  the  elevation  of  Cayuga  Lake, 
which  is  36  miles  long,  and  has  a  maximum  width  of  about  3i  miles. 
Just  below  the  junction  of  the  branches  from  the  two  lakes  is  Lock 
No.  1,  having  a  drop  of  74  feet,  and  bringing  the  level  down  to  that 
of  the  Erie  branch  of  the  barge  canal,  namely  374  feet.  It  is  4  miles 
nearly  due  north  from  Lock  No.  1  of  the  Caj^uga  and  Seneca  branch 
to  the  junction  with  the  Erie  branch,  about  H  miles  southwest  of 
Montezuma. 

Tlie  Oswego  branch  follows  the  OsAvego  River,  running  north- 
westei'ly  23.4  miles  from  Three  River  Point  to  Lake  Ontario  at 
Oswego.  The  fall  is  continuous  from  elevation  363  at  Three  River 
Point  to  Lake  Ontario  level,  assumed  by  the  barge  canal  engineers  as 
244.4,  making  the  total  drop  118.6  feet.  This  drop  is  controlled  at 
seven  locks,  one  at  Phoenix  having  10.2  feet  drop,  two  at  Fulton  hav- 
ing a  total  drop  of  44.8  feet,  one  at  Minetto  having  a  drop  of  18  feet, 
and  three  at  Oswego  having  a  combined  drop  of  45.6  feet. 

The  work  of  reconstructing  the  Erie  Canal,  Champlain  Canal. 
Oswego  Canal,  and  Cayuga  &  Seneca  Canal,  to  form  the  present 
barge  canal  system  was  commenced  in  the  spring  of  1905.  In  the 
spring  of  1918  the  entire  system  was  open  for  navigation,  although 
some  Avork  still  remained  to  be  done,  mainly  on  the  western  end  of 
the  Erie  branch,  and  on  the  various  terminals. 

(^'osf. — In  xVpril.  1900,  the  State  of  NeAv  York  appropriated 
$200,000  for  a  complete  survey  and  estimate  of  cost  of  a  new  canal 
system,  embracing  the  Erie,  the  Oswego,  and  the  Champlain  Canals. 
The  surveys,  plans,  and  estimates  were  completed  in  February,  1901. 
and  in  1903  the  people  of  the  State  voted  favorably  for  the  improve- 
ment and  enlargement  of  these  canals  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $101,- 
000.000.  By  another  referendum  vote  in  1909.  the  Cayuga  &  Seneca 
Canal  was  added  to  the  barge  canal  svstem.  at  an  estimated  cost  of 
$7,000,000.  By  a  third  referendum  vote  in  1911.  $19,800,000  was 
appro])riated  for  building  terminals  at  various  municipalities 
throughout  the  State:  and  by  a  fourth  referendum  vote,  in  1915.  the 
further  sum  of  $27,000,000  was  appropriated  to  cover  the  full  com- 
pletion of  the  canal  system.  The  total  appropriation,  $154,800,000 
will  represent  verv  closelv  the  cost  of  the  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal. 

Traijjc. — The  barge  canal  is  to  be  free  of  tolls.  As  yet  there  is 
comparatively  little  traffic  upon  it,  and  only  a  few  boats  are  avail- 
able for  its  u.se.  The  United  States  (lovernment  is  now  supervising 
the  use  of  (he  canal  for  navigation  purposes,  and  constiMicting  barges 
to  be  used  upon  il.  l>y  su<h  nrrangeiiicnts  as  to  rates  and  routing  of 
freiglit  as  is  j)ossihle  under  riovernment  control  of  commerce  on  botli 
the  cjinal  and  tlie  competing  railways,  it  is  hoped  that  a  large  use  of 
the  canal  will  develop,  relieving  railway  congestion  and  reducing  the 
cost  of  transportation.     It  was  originally   intended   that  the  i-anal 


L^^l 


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■ 


Photograph  No.  33,— NEW    YORK   STATE    BA 
Interior  of  Hydrauhc  Power  Hous 


o 


• 


■.■_.•.'    YORK    STATE    BARGE    CA'./ 
Interior  of  Gasoline  Power  House. 


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A 


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J 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     129 

should  be  navigated  by  self-propelled  barges  of  1,000  tons  cargo 
capacity.  The  locks,  as  finally  built,  were  considered  adapted  for  the 
use  of  a  self-propelled  barge  of  1,500  tons  cargo  capacity  in  tandenri 
with  a  tow  barge  of  equal  capacity.  Thus  8,000  tons  of  freight  could 
be  passed  at  a  lockage.  Six  of  the  old  Erie  Canal  boats  of  250  tons 
capacity  each  can  be  accommodated  at  a  time  in  a  single  lock.  Con- 
tracts for  21  concrete  tow  barges  to  be  used  on  the  canal  have  been 
let  by  the  inland  waterways  committee  of  the  Eailroad  Administra- 
tion. These  barges  are  to  be  150  feet  long,  21  feet  beam,  and  of  12 
feet  molded  depth.  The  loaded  draft  is  to  be  9^  feet,  loaded  dis- 
placement 756  tons,  and  cargo  capacity  489  tons.  Four  of  these 
barges  may  be  locked  at  a  time,  and  it  is  intended  to  tow  them  in 
groups  of  four.  They  are  of  open  hull  construction,  and  will  cost 
about  $25,000  each.  No  figures  are  available  on  the  cost  of  operation 
or  maintenance  of  the  canal. 

History  of  New  York  canals. — The  first  work  of  interior  water- 
way improvement  in  New  York  State  was  done  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  between  the  Hudson  River  and  Lake  On- 
tario, and  between  the  Hudson  and  Lake  Champlain,  by  two  private 
companies  which  were  chartered  in  1T92.  Agitation  for  State-built 
canals  began  about  1808  and  resulted  in  the  construction  of  the  Erie 
and  Champlain  Canals  in  the  years  1817  to  1825.  In  the  next  decade 
several  lateral  canals  were  built,  followed  by  the  first  enlargement 
of  the  three  chief  canals,  a  work  protracted  through  many  years, 
and  not  completed  until  1862.  Subsequently  and  prior  to  1900  there 
occurred  several  partial  enlargements,  including  one  known  as  the 
"nine-million  improvement."  The  original  Erie  Canal  Ijegun  in 
1817  and  finished  in  1825,  was  4  feet  deep,  28  feet  wide  at  bottom, 
and  40  feet  wide  at  the  water  surface.  It  was  363  miles  long,  had  84 
lift  locks  and  13  guard  locks,  each  90  by  15  feet,  and  constructed  of 
stone.  Its  cost  was  $7,143,790.  The  'first  enlargement  was  made 
between  1836  and  1862.  The  waterway  was  made  7  feet  deep,  52^ 
to  56  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  and  70  feet  wide  at  the  water  line. 
There  were  72  lift  locks  and  3  guard  locks,  each  110  by  18  feet,  inside 
horizontal  dimensions.  The  total  length  of  the  canal  was  reduced 
to  3501  miles.  The  cost  of  enlargement  was  $31,834,041.  The  second 
enlargement  was  begun  in  1896,  when  a  depth  of  9  feet  was  attempted. 
The  work  was  completed  at  disconnected  localities  only,  and  the  canal 
still  remains  for  the  most  part  as  left  at  the  end  of  the  first  en- 
largement, except  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  destroyed  in  constructing 
the  new  barge  canal.  Ultimately  practically  all  the  locks  of  the  old 
canal  were  doubled  to  care  for  the  enormous  amount  of  traffic,  and 
to  provide  lockage  when  one  lock  was  out  of  commission.  Practi- 
cally all  canal  boats  were  towed  by  mules  or  horses  on  a  towpath 
along  one  side  of  the  canal. 

Tolls  were  charged  on  the  old  canals.  The  old  Erie  Canal  pro- 
vided the  first  practicable  commercial  route  between  the  Great  Lakes 
region  and  the  United  States  seaboard.  It  made  the  growth  of  the 
western  part  of  the  State  practicable,  and  was  a  great  aid  in  open- 
ing up  such  western  States  as  Michigan,  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Wis- 
consin. Even  to-day  over  75  per  cent  of  New  York  State's  popula- 
tion is  to  be  found  within  5  miles  of  the  barge  canal  and  the  Hudson 
Eiver.     The  early  traffic  on  the  canal  was  enormous  for  the  times, 

27880—21 9 


130    nn^ERSiox  of  water  from  great  lakes  and  Niagara  river, 

and  the  tolls  collected  brought  a  wonderful  revenue  to  the  State. 
For  many  years  there  was  no  competition  to  this  route,  and  little 
by  little  as'stretches  of  railway  began  to  parallel  the  canal  legisla- 
tive measures  provided  against  competition.  The  canals  were  so 
very  popular  and  so  lucrative  to  the  State  that  their  finances  were 
not"  at  all  times  properly  handled,  and  many  lateral  lines  were  con- 
structeil  which  proved  unprofitable  and  had  to  be  abandoned.  Rail- 
njad  comi)etition  finally  crept  in.  and  periods  of  financial  depres- 
sion weiv  experienced,  resulting  ultimately  in  a  very  large  abandon- 
ment of  the  use  of  the  canals.  The  number  of  tons  of  cargo  carried 
on  the  State  canals  in  1853  was  4,247,853.  In  1872  the  maximum 
tonnage  was  transported,  namely,  6,673,370  tons.  The  tonnage  car- 
ried in  1^85  was  4,731,784;  in  1905  it  was  3,226,896.  The  tolls  at 
first  collected  ranged  from  5  mills  per  ton  per  mile  for  salt,  gypsum, 
brick,  sand,  lime,  iron  ore,  and  stone  to  2  cents  per  ton  per  mile  for 
merchandise.  P^reight  boats  paid  one  mill  per  mile,  and  passenger 
boats  5  cents  per  mile.  From  time  to  time  the  tolls  were  revised, 
usually  downward  and  finally  they  were  alx)lished  by  amendment 
of  the  State  constitution,  effective  January  1,  1883.  The  gross  reve- 
nue from  tolls  (»n  all  the  canals  of  the  State  up  to  1877  was  $130,034,- 
b97.(>9.  At  the  eml  of  1882  the  financial  statement  regarding  the 
Frie  Canal  alone  was: 

Erie  Canal. 

.v.eime  to  ilute - $121,461,871.09 

Colei'Uon.   suijerintendence,   and   ordinary   re- 

jMilrs    $29,270,301.16 

Cout  of  c«>asiru«.-lioii  and  improvements 49,591,8.52.08 

Total  c-osi 78,862,153.84 

I>*u\iu«  a  l»alani-e  tn  credit  of  Kri«'  t<>  <liito 42,599,717.25 

This  wa>-  t'xclusi\i'  of  interest  on  di'l)t  for  construction  and  improve- 
ment amounting  to  noarly  $70.(M)(I,()(K).  and  exclusive  of  vahie  of  the 
canul  at  that  date.  On  the  same  basis  the  entire  system  of  State 
.-..i.  ■!<  ],;,]  to  its  credit  at  that  time  $8,333,457.  Before  beginning  the 
iigeinent  <»f  tlu*  Frie  Canal  in  1896  the  total  canal  debt  had 
.«-.-ii  M  'iii.rd  to  about  $ir)U.(K>0.  In  1877  it  was  reported  that  carriers 
e»n  the  cajml.s  Iiad  n'ceived  up  to  that  time  about  $150, ()()() .000,  and 
nienhuiit".  uml  warchcjuseuien  aib<»ut  $!(((», 000. 000,  while  the  value 
ttf  lb"  ir)«T**nM'  in  wealth  and  popuhition  was  incalculable. 

I  V   of  the   Cavuga   &   Seneca   Canal,   the   Oswego 

Cii:  iiijdain  Canal,  is  fairly  .similar  fo  that  of  the  Erie 

('a:  I  not  Ik-  recounted  here. 

"   -  .  ttUiIih  for  uge. — As  already  noted,  there  are,  in  addi- 

tion to  the  new  barge  canal  .syst<?m  of  standard  dimensions,  portions 
of  the  older  unci  .smaller  canals  of  the  old  Erie  Canal  system  still 
available  for  use.  One  of  these  is  the  Black  River  Canal,  which  is 
.'{5|  miles  long,  and  extends  from  the  barge  canal  at  Rome,  N.  Y., 
nortliwanj  to  Lvcjjis  Falls.  N.  Y..  on  the  Black  River. 

The  canal  j)nsm  is  26  feet  wide  at  l)ottom,  42  feet  wide  at  water 
surface,  and  4  feet  deep.  There  are  106  locks  of  stone,  each  00  feet 
long  and  15  feet  wide,  overcoming  a  rise  of  693  feet  from  Rome  to 
the  .-ummit  level  at  Boonville,  and  a  fall  of  389^  feet  from  there  to 
Lyon.s  Falls.    The  canal  is  now  navigable  by  boats  75  feet  long,  12: 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     131 

feet  wide  and  draAvino;  3^  feet  of  water.  At  Delta,  about  5  miles 
north  of  Rome,  a  few  miles  of  the  canal  Avere  relocated  recently  to 
make  room  for  the  Delta  Reservoir,  and  4  new  locks  were  constructed. 
The  canal  was  built  between  1838  and  1855  at  a  cost  of  $3,157,290. 
From  Lyons  Falls  the  Black  River  was  improved  durin<r  the  same 
years  at  a  cost  of  $108,099,  to  have  a  channel  40  feet  wide  and  5  feet 
deep  as  far  north  as  Carthage,  42^  miles.  There  were  two  wooden 
locks  included  in  this  improvement,  each  100  by  30  feet,  with  a  total 
lift  of  9i  feet.  This  river  channel  is  nominally  navigable,  but  is,  in 
fact,  inaccessible  because  of  the  dilapidated  condition  of  the  locks 
at  Lyons  Falls.  A  feeder  10  miles  long,  of  the  same  prism  dimen- 
sions as  the  canal,  and  without  locks,  is  navigable.  This  extends  from 
Forestport,  farther  up  Black  River,  to  the  summit  level  of  Black 
River  Canal  at  Boonville.  It  was  constructed  in  1838  to  1848. 
Its  cost  is  included  in  the  figure  given  for  the  canal.  At  pres- 
ent the  feeder  and  canal  are  used  as  a  feeder  to  convey  water 
from  the  reservoirs  on  upper  Black  River  and  Woodhull  Creek 
to  the  Rome  Summit  level  of  the  barge  canal.  The  Black  River 
Canal  itself  does  not  join  with  the  barge  canal  directl}^  but  still 
has  its  end  in  the  old  Erie  Canal  at  Rome.  About  one-half  mile 
easterly  from  this  point  the  old  Erie  Canal  connects  with  the 
barge  canal  through  the  new  junction  lock  which  overcomes  a 
drop  of  9.0  feet  from  the  old  canal  to  the  new  canal.  The  junction 
lock  is  188  feet  long,  45  feet  wide,  and  has  12  feet  of  water  on  the 
miter  sills.  The  usable  length  of  this  lock  is  100  feet.  The  portion 
of  the  Old  Erie  Canal  between  Mohawk  and  Rome  is  retained  as  a 
navigable  lateral  branch.  It  is  south  of  the  barge  canal  and  is  con- 
nected with  it  by  junction  locks  similar  to  the  one  just  described. 
Another  portion  of  the  old  canal  between  Butternut  Creek  feeder, 
just  east  of  Syracuse,  and  New  London  on  the  Rome  Summit  level, 
is  retained  as  a  navigable  feeder,  and  has  a  similar  junction  lock  at 
New  London.  The  portion  of  old  canal  from  South  Greece  to  Roches- 
ter is  also  retained  for  the  present. 

Water-supj)ly  diversions. — From  the  foregoing  description  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  water  surface  of  the  barge  canal  has  its  highest 
point  at  Niagara  River,  and  from  there  drops  continuously  to  Lake 
Ontario  at  Oswego,  by  way  of  the  Erie  branch  to  Three  River  Point, 
and  thence  by  way  of  the  Oswego  branch.  From  Cayuga  and  Seneca 
Lakes  there  is  derived  a  water  supply  sufficient  for  the  Cayuga  and 
Seneca  branch,  and  also  for  the  Erie  branch  from  Montezuma  along 
the  Seneca  River  to  Three  River  Point,  and  on  down  the  Oswego 
River  to  Oswego.  From  Tonawanda  to  Montezuma  the  necessary 
water  supply  is  derived  from  the  Niagara  River,  although  some 
water  is  furnished  by  Ganargua  Creek  between  Macedon  and  Lyons, 
and  by  the  Clyde  River  between  Lyons  and  Montezuma.  Because  of 
the  water-power  interests  on  Genesee  River  it  is  intended  not  to 
draw  upon  that  stream  at  all,  abstracting  from  it  on  the  east  side  of 
the  crossing  only  an  amount  of  water  equal  to  that  supplied  to  the 
river  from  the  long  level  on  the  west  side.  The  old  canal  formerly 
received  some  supply  from  Genesee  River  through  a  short  feeder 
on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  but  this  M^as  long  ago  abandoned.  At 
Medina  there  was  a  short  feeder  which  supplied  water  from  the 
marshes  forming  the  headwaters  of  Oak  Orchard  Creek,  south  of  the 


132      I.IVERSION   OF  AVATER  TROM   GREAT  LAKES   AIs^D  NIAGARA 


RIVER . 


'"^IW^^'tnl  was  opened  to  navigation  only  about  n  year  ago, 
and  aVvorno  large  amount  of  traffic  has  developed,  so  there  is  no 
ac  uaTia  .  w  edU  as  to  the  quantity  of  ^^.lter  whu-h  must  ultimately 
K.  v.rtod  into  the  canal  fron,  Niagara  River  to  ^^^^^y ^f^'^J^^'^^^l 
navigation.  The  cri-inal  estimate  of  the  average  water  supply 
whidi  the  barge  canal  wouM  re(iuire  from  Niagara  River  was  imule 
bv  Mr.  Kniil  Kuirhlin-.  and  reported  to  the  ^tate  Lngmeer  and  Sur- 
vevor  I'Vbruarv  12,  19(il.  It  is  as  follows,  not  including  the  quantity 
assumed  to  be' necessary  for  refilling  the  canal  prism  each  spring: 

Cubic  ft^ot 
por  dny.  - 

Evaporation,  percolation,  nnd  absorpiiou  by  phmts 32,  oOl>.  000 

Lealiage  at  aqueducts,  culverts,  and  waste  gates- i,  .^00,  000 

Leakage  at  lock  gates  and  valves 1.200.000 

Loss  over  waste  weirs 5,000.000 

Water  for  power  to  operate  locks 1,000.  000 

Water  for  power  for  electric  light  at  locks TOO.  000 

Water  for  lockages,  at  average  rate  of  59  per  day IS.  (KK).  00(t 

Wat.r  diverted  for  industrial  uses  and  agriculture 46,000.000 

Tntal  during  season  of  navigation !_ 100.900.000 

This  is  equivalent  to  an  average  discharge  of  1237.27  cubic  feet 
per  second.    It  was  considered  that  this  diversion  would  care  for  an 
annual  i  raflic-  of  1(>,()(M),0()0  tons  of  cargo.    The  last  item  in  the  table — 
namely,  4t>,(MH >.()(>(»  cubic  feet  per  day — was  to  include  such  spilling  at 
wusteways   for   power   uses   as   had   been    -ustomary    at    Lockport, 
Medina.  an<l  elsewhere.     Several  years  subsequently  it  Avas  decided 
to  in  tease  the  width  of  the  locks  from  28  to  45  feet,  and  the  depth 
from   11  to  12  feet.     The  quantity  of  water  required  for  the  same 
number  of  lockages  was  thereb}"  largely  increased,  as  was  also  the 
(juantity  necessary  to  jirovide  j^ower  for  operating  gates  and  towing 
boat.s  in  and  out  of  locks,  and  for  probable  increased  waste  weir  losses. 
For  niaximnm  conditions  of  seepage,  evaporation,  and  lockage,  it 
was  considered  that  no  greater  supply  would  be  necessary,  provided 
none  of  the  4(3,000,000  cubic  feet  per'  day  was  spilled  for  industrial 
or  agricultural  uses  at  such  times;  and  the  value  of  1,237  cubic  feet 
per  .second  was  retained  in  all  subsequent  computations.    The  Bam-e 
Canal  accordingly  was  designed  with  such  slo])es  as  to  be  able  to 
abstract  1.237  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Niagara   River  at  a 
stage  of  565.5  at  Tonawanda,  barge  canal  datum,  and  tran.sport  from 
point  to  point  so  much  of  this  as  was  not  lost  en  route  by  seepao-e 
evaporation,  leakage  at  wasteway  gates  and  aqueducts,  and  unavofd- 
able  spilling  over  waste  weirs  caused  bv  winds,  passing  boats,  or 
lock  fillings.     The  quantity  passing  Medina  under  thcse^'conditions 
was  calculated  to  be  0G7  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that  entering 
(lenesee  liiver  606  cubic  feet  per  se-ond.     A  quantity  of  606  cubic 
leet  i)er  secon(l  was  to  be  abstracted  from  the  east  side  of  Oenesee 
Jiiver  and  carried  on  down  the  long  level. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      133 

At  times  when  the  requirements  for  seepage,  leakage,  lockage,  etc., 
are  less  than  maximum,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  reduce  tlie  flow 
very  much,  because  a  (luandty  approximating  that  assumed  in  the 
computations  will  be  necessary  to  maintain  the  proper  slo|)e,  and 
thus  provide  a  depth  of  water  of  12  feet  at  all  points  on  the  long 
level  from  Lockport  to  Rochester.  The  excess  quantities  of  water 
must  be  discharged  at  wasteways  all  along  the  line,  and  could  not 
be  discharged  at  one  or  two  or  three  places  only,  as,  for  example,  at 
Lockport,  Medina,  and  Rochester,  without  either  an  accompanying 
lowering  of  the  Avater  surface  below  the  12-foot  depth  profile  at  .some 
localities,  or  the  use  of  flashboards  at  some  of  the  spillways  to  allow 
for  hioher  stages  and  to  prevent  local  discharge.  A  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  subject  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  an  average 
diversion  of  1,237  cubic  feet  per  second  of  water  from  Niagara  River 
at  TonaAvanda  Avill  provide  for  the  maximum  conditions  of  traffic 
and  canal  losses.  It  is  estimated  that  the  maximum  possible  annual 
traffic  on  the  canal  is  18,000,000  to  21,000,000  tons  of  cargo.  Only 
by  actual  use  of  the  canal  for  a  long  period  of  time  can  it  be  deter- 
mined wliat  the  losses  will  be,  what  diversions  will  be  required,  or 
what  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  canal  will  prove  to  be  under 
various  conditions.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  maximum  pos- 
sible flow  of  water  leaving  Loclqoort  in  the  long  level  will  be  al)Out 
1,600  cubic  feet  per  second,  except  in  case  of  a  wasiiout  or  of  un- 
necessary' wasting  of  Avater  not  far  doAvnstream  from  Lockport.  It 
should  be  pointed  out  that  the  long  level  might  haA-e  been  lon- 
structed  with  the  tops  of  the  banks  and  waste  weirs  as  at  present, 
but  with  a  depth  of  2.27  feet  greater  at  Lockport,  and  a  level  bottom 
all  the  way  to  Genesee  River.  This  Avould  have  required  an  average 
excavation  1.135  feet  deeper,  and  would  haA'e  involved  considerable 
expense,  but  would  haA'e  produced  a  canal  having  12  feet  depth  at 
all  times  without  requiring  a  flow  of  water  to  maintain  slopes.  The 
result  would  very  likely  have  been  a  much  smaller  consumption  of 
water  from  Niagara  River  at  times  when  traffic  was  light,  and  seep- 
age and  evaporation  at  minimum  values. 

The  discharge  capacity  of  the  portion  of  the  barge  canal  above 
Lockport  is  limited  by  two  factors;  first,  the  depth  of  Avater  to  be 
maintained  in  the  canal ;  and  second,  the  stage  of  Lake  Erie,  on  which 
the  stage  of  Niagara  River  at  TonaAvanda  depends.  Lake  Erie  can  not 
fall  below  a  stage  of  570.46,  L^nited  States  standard  datum,  without 
the  depth  in  the  canal  at  Tonawanda  becoming  less  than  12  feet.  At 
this  stage  and  higher  stages,  and  with  12  feet  of  Avater  on  the  upper 
sill  of  the  locks  at  Lockport,  the  discharge  of  the  canal  at  Lockport 
is  indicated  by  computations  to  be  approximately  as  follows : 

Discharge  (cubic  feet  per  record)  of  harcje  canal  at  Lockport. 

12  FEET  OF  WATER  ON   UPPER  SILL. 

Lake  Erie  stage,  United  States  datum.  1903 : 

570.46 '  1.  2S0 

571 1.500 

572 1,  900 

573 2.  300 

574 2.  700 

^  12  feet  depth  at  Tonawanda. 


134      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

With  depths  of  only  11^  and  11  feet  maintained  in  the  canal  above 
the  locks  the  discharge  conditions  will  be  approximately  as  follows : 

Discharge  (cubic  feet  per  second)  of  barge  canal  at  Lockpurt. 

n.r.   KKET  OV  WATEK  ON   UPPER  SI IX. 

Lake  Erie  stage,  United  States  datum,  1903 : 

570.  08 ^  1,  310 

571 1^  (jGO 

572 2,  020 

573 2,  400 

574 2  770 

11   FKKT  OF  WATER  ON  UPPER  SILL. 

Lake  Erie  stage,  United  States  datum,  1903: 

569.  69 » 1,  300 

570 1,  420 

571 1^  700 

572 2, 100 

573 2.  410 

574 2,  730 

In  Table  No.  9  there  is  given  the  average  nimiber  of  days  each  year 
that  the  average  daily  stage  of  Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo  fell  below  cer- 
tain elevations,  during  the  season  from  May  1  to  December  22,  in  the 
years  1913-1917,  both  inclusive.  There  is  also  given  to  the  barge 
canal  discharge  at  Lockport  corresponding  to  each  stage,  under  the 
assumption  that  the  depth  of  water  on  the  upper  sill  of  the  locks  at 
Lockport  was  just  12  feet. 

Table  No.  9. — Average  number  of  days  in  navigation  season,  Lake  Erie,  at 
Buffalo,  fell  below  given  elevations  and  corresponding  barge  canal  discharge 
at  Lockport. 

[Based  on  season  May  1  to  Dec.  22,  of  the  years  1913-1917,  both  hichisive.) 
TWELVE  FEET  OF  WATER  ON  UPPER  SILL  OF  LOCKS. 


Elevation  of  Lake  Erie 
(United  States  datum). 


570.50 
570.75 
571... 
571.25. 


Number 
of  days. 


Corre- 
sponding 
discharge. 


1,300 
1,400 
1,500 
1,600 


Elevation  of  Lake  Erie 
(United  States  datum). 


571.50 
571.75. 
572. . . 
572.25. 


Number 
of  days. 


Corre- 
sponding 
discharge. 


1,700 
1,800 
1,900 
2,000 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  1,237  cubic  feet  per  second  estimated 
as  required  for  navigation  purposes  will  be  available  at  any  aver- 
age daily  stage  likely  to  occur.  The  water  diverted  from  the 
Niagara  River  at  Tonawanda  is  discharged  into  Lake  Ontario  at 
Oswego  or  at  intermediate  points  along  the  south  shore  of  the  lake, 
and  so  is  not  lost  to  the  Great  Lakes  Basin,  except  for  the  portion 
of  the  diversion  lost  by  seepage  and  evaporation.  It  is,  however, 
lost  to  the  Niagara  Iliver  from  Tonawanda  to  its  mouth  at  Youngs- 
town.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  small  contributions  of  Tona- 
wanda and  Kllicott  Creeks  are  taken  into  the  barge  canal,  except  for 

•11.5  feet  depth  at  Tonawanda. 
•  11  feet  depth  al  Tonawanda. 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     135 

the  portion  of  flow  of  the  upper  part  of  Tonawanda  Creek  which  is 
diverted  into  Oak  Orchard  Creek,  as  already  explained.  East  of 
Pittsford  and  Irondequoit  Creek,  and  as  far  as  Oswep:o,  practically 
all  the  New  York  State  drainap^e  of  the  Great  Lakes  Basin  is  <?ath- 
ered  into  the  bar^e  canal  and  discharged  down  the  canalized  Seneca 
and  Osweao  Rivers  into  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego. 

At  Lockport  the  water  used  for  lockages,  and  that  which  leaks 
past  the  locks,  will  constitute  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  water  sup- 
ply necessary  for  the  long  level,  possibly  320  cubic  feet  per  second. 
If  84  cubic  feet  per  second  is  deducted  as  the  loss  from  the  canal  by 
seepage  and  evaporation  between  Niagara  River  and  Lockport,  there 
still  remains  of  the  1,237  cubic  feet  per  second  a  volume  of  833  cubic 
feet  per  second  to  be  by-passed  around  the  locks.  Of  this  perhaps  an 
average  of  20  cubic  feet  per  second  will  ultimately  be  used  by  the 
State  hydroelectric  plant  situated  at  the  lower  lock.  The  waterway 
leading  to  this  plant  is  constructed  in  the  lock  walls  between  the  new 
and  old  flights  of  locks.  To  by-pass  the  800  or  more  cubic  feet  per 
second  of  water  required,  the  State  has  provided  a  tunnel  about  15 
feet  square  and  700  feet  long  on  the  south  side  of  the  canal  and 
abreast  of  the  locks,  leading  from  an  entrance  and  gateway  just  up- 
stream from  the  new  locks  to  a  small,  high,  level  basin  within  con- 
crete retaining  walls,  and  thence  past  gates  into  a  structural-steel 
flume  of  large  diameter  and  about  250  feet  long,  which  extends  down 
to  and  out  over  the  lower  level  of  the  canal.  There  are  other  pas- 
sages for  by-passing  this  water,  one  on  each  side  of  the  canal,  but 
as  these  pertain  to  waterpower  developments,  they  will  be  described 
in  the  section  of  this  report  devoted  to  "Diversions  for  power 
purposes." 

The  old  Erie  Canal  did  not  terminate  at  Tonawanda,  but  at 
Buffalo.  From  Buffalo  Harbor  it  followed  along  the  river  front 
inside  of  Black  Rock  Harbor,  as  has  previously  been  noted  in  this 
report  in  the  chapter  on  the  Black  Rock  Canal.  Leaving  Black 
Rock  Harbor,  it  passed  through  the  guard  lock.  No.  72,  which  is 
located  between  Austin  and  Hamilton  Streets,  where  there  was  a 
slight  drop  in  the  water  surface.  From  there  the  canal  followed 
a  land  line  just  east  of  the  Niagara  River  to  Tonawanda  Creek  at 
Tonawanda.  The  water  surface  of  Tonawanda  Creek  was  held  sev- 
eral feet  higher  than  at  present  by  a  dam  across  the  creek  at  Tona- 
wanda, which  had  its  crest  at  elevation  570  barge  canal  datum. 
this  dam  was  removed  in  the  spring  of  1918,  and  a  temporary  dam 
placed  across  the  lower  end  of  the  portion  of  the  old  Erie  Canal 
leading  from  Buffalo.  The  water  supply  for  the  western  end  of 
the  old  Erie  Canal  came  almost  entirely  from  Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo, 
the  flow  being  regulated  at  guard  lock  No.  72.  The  mean  stage  of 
Lake  Erie  for  the  years  1860  to  1910,  inclusive,  was  572.58  feet, 
United  States  datum.  The  corresponding  stage  of  Niagara  River 
at  Tonawanda  is  566.01  feet,  United  States  datum,  or  567.14  feet, 
barge-canal  datum.  When  measured  at  Hamilton  Street,  Buffalo, 
in  October,  1907,  by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey,  the  flow  in  the 
Erie  Canal  averaged  768  cubic  feet  per  second.  A  very  rough  gag- 
ing of  the  flow  at  Tonawanda  in  the  fall  of  1912  showed  a  discharge 
of  over  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Not  all  of  this  volume  reached 
Lockport,  as  there  was  practically  always  a  flow  over  the  Tonawanda 
Dam,  as  well  as  some  spill  into  Niagara  River  at  the  waste  weir  at 


136      DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AKD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Niagara  Street,  between  Kohler  and  Boiick  Streets,  Tonawanda.  and 
some  leakage  at  the  Tonawanda  side-cut  lock,  as  well  as  a  small 
amount  of  seepage  and  evaporation  along  the  entire  route. 

In  a  letter  dated  February  10,  1911,  the  State  engineer  and  sur- 
veyor of  New  York  reported  to  the  Lake  Survey  that  the  average 
water  requirement  lor  the  western  end  of  the  old  Erie  Canal  was 
700  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  was  necessary  to  maintain  the  slope 
and  navigable  depth  in  the  long  level  from  Lockport  to  Rochester, 
coAcring  eva))()iati(m.  seepage,  and  spillway  losses,  and  a  supply  of 
210  cubic  feet  ])er  second  for  lockage,  seepage,  and  evaporation  east 
of  Kochester.  The  requirement  for  lockage  at  Lockpoit  was  stated 
as  100  cubic  feet  ])er  second,  leaving  600  cubic  feet  per  second  to  be 
by-passed  around  the  locks.  Of  the  TOO  cubic  feet  per  second  passing 
eastward  from  Lockport  to  maintain  the  long  level,  200  was  assumed 
to  be  lost  by  leakage,  seepage,  and  evaporation,  leaving  290  cubic 
feet  per  second  to  l)e  spilled  at  various  wasteways  along  the  level, 
notably  at  Gasport,  Medina,  Albion,  and  Adams  Basin.  It  was 
stated  that  the  average  amount  spilled  at  ^ledina  was  108  cubic  feet 
per  second,  and  at  Albion  111  cubic  feet  per  second.  Under  condi- 
tions of  maximum  lockage,  seepage,  and  evaporation  the  average 
total  diversion  Avas  considerably  exceeded.  It  was  further  stated 
that  an  additional  quantity,  averaging  233  cubic  feet  per  second, 
was  diverted  from  Lake  Erie,  solely  for  power  purposes,  being  di- 
verted around  the  locks  at  Lockport.  and  into  Eighteenmile  Creek. 
This  matter  will  be  considered  later  in  connection  with  the  descrip- 
ti.oji  of  the  water  power  developments  at  Lockport. 

The  water  supply  of  the  Kome  summit  level  comes  from  local 
streams  north  and  south  of  the  canal.  The  Black  River  Canal  and 
its  Forestport  feeder  have  both  been  described  in  the  present  cliapter. 
There  are  not  less  than  12  natural  lakes  and  artificial  reservoirs  dis- 
charging into  the  upper  end  of  the  feeder  at  Forestport.  By  the 
terms  of  an  agreement  with  owners  of  water  powers  on  Black  River 
below  Boonville  a  volume  of  11,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  oi-  183 
cubic  feet  per  second,  may  be  delivered  continuously  down  Black 
River  Canal  to  the  south,  ^provided  5,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  or 
about  79  cubic  feet  per  second,  remain  to  be  diverted  northward. 
On  the  basis  of  a  division  in  this  ratio.  Mr.  Kuichling  estimated  the 
supply  to  the  Rome  summit  level  by  way  of  the  Black  River  Canal 
would  be  only  100  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  distance  from  Forest- 
port to  the  barge  canal  at  Rome,  as  traversed  by  the  feed  water,  is 
about  46  miles,  the  descent  being  about  700  feet,  occurring  largely 
at  the  70  locks  en  route  along  Black  River  Canal.  This  supply  for- 
merly served  the  old  Erie  C\anal.  For  the  barge  canal  there*^  have 
been  constructed  two  large  reservoirs  north  of  the  canal,  known  as 
Delta  Reservoir  and  Hinckley  Reservoir.  Delta  Reservoir  is  on  the 
Mohawk  River,  about  5  miles  due  north  of  the  city  of  Rome.  It  has 
been  created  by  the  building  of  a  high  concrete  dam.  and  covers  about 
4^  square  miles  when  full,  impounding  the  drainage  from  137  square 
miles.  The  available  water  .supply  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Landreth 
to  be^  about  150  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  Hinckley  Reservoir  is 
on  West  Canada  Creek,  above  the  village  of  Hinckley,  about  15  miles 
ea>t  of  Delta  Reservoir  and  17  miles  northeast  of  the  nearest  point 
f)ri  the  barge  canal.  It  was  foimed  In'  the  construction  of  a  large 
earth  dam,  has  an  area  of  ^  square  miles  when  full,  and  impounds 


DIVERSIOlSr  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      137 

the  (liaiiia<>e  from  372  s(|Uiire  milos.  Hinckley  Reservoir  averages 
somewhat  deeper  than  Delta  Reservoir  and  its  capacity  is  corre- 
spondinji'ly  greater.  Its  available  sui)ply  is  estimated  to  be  about  280 
cubic  feet  per  second,  assuming  one-third  of  the  flow  to  pass  on  down 
West  Canada  Creek  to  supply  water  powers  between  Trenton  Falls 
and  Herkimer.  Water  from  Delta  Reservoir  is  supplied  to  tlie  Rome 
summit  level  at  Rome  through  the  Mohawk  River. 

Water  from  Hinckley  Reservoir  flows  down  West  Canathi  Creek 
to  Trenton  Falls,  where  a  portion  of  it  is  diverted  through  an  arti- 
ficial canal  5.7  miles  long  to  Nine  Mile  Creek,  through  which  it  is 
fed  into  the  summit  level  between  Rome  and  Oriskany.  It  has 
been  stated  already  in  this  chapter  that  the  portion  of  the  old  Erie 
Canal  between  Butternut  Creek  feeder,  about  5  miles  east  of  Syracuse, 
and  New  London,  on  the  Rome  sunnnit  level,  has  been  retained  as  a 
navigable  feeder  and  connected  with  the  summit  level  by  a  new 
function  lock.  There  are  five  feeders  bringing  water  from  the  south 
into  this  portion  of  the  old  Erie  Canal,  all  of  which  were  constructed 
years  ago  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the  old  canal.  They  are  the 
following:  Orville  feeder,  drawing  from  Butternut  Creek  and  James- 
ville  Reservoir ;  Faj^etteville  feeder,  delivering  from  Limestone  Creek 
and  De  Ru3i;er  Reservoir;  Chittenango  feeder,  drawing  from  Chit- 
tenango  Creek,  Erieville  Reservoir  and  Cazenovia  Lake ;  Cowasselon 
feeder,  delivering  from  Cowasselon  Creek;  and  Oneida  feeder,  de- 
livering from  Oneida  Creek.  It  is  important  to  note  that  most  of 
the  water  supply  to  De  Ruyter  Reservoir  is  derived  by  diverting 
into  it  the  flow  of  the  upper  portion  of  Tioughnioga  River,  which  is 
a  tributary  of  the  Chenango  River,  which  in  turn  is  a  branch  of  the 
Susqueshanna,  and  so  discharges  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  total 
supply  to  the  Rome  summit  level  from  this  source  was  estimated  by 
Mr.  Kuichling  to  be  about  35  cubic  feet  per  second.  Another  feeder 
of  the  summit  level  is  Oriskany  Creek,  which  enters  the  Mohawk 
River  from  the  south  about  7|  miles  east  of  Rome.  This  creek  rises 
about  25  miles  due  south  of  Rome.  The  upper  portion  of  its  drainage 
area,  together  with  that  of  some  of  the  upper  branches  and  tributaries 
of  the  Chenango  River,  was  formerly  used  to  supply  the  summit  level 
of  the  Chenango  Canal,  and  an  extensive  system  of  storage  reservoirs 
was  established  by  the  State  in  this  locality. 

On  the  abandonment  of  the  Chenango  Canal,  however,  its  summit 
level  and  water  resources  were  retained  to  feed  the  old  Erie  Canal 
through  Oriskany  Creek.  The  reservoirs,  all  of  which  are  on  streams 
originally  tributary  to  the  Chenango  River,  are  as  follows:  Eaton 
Brook  Reservoir,  liatch  Lake  Reservoir,  Bradley  Reservoir,  Kingsley 
Brook  Reservoir,  Madison  Brook  Reservoir,  Leland  Pond  Reservoir, 
and  several  small  ponds.  These  all  discharge  into  the  summit  level 
of  the  Chenango  Canal,  which,  in  turn,  discharges  into  the  headwaters 
of  Oriskany  Creek.  The  water  supply  from  this  source,  as  estimated 
by  Mr.  Kuichling,  was  about  35  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  total 
estimated  supply  for  the  Rome  summit  level  is  the  sum  of  the  quanti- 
ties given  above,  or  600  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  estimated  water 
supply  required  for  the  summit  level  is  about  440  cubic  feet  per 
second.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  of  the  600  cubic  feet  per  second  con- 
stituting the  supply,  430  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  portion  from  Delta 
and  Hinckley  Reservoirs,  is  naturally  tributary  to  the  Hudson  River, 
while  of  the  170  cubic  feet  per  second  remainder  at  least  35  cubic 


138    DI^^i:RSION  of  watei;  feom  great  lakes  and  Niagara  river. 

feet  per  second  is  naturally  tributary  to  the  Susquehanna  River, 
leaving  only  135  cubic  feet  per  second  naturally  tributaiy  to  the  Great 
Lakes.  It  is  estimated  by  Mr.  Landreth  that  tiie  water  supply  re- 
quired just  we.st  of  the  sunnnit  level  for  conditions  pertaining  to  an 
annual  traffic  of  10,000,000  tons  of  cargo,  including  evaporation, 
seepage,  leakage,  spillvray  losses,  lockages,  and  lock  operation,  is 
213  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that  the  corresponding  requirement 
just  east  of  the  summit  level  is  219  cubic  feet  per  second.  These 
values  are  so  nearl}'  identical  that  they  may  be  considered  equal,  each 
'220  cubic  feet  per  seccmd.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  none  of  the  water 
tributary  to  the  Great  Lakes  escapes  by  way  of  the  barge  canal  into 
the  Mohawk  Valle}',  but  that,  on  the  contrary  about  So  cubic  feet 
per  second  is  gained  by  the  Great  Lakes  Basin,  part  of  this  coming 
from  the  Mohawk  Basin,  and  part  from  the  eastern  headwaters  of 
the  Susquehanna  River. 

Photographs  Xos.  29  to  46,  inclusive,  illustrate  various  feature^ 
of  this  notable  waterway.  Explanations  and  descriptions  are  given 
beneath  the  pictures. 

6.    ST.   LAWRENCE  RIVER  CANALS. 

Description  of  St.  Lawrence  River. — The  quantities  of  water  di- 
verted from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  by  the  various  canals  are  very 
small,  with  exception  of  the  Massena  Canal,  where  the  diversion 
is  very  large.  In  every  case  the  water  diverted  is  returned  to  the 
river  again  within  a  distance  of  1;^  to  lOif  miles.  The  diversion  by 
the  Galop  Canal  is  between  500  and  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  on 
the  average,  of  which  200  or  less  is  for  navigation  use.  The  diversion 
by  the  ^Slorrisburg  Canal  is  between  1,000  and  1,500  cubic  feet  per 
second,  of  which  possibly  200  is  required  for  navigation  purposes. 
In  both  these  instances  the  balance  of  the  diversion  is  used  for  power 
development.  The  navigation  requirement  does  not  exist  in  winter 
time,  but  power  is,  in  general,  developed  the  year  around.  The 
Farran  Point  Canal  diverts  probably  less  than  50  cubic  feet  per 
second  on  the  average,  all  for  navigation  use.  The  diversion  by  the 
Cornwall  Canal  appears  to  average  somewhat  less  than  3,000  cubic 
feet  per  second.  Of  this,  during  the  navigation  season,  an  average 
of  perhaps  300  cubic  feet  per  second  is  required  by  navigation.  The 
remainder  is  utilized  in  power  development. 

The  diversion  through  the  Massena  Canal  is  entirely  for  power  de- 
velopment, and  will  be  treated  in  section  (c)  of  this  report.  In  the 
same  section  the  power  features  of  the  Galop,  Morrisburg.  and  Corn- 
wall canals  are  presented.  The  flow  in  Little  River,  at  Waddington 
is  described  in  this  section  also. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  the  navigation  canals  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  above  St.  Regis  are  described,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  navigation  features.  On  Plates  Nos.  9  and  10  these  canals 
are  .sliown  in  their  relationship  to  certain  sections  of  St.  Lawrence 
River. 

'J'he  St.  Lawrence  River  is  the  outlet  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  the 
sea,  debouching  from  the  northeasterly  corner  of  Lake  Ontario  and 
flowing  thence  in  a  northeasterly  direction  700  miles  to  Anticosti 
Island  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  It  is  nearly  1,200  miles  from 
Lake  Ontario  to  the  open  sea  at  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      139 

For  a  distance  of  G2  miles,  from  Tibbetts  Point  at  the  head  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,  the  fall  in  the  water  surface  is 
only  0.87  foot  at  mean  stage,  and  from  there  to  Lock  No.  27  at  the  head 
of  the  Galop  Rapids,  6  miles,  the  fall  at  mean  stage  is  1.32  feet  more. 
Throughout  this  reach  the  river  is  broad,  and,  for  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  distance,  from  the  lake  down  to  Brockville,  Ontario,  is 
divided  into  channels  by  a  great  number  of  islands.  There  is  a 
natural  na\'igable  channel  28  feet  deep  or  over,  except  for  the  possi- 
bility of  undiscovered  shoals,  and  400  or  more  feet  wide,  which  is 
wholly  in  Ignited  States  waters  except  for  about  7^  miles,  from  Cross- 
Over  Island  through  the  Brockville  Narrows. 

From  Ogdensburg  to  Montreal,  120  miles,  the  river  is  generally 
narrow  and  swift,  and  is  much  less  cut  up  by  islands.  All  the 
rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  occur  in  this  reach,  the  total  fall  at  low 
stage  being  about  224  feet,  or  from  elevation  242  to  elevation  18. 

Fifty  miles  below  Montreal  is  the  head  of  Lake  St.  Peter,  the 
most  upstream  point  at  which  tide  is  observable.  Except  for  this 
lake,  the  reach  of  river  from  Montreal  to  Quebec,  150  miles,  is 
of  moderate  width  and  has  few  islands.  From  Quebec  to  the  Gulf  the 
stream  is  very  broad.  Channel  improvements  have  secured  a  depth 
of  30  feet  from  Montreal  to  the  sea,  the  dredged  channel  extending 
to  Father  Point,  175  miles  below  Quebec.  The  improved  channel  is 
450  feet  wide  between  Montreal  and  Quebec,  being  from  600  to  750 
feet  wide  at  bends.    Below  Quebec  it  is  1,000  feet  wide. 

At  St.  Regis,  N.  Y.,  opposite  Cornwall,  Ontario,  the  St.  Lawrence 
passes  wholly  into  Canadian  territory  and  ceases  to  be  a  boundary 
stream,  114  miles  from  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the 
total  distance  from  Lake  Ontario  to  the  sea.  United  States  waters 
are  comprised  in  only  the  upper  one-tenth  thereof,  the  remaining 
nine-tenths  being  wholly  Canadian  waters.  The  mean  river  eleva- 
tion at  Lock  No.  15  at  Cornwall  is  153.42,  showing  a  fall  from  Lake 
Ontario  at  Tibbetts  Point  of  92.66  feet. 

The  mean  elevation  of  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  for  the 
years  1860  to  1917,  both  inclusive,  is  246.18  feet  on  United  States 
standard  datum.  The  discharge  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  at  this 
stage,  as  determined  at  two  gauging  sections  just  below  Iroquois, 
Ontario,  is  241,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  this  stage  the  change 
in  discharge  per  foot  change  in  stage  is  approximately  21,500  cubic 
feet  per  second. 

At  Galop  Rapids  the  river  has  a  fall  of  about  9  feet  in  3  miles, 
from  Adams  Island  at  the  head  of  Galop  Canal  to  Lotus  Island.  The 
channel  north  of  Galop  Island,  in  Canadian  waters,  is  navigable  by 
light  draft  boats.  The  south  channel,  which  is  in  American  waters, 
is  not  navigable. 

From  Lotus  Island  to  Iroquois,  about  5^  miles,  there  is  a  fall  of 
about  6^  feet.  The  river  follows  a  tortuous  channel  and  the  current 
is  swift.  This  is  all  properly  a  part  of  the  Galop  Rapids,  although 
the  swiftest  portions,  namely,  those  abreast  of  Cardinal,  Ontario,  and 
Point  Iroquois,  are  frequently  designated,  respectively,  as  the  Car- 
dinal Rapids  and  the  Point  Iroquois  Rapids.  The  Galop  Canal,  de- 
scribed later,  provides  for  passing  navigation  around  these  rapids. 

It  is  4i  miles  from  Lock  No.  25,  at  Iroquois,  to  Lock  No.  24,  at  the 
head  of  Morrisburg  Canal,  abreast  the  head  of  Rapide  Plat,  and  the 
fall  in  this  distance  is  approximately  3  feet.     The  river  has  but  a 


140      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

single  channel,  and  the  current  is  swift.  This  is  the  most  difficult 
IDortion  of  the  river  for  upbound  vessels,  where  a  canal  is  not  pro- 
A^ided. 

In  the  Eapide  l^lat  there  is  a  fall  of  about  12  feet  in  approximately 
3^  miles.  This  rapids  has  a  ruling  depth  of  about  12  feet  at  low 
water,  and  a  sinuous  channel.  Ogden  Island,  which  is  United  States 
territory,  forms  the  south  shore  of  this  rapids.  The  Morrisburg 
Canal  follows  the  Canadian  shore  the  full  length  of  the  rapids. 

Between  Ogden  Island  and  the  main  American  shore  is  the  "  Little 
Eiver,"  which  is  shallow,  narrow,  and  winding,  and  is  not  navigable, 
except  by  small  steam  and  motor  boats,  above  and  below  a  dam  which 
crosses  it  at  Waddington,  N.  Y.  The  dam  is  a  dilapidated  timber 
and  rock  structure  about  950  feet  long  and  12  feet  high.  At  present 
the  flow  through  Little  River  is  approximately  1.1  per  cent  of  the 
total  St.  Lawrence  discharge. 

From  Lock  No.  23,  at  the  foot  of  Morrisburg  Canal,  at  Morris- 
burg, Ontario,  to  the  Farran  Point  Canal,  9^  miles,  the  fall  is  about 
7-^  feet.    The  channel  is  winding  and  the  current  generally  swift. 

The  Farran  Point  Rapids,  on  the  Canadian  side  of  Croil  Island, 
is  little  more  than  a  mile  long,  but  is  narrow  and  SAvift,  having  a 
fall  of  4  feet.  Farran  Point  Canal,  along  the  Canadian  shore,  over- 
comes this  rapids. 

It  is  5  miles  from  Lock  22,  at  the  foot  of  Farran  Point  Canal  to 
the  head  of  the  Cornwall  Canal,  and  the  fall  in  M'ater  surface  is  0.5 
foot  at  mean  stage.  In  this  reach  the  river  is  separated  into  two 
channels  b}^  large  islands,  and  the  slopes  in  the  two  channels  differ 
considerably. 

The  Long  Sault  Rapids  commence  at  the  head  of  the  Cornwall 
Canal,  near  Dickinson's  Landing.  Ontario,  and  extend  about  10^ 
miles  by  the  main  channel  to  Lock  No.  15  at  Cornwall.  Ontario.  The 
total  fall  is  47.4  feet,  the  fall  in  the  swiftest  portion,  however,  being 
281  feet  in  less  than  3  miles.  Several  large  islands  divide  the  river 
into  channels  through  this  reach.  What  is  known  as  the  "  South 
Sault  Rapids  "  is  the  American  channel  between  the  American  shore 
and  Long  Sault  Island.  This  channel  is  narrow  and  sinuous,  the 
current  is  very  swift,  and  navigation  is  impracticable.  Near  the 
upper  end  of  the  South  Sault.  and  not  far  upsti-eam  from  the  head 
of  the  Long  Sault  Rapids,  the  Massena  Canal  diverts  water  on  the 
United  States  side  for  power  development.  The  Cornwall  Canal 
extends  along  the  Canadian  shore  the  full  length  of  the  Long  Sault 
Rapids. 

The  only  bridge  across  the  St.  Lawrence  where  it  borders  the 
United  States  is  at  Cornwall.  This  is  a  single-track  bridge  of  the 
New  York  &  Ottawa  Railway.  There  are  two  parts  to  this  l)ridge. 
one  across  the  channel  to  the  north  of  Cornwall  Island,  the  other 
across  the  channel  south  of  the  island.  That  across  the  south  or 
American  channel  consists  of  three  spans.  The  middle  span  is  372 
feet,  and  the  two  end  spans  are  370  feet  each,  all  from  center  to  center 
of  piers.  The  piers  are  about  12  feet  wide  at  the  water  line.  The 
spans  are  fixed  and  have  37^  feet  of  headroom  al)OAe  high  Avater  dur- 
ing the  season  of  navigation. 

T  he  bridge  across  the  north  chaniiel  also  consists  of  three  spans, 
the  middle  span  being  420  feet  long,  the  north  si)nn  212.5  feet,  and 
the  south  span  210.5  feet,  all  from  center  to  center  of  piers,  with  the 


DR-ERSION   OF  WATEK  FROM   iiKEAT  LAKES  A.ND  2aAU.\llA  lllVEK.      141 

piers  about  IG  feet  wide  at  the  water  line.  The  middle  span,  which 
co\ers  the  part  oi'  tiie  river  now  used  by  downbound  passenger  boats, 
has  60  feet  of  headroom  at  hi<^li  water.  There  are  no  li«<hts  displayed 
nor  buoys  marking  the  approach,  because  the  brid<ye  is  at  the  foot 
of  Long  Sault  Rapids,  and  this  part  of  the  river  is  navigated  only  in 
daylight  and  by  special  boats.  There  is  a  draw  span  carrying  this 
railway  over  the  C  ornwall  Canal. 

For  the  purposes  of  thib  rej^ort  the  character  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
below  St.  Kegis  is  of  little  interest.  It  may  be  noted  that  Lake  St. 
Frances,  an  expansion  of  the  river,  commences  just  below  St.  Regis 
and  extends  for  ;U)  miles  to  Coteau  Landing,  the  fall  in  this  reach 
being  about  half  a  foot.  From  Coteau  Landing  the  next  14  miles  of 
river  is  practically  a  continuous  rai)ids,  although  the  swifter  portions 
are  named  in  order  Coteau  Rapids,  Cedars  Rapids,  Split  Rock 
Rapids,  and  The  Cascades.  The  total  fall  is  about  84  feet.  It  may 
be  added  parenthetically  that  there  is  a  large  modern  power  develop- 
ment at  (\^dars  Rapids,  a  large  proportion  of  whose  poAver  is  trans- 
mitted to  the  plant  of  the  Aluminum  Company  of  America,  at  Mas- 
sena,  N.  Y.  The  Soulanges  Canal  overcomes  these  rapids  for  navi- 
gation, extending  along  the  north  bank  from  Coteau  Landing  to  Cas- 
cades point.  On  the  south  bank  is  the  Beauharnois  Canal,  extending 
from  Valleyfield  to  Melocheville.  This  canal  was  abandoned  for 
navigation  use  a  few  years  ago  and  is  now  used  for  power  develop- 
ment. Lake  St.  Louis,  another  expansion  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  ex- 
tends from  Cascades  Point  to  Lachine,  15  miles,  the  fall  being  about 
2  feet.  The  Ottawa  River  discharges  much  of  its  flow  into  this  lake. 
The  Lachine  Rapids  extend  9  miles  from  Lachine  to  Montreal  and 
have  a  fall  of  45  feet.  This  rapids  is  overcome  by  the  Lachine 
Canal  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river. 

Generally  spealdng,  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  canals  from 
Ogdensburg  to  Montreal  will  accommodate  vessels  255  feet  long,  42 
feet  beam,  and  drawing  14  feet  of  water.  Except  for  a  few  ruling 
shoals  a  draft  several  feet  deeper  could  be  carried  in  the  river  ])or- 
tions  between  the  canals.  At  the  upper  end  of  Galop  Rapids  the 
river  channel  has  been  improved  to  accommodate  an  8-foot  draft. 
In  the  Rapide  Plat  a  draft  of  14  feet  is  accommodated  at  mean  stage, 
and  12  feet  at  low  stage.  In  the  Long  Sault  Rapids  the  limiting- 
depth  is  about  8  feet  at  mean  stage. 

Between  Ogdensburg  and  the  head  of  Cornwall  Canal  there  is 
practically  no  navigation  between  dark  and  dawn,  except  on  clear 
moonlight  nights.  There  are  no  river  lights,  and  the  arrangements 
for  illuminating  locks  and  canals  are  meager. 

Navigation  through  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  its  canals  is 
greatly  interfered  with  by  ice  conditions,  being  closed  on  the  average 
from  December  3  to  April  27.  144  days  per  annum,  as  shown  by  the 
records  for  50  years. 

Galop  Canal. — The  Galop  Canal  has  already  been  described  as 
being  the  most  upstream  of  the  St.  Lawrence  canals,  and  as  over- 
coming the  Galop,  Cardinal,  and  Point  Iroquois  Rapids,  extending 
along  the  Canadian  shore  from  Adams  Island,  at  the  head  of  (jalop 
Rapids,  to  Iroquois.  Ontario,  just  below  Point  Iroquois.  It  is  7-\ 
miles  long,  14  feet  deep,  80  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  144  feet 
wide  at  the  surface.     About  three-fourths  mile  below  the  head  of 


142      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

the  canal  there  are  two  locks  abreast  of  each  other.  That  nearest 
the  river  is  Xo.  28.  and  is  known  as  the  "  lift  lock."  It  connects  this 
short  upper  reach  of  the  canal  with  the  river  above  Cardinal.  It  is 
303  feet  lonir,  45  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  47 ;\  feet  wide  at  the  top, 
has  14  feet  of  water  over  the  miter  sills,  and  has  a  lift  of  about  5  feet. 
The  other  lock  is  No.  27.  and  is  called  a  truard  lock.  There  is  usually 
a  lift  of  1  or  2  feet  at  tliis  lock,  depending  on  the  river  stage  and 
the  depth  of  water  maintained  in  the  canal  below.  Lock  27  is 
270  feet  long,  available  length  for  boats  255  feet,  45  feet  wide  at  bot- 
tom, 46  feet  10  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  having  14  feet  of  water 
on  the  sills.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  canal,  at  Iroquois,  is  Lock  No. 
25,  which  is  800  feet  long,  50  feet  wide,  and  has  14  feet  of  water  on 
the  upper  sill  and  somewhat  greater  depth  on  the  lower  sill.  The 
lift  is  approximately  14  feet,  and  varies  somewhat  with  river  stage 
and  canal  level.    The  locks  are  operated  by  hand. 

Practically  all  upbound  vessels  enter  Lock  25  and  proceed  up  the 
canal.  A  few  fast  passenger  boats  habitually  run  up  the  river  past 
Cardinal  and  enter  the  canal  through  Lock  28.  Occasionally  a  fast 
freight  boat  takes  this  same  course  when  otherwise  it  would  be  delayed 
waiting  for  Lock  25.  A  few  small  boats  run  the  rapids  all  the  way 
when  downbound.  All  other  downbound  vessels  enter  the  head  of 
Galop  Canal,  lock  out  into  the  river  at  Lock  28,  and  run  down  the 
remainder  of  the  rapids.  It  is  reported  that  small  swift  steamers 
sometimes  run  up  the  entire  rapids  in  spring  before  the  canal  is 
opened  to  navigation. 

There  are  two  bridges  across  the  canal,  both  of  which  are  hand- 
operated,  swing  bridges  having  a  clear  span  across  the  canal.  The 
bridge  at  Cardinal  curries  a  highway  and  a  spur-track.  Wlien 
closed  it  has  a  clear  headroom  of  some  15  to  20  feet.  The  bridge  at 
Iroquois,  just  upstream  from  Lock  25.  carries  a  highway,  and  has 
only  a  few  feet  of  headroom  when  closed. 

The  old  Galop  Canal  followed  nearly  the  same  route  as  the  present 
canal,  except  at  Cardinal.  The  present  canal  follows  a  more  direct 
route  through  a  deep  cut  behind  the  town.  The  old  canal  follows  the 
curve  of  the  shore  around  in  front  of  the  town,  and  the  upstream 
half  of  this  old  route  is  still  used  as  a  power  canal.  The  old  lock 
No.  2G,  still  exists,  except  for  the  gates,  and  is  located  abreast  the 
center  of  the  toAvn.  There  is  no  new  lock  having  this  number,  as  the 
intermediate  lift  was  eliminated  in  the  new  canal.  Old  Lock  No.  27, 
which  was  about  half  a  mile  upstream  from  the  present  Lock  No.  27, 
was  removed  during  the  reconstruction.  Old  Ivock  No.  25,  without  its 
gates,  still  exists  at  Iroquois,  not  far  from  new  Lock  No.  25.  It  forms, 
part  of  the  present  tailrace  from  the  waste  weir  and  power  houses. 

The  original  cost  of  construction  of  the  (ralop  Canal  is  not  Icnown. 
The  cost  of  enlargement  was  $6,121,214.  The  cost  of  maintenance  and 
operation  is  not  loiown  for  this  canal  separately.  For  the  Galop, 
Morrisl)urg  and  Farran  Point  canals  taken  together  it  will  be  given 
further  on. 

The  freight  transported  in  this  canal  in  the  three  years  1915,  1916 
and  1917  averaged  3,700,000  short  tons  per  annum,  about  three- 
quarters  of  which  was  eastbound.  The  number  of  vessel  passages  was, 
in  1915.  8,641 :  in  1916.  8.325;  in  1917,  8,701. 

The  diversion  of  water  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  through  this 
canal  is  between  500  .-md   1.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which  200' 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      143 

cubic  feet  per  second  or  less  is  for  navisration  purposes.  The  bal- 
ance is  used  developing  power,  as  will  be  explained  in  Section  C  of 
this  report.  A  little  of  this  diversion  is  returned  to  the  river  at 
Lock  28,  a  considerable  portion  at  Cardinal,  and  the  remainder  at 
Iroquois. 

Just  upstream  from  the  Galop  Canal  is  an  artificial  channel 
named  the  North  Channel,  whi^h  was  constructed  l)y  Canada  as  an 
aid  to  navigation.  It  is  21  miles  long.  300  feet  wide,  and  16  feet 
deep,  and  cuts  through  Spencer  and  Drummond  Islands.  Its  cost 
was  $1,718,779.  Its  construction  would  have  caused  a  permanent 
lowering  of  the  river  above,  and  of  Lake  Ontario,  had  not  a  pier  or 
breakwater  been  extended  into  the  river  from  its  upstream  end  in 
such  manner  as  partially  to  shut  off  the  river  flow.  This  channel 
and  pier  have  caused  a  redistribution  of  the  river  flow,  but  no  di- 
version of  water  from  the  river. 

In  connection  with  this  improvement  a  dam  was  constructed  across 
what  is  known  as  the  "Gut,"  between  Adams  and  Galop  Islands. 
This  dam  has  raised  the  level  of  Lake  Ontario  approximately  half 
a  foot. 

Photograph  No.  47  shows  the  waste  weir  and  gates  beside  No.  27. 
Photograph  No.  48  is  of  the  canal  prism  with  the  river  in  the  back- 
ground. 

M orrishurg  Canal. — The  Plat  Rapids,  or  Rapide  Plat,  previously 
described,  are  overcome  for  navigation  by  the  Morrisburg  Canal 
which  is  3|  miles  long,  and  extends  along  the  Canadian  shore  from 
the  head  of  the  rapids  to  Morrisburg,  Ontario.  This  canal  has  a 
depth  of  14  feet  on  the  lock  sills,  and  also  in  the  canal  prism  which 
is  80  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  152  feet  wide  at  the  water  surface, 
and  is  someAvhat  enlarged  on  the  curves.  The  total  lift  of  about  11  i- 
feet  is  overcome  by  two  locks  each  270  feet  long.  Lock  No.  24  is 
about  1.000  feet  within  the  head  of  the  canal  and  is  styled  a  guard 
lock,  although  ordinarily  it  has  a  lift  of  1  to  B  feet.  It  has  a 
bottom  width  of  45  feet  and  a  top  width  of  46  feet  11  inches.  Lock 
No.  23,  at  the  foot  of  the  canal,  is  the  lift  lock  proper.  It  has  a 
bottom  width  of  44  feet  2  inches  and  a  top  width  of  46  feet  11  inches. 

Old  Lock  No.  24,  without  gates,  is  abreast  the  new  lock,  on  the 
river  side,  and  forms  part  of  the  wasteway  bypass  channel  around 
the  new  lock.  Old  Lock  No.  23  is  near  the  new  lock,  at  Morrisburg, 
on  the  land  side.  It  is  still  in  commission  and  is  used  occasionally. 
Its  length  is  200  feet,  available  length  for  boats  175  feet,  breadth  45 
feet,  and  depth  of  water  on  the  miter  sills  9  feet. 

All  the  locks  are  operated  by  hand,  and  all  have  the  filling  and 
emptAang  valves  in  the  gates. 

There  are  no  bridges  across  this  canal. 

All  upbound  vessels  use  the  canal.  All  downbound  vessels  run 
the  rapids  except  during  seasons  of  very  low  water,  when  the  deeper 
draft  boats  pass  down  the  canal. 

The  original  cost  of  construction  is  unknown.  The  cost  of  en- 
largement was  $2,158,242.  The  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation  is 
not  known  for  this  canal  separately. 

The  freight  tonnage  transported  and  number  of  vessel  passages 
are  the  same  as  for  the  Galop  Canal  for  upbound  boats,  and  con- 
siderably less  for  downbound  boats. 


144      DIVERSIOX   OF  WATKll  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  diversion  of  "water  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  through  this 
canal  is  l)etwcen  1.000  and  1.500  cui)ic  feet  per  second,  of  wliich  pos- 
sibly 200  cubic  feet  per  second  is  used  for  navigation  re(iuironients. 
The  remainder  is  used  in  power  development,  as  will  be  explained  in 
section  (c).     All  this  water  is  returned  to  the  river  at  Morrisburg. 

Photograph  No.  49  shows  the  largest  size  St.  Lawrence  freight 
steamer  ready  to  leave  Lock  24,  upbound. 

Farran  Point  ('anal. — The  Farran  Point  Rapids,  previously  men- 
tioned, is  navigated  by  all  doAvnbound  boats  except  the  few  taking 
the  American  channel  to  Richards  Bay.  All  upbound  Acssels  take  the 
Farran  Point  Canal  which  extends  along  the  Canadian  shore  abreast 
of  the  rapids. 

This  canal  is  l:|r  miles  long,  90  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  154  feet 
wide  at  the  water  surface,  and  is  14  feet  deep.  There  is  one  lock,  No. 
22,  which  is  located  at  the  downstream  end  of  the  canal.  It  is  800 
feet  long,  50  feet  wide,  has  14  feet  of  water  on  the  sills,  and  has  a  lift 
of  apjjroximatel}^  ^A  feet. " 

On  the  land  side  of  this  loclc  is  old  Lock  No.  22.  which  is  2()0  feet 
long,  45  feet  wide,  and  has  9  feet  of  water  on  the  sills.  Both  locks 
are  at  the  town  of  Farran  Point. 

The  locks  are  operated  by  hand. 

There  is  no  l^ridge  across  this  canal. 

The  cost  of  enlargement  was  $877,091. 

All  upbound  freight  passing  through  Galop  Canal  passes  through 
this  canal  also.    Practically  no  downbound  freight  enters  this  canal. 

The  diversion  of  water  is  all  for  navigation  and  probably  does  not 
average  as  much  as  50  cubic  feet  i^er  second.  It  is  simpW  diverted 
around  the  rapids  for  a  distance  of  11  miles. 

The  three  canals  just  described,  namely.  Galop,  Morrisburg,  and 
Farran  Point,  are  known  collectively  as  the  Williamsburg  group. 
The  original  cost  of  construction  of  all  three  was  $1,320,656,  which 
was  expended  prior  to  1868.  The  enlargement  began  about  1885  and 
was  completed  about  1908.  The  total  cost  to  March,  1916,  of  opera- 
tion and  maintenance  of  all  three  canals  was  $1,511,903.  The  income 
during  the  same  period  was  $297,559. 

('orninall  Canal. — The  Cornwall  Canal  overcomes  the  Long  Sault 
Rapids,  extendino;  along  the  Canadian  shore  of  the  river  from  just 
below  Dickinson  Landing  11  miles  to  Cornwall.  It  is  90  feet  wide  at 
bottom,  154  feet  wide  at  the  water  surface,  and  14  feet  deep.  Al)out 
2^  miles  of  its  length  is  considerably  wider,  following  the  natural 
channel  between  Sheek  Island  and  the  north  main  shore. 

The  total  lift,  which  is  48  feet,  is  overcome  by  6  locks,  each  270  feet 
long.  45  feet  wide,  and  having  14  feet  of  water  on  the  miter  sills. 
Of  these.  Lock  No.  21  is  about  \  mile  within  the  hea<l  of  the  canal. 
From  Lock  21  it  is  about  5  miles  to  a  guard  gate  M'hich  is  a  short 
distance  above  Lock  20.  It  is  about  1^1  miles  from  Lock  20  to  Lock 
19,  and  nearly  the  same  distance  from  Ix)ck  19  to  I>ock  18.  Locks 
Nos.  17  and  15  are  at  Cornwall,  at  the  downstream  end  of  the  canal. 
There  is  no  new  lock  No.  16.  The  lift  at  Lock  21  is  u.sually  only  a 
few  feet.  At  the  other  locks  the  lifts  are  about  as  follows:  No.  20, 
7  feet :  No.  19,  6  feet ;  No.  18.  7  feet :  Nos.  17  and  15,  14  feet  each.  The 
locks  are  operated  electrically,  and  the  canal  and  locks  are  lighted 
by  electricity. 


DIYEESION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVEK.      145 

The  old  locks  are  still  available,  with  the  exception  of  No.  21. 
They  are  each  2()0  feet  long,  45  feet  wide,  with  9  feet  of  water  on 
the  miter  sills.  Each  old  lock  is  abreast  of  the  new  lock  of  corre- 
sponding number,  except  at  the  lower  end  of  the  canal,  where  old 
Locks  Nos.  15,  IG,  and  17  are  located  near  the  two  new  locks. 

The  single-track  drawbridge  of  the  New  York  &  Ottawa  Railway 
which  crosses  the  canal  just  above  Cornwall  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. There  are  also  two  highway  swing  (b-awbridges  across  the 
canal,  one  at  Cornwall  and  one  at  Mille  Roches.  These  have  center 
piers  in  the  canal. 

A  few  specially  constructed  passenger  steamers  shoot  the  Long 
Sault  Rapids.  All  other  vessels,  both  upbound  and  downbound,  take 
the  canal. 

The  original  cost  of  the  canal  was  $1,945,625.  Cost  of  enlarge- 
ment was  $5,300,679.  Cost  of  operation  and  maintenance  to  March, 
1916,  was  $3,102,415.    Receipts  to  the  same  date  were  $592,038. 

The  freight  transported  in  this  canal  in  the  three  years  1915, 
1916,  and  1917  averaged  3,700,000  short  tons  per  annum,  about 
three-fourths  of  which  was  eastbound.  The  nimiber  of  vessel  pas- 
sages was,  in  1915,  8,641;  in  1916,  8,325;  and  in  1917,  8,701. 

The  amount  of  water  diverted  from  St.  Lawrence  River  by  the 
Cornwall  Canal  appears  to  average  roundly  about  3,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  Of  this,  during  the  navigation  season,  an  average  of 
perhaps  300  cubic  feet  per  second  is  required  for  navigation  uses. 
The  remainder  is  utdized  in  power  development,  as  will  be  described 
in  section  (c)  of  this  report.  The  diverted  water  is  returned  to  the 
river  partly  at  Mille  Roches  and  partly  at  Cornwall,  all  within  a 
distance  of  5  to  11  miles  of  the  point  of  diversion. 

7.    PROPOSED  ERIE  &  ONTARIO  SANITARY  CANAL. 

The  Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  Co.  proposes  to  construct  a 
combined  ship,  sanitary,  and  power  canal  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Ontario,  and  to  divert  26,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  through 
it.    The  route  is  shown  on  Plate  No.  6. 

Description  of  canal— The  proposed  canal  is  to  start  from  a 
new  harbor  south  of  Lackawanna,  N.  Y.,  wdiere  new  breakwaters 
and  piers  are  proposed,  extending  from  Woodlawn  Beach  out  into 
Lake  Erie  about  4  miles  to  Seneca  Shoal.  At  the  east  end  of  the 
harbor  a  lock  is  to  be  provided  for  lowering  vessels  about  8  feet 
into  the  head  of  the  canal.  From  this  lock  the  route  as  planned  starts 
toward  the  east,  turns  north  on  a  radius  of  about  15,000  feet,  and 
runs  along  the  eastern  outskirts  of  Buif  alo  through  Hamburg  W  est 
Seneca,  Cheektowaga,  and  Amherst  Townships.  In  Pendleton  1  own- 
ship  it  crosses  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  at  grade.  U  then 
passes  through  the  west  edge  of  Lockport  Township,  tc^  the  top  of 
the  Niagara  escarpment,  just  west  of  the  "Lockport  Gulf.  Here 
a  pair  of  enormous  balanced  lift  locks  of  novel  design  and  unprece- 
dented dimensions  are  to  overcome  the  drop  of  209  feet  to  the  level 
below  The  canal  then  crosses  the  "Ontario  Plain  "  at  an  elevation 
of  about  351  feet,  through  the  township  of  Newf ane  to  another  pair 
of  lift  locks,  which  serve  the  drop  of  104  feet  to  the  level  of  Lake 
Ontario  in  Eighteenmile  Creek,  about  2  miles  from  its  mouth. 
27880—21 10 


146      DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVEB. 

A  large  harbor  is  planned  to  be  constructed  at  Olcott,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  creek.  North  of  the  barge  canal  the  line  follows  very  closely 
the  Tonawanda-Olcott  route  projected  by  the  Board  of  Engineers 
on  Deep  AVaterways,  the  main  canal  is  80  feet  deep  throughout,  and 
has  a  berm  5  feet  above  water  level  on  each  side,  the  berm  along 
one  side  being  10  feet  wide  while  on  the  other  side  it  is  40  feet  wide. 
From  Lake  Erie  to  the  point  where  the  river  branch  from  Tona- 
wanda  and  Black  Rock  enters,  the  cross  sections  are  designed  to  be 
as  follows:  In  rock  section  the  bottom  width  is  250  feet,  and  the 
side  slopes  10  on  1  both  above  and  below  the  berm.  Overlying 
earth  is  in  every  case  given  a  slope  of  1  on  2,  and  a  berm  is  left 
at  the  rock  surface.  In  sections  partly  earth  and  partly  rock,  if 
retaining  walls  are  used,  the  standard  rock  section  is  adopted  up  to 
rock  surface,  and  vertical  faced  retaining  walls  extend  from  the  rock 
surface  up  to  the  berm  5  feet  above  water  line,  the  excavated  areas 
behind  the  walls  being  backfilled.  In  sections  partly  in  earth  and 
parti}-  in  rock,  where  no  retaining  walls  are  used,  and  in  sections 
wholly  in  earth,  the  bottom  width  is  200  feet,  the  side  slopes  are 
1  on  2,  and  a  berm  10  feet  wide  and  5  feet  below  Avater  surface  is 
provided  on  each  side  of  the  canal.  From  the  River  Branch  junc- 
tion to  Lake  Ontario  the  bottom  width  for  each  type  of  section  is 
50  feet  greater,  the  other  characteristics  remaining  unchanged. 
Available  depth  of  water  in  the  locks  is  to  be  30  feet.  The  total 
length  of  the  main  canal,  exclusive  of  the  harbors,  is  40  miles.  It  is 
17-^  miles  from  Lake  Erie  along  the  route  to  the  River  Branch  junc- 
tion, 3^  miles  from  there  to  the  barge  canal  crossing.  8  miles  fur- 
ther to  the  high  twin  locks,  and  9  miles  between  the  two  sets  of 
twin  locks.  The  excavation  is  very  heavy  and  is  largely  in  rock, 
the  overburden  reaching  a  maximum  of  approximately  140  feet. 

A  branch  canal  starts  at  Black  Rock  and  follows  the  line  of  the 
old  Erie  Canal  to  Twomile  Creek,  then  turns  eastward  along  the 
general  line  of  the  "  State  Ditch  "  and  EUicott  Creek  and  joins  the 
main  canal  near  Getzville.  This  canal  has  a  depth  of  12  feet,  a  bot- 
tom wndth  of  100  feet,  and  side  slopes  of  1  on  2  with  a  10-foot 
berm  on  each  side  5  feet  under  water  and  another  10- foot  berm  on 
each  side  5  feet  above  water.  The  length  of  the  branch  canal  is  13^ 
miles. 

Diversions. — Of  the  proposed  26,000  cubic  feet  per  second  dis- 
charge through  the  canal,  4,800  is  to  go  through  the  Black  Rock 
Canal  and  the  River  Branch  Canal,  the  remaining  21,200  cubic  feet 
per  second  entering  the  main  channel  south  of  Lackawanna.  In 
each  part  of  the  system  the  velocity  will  be  approximately  3  feet  per 
second.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  ship  canal,  which  is  through  rock, 
this  velocity  will  delay  upbound  vessels  somewhat,  but  not  exces- 
sively. The  case  is  different,  however,  in  the  7  or  8  miles  of  earth 
section.  Mr.  Alfred  Noble,  in  his  studies  for  the  Board  of  Engineers 
on  Deep  Waterways,  stated  that  the  backwash  due  to  vessels  navigat- 
ing an  earth  section  of  a  canal  should  not  exceed  3  feet  per  second, 
and  that  a  velocity  of  3^  feet  per  second  would  cause  excessively  great 
cost  in  maintaining  the  banks.  In  the  earth  sections  of  this  canal 
the  backwash  from  the  slowest  upbound  boat,  added  to  the  current 
of  the  canal,  will  produce  a  veh)city  along  the  banks  exceeding  this 
value,  and    with   large   steamers  moving   at  4  miles  per  hour  the 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     147 

current  along  the  banks  would  amount  to  4.2  feet  per  second.  As 
economical  operation  requires  ship  speeds  of  8  miles  per  hour  or 
thereabouts,  it  is  evident  that  the  earth  section  as  designed  is  en- 
tirely inadequate.  The  river  branch  is  designed  to  serve  as  an 
extension  of  the  barge  canal  system,  and  for  the  type  of  boat  em- 
ployed on  this  system  a  current  of  8  feet  per  second  is  much  too 
great.  By  enlargement  of  various  sections  of  the  canal  these  diffi- 
culties could  be  overcome,  but  only  at  considerable  expense. 

The  grade  crossing  near  Pendleton  of  the  ship  canal  and  Now  York 
State  Barge  Canal  affords  a  weak  point  in  the  proposed  scheme.  A 
volume  of  flow  of  26,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  to  be  discharged 
into  the  crossing  by  the  ship  canal,  and  an  equal  volume  abstracted 
on  the  opposite  side.  Similarly  a  flow  of  perhaps  1,200  cubic  feet 
per  second  is  contributed  by  the  barge  canal  on  one  side  and  ab- 
stracted on  the  other.  The  resulting  eddies  and  cross-currents  would 
seem  to  render  the  crossing  diilicult  of  navigation,  particularly  by 
strings  of  barges  in  the  barge  canal.  An  expensive  structure  could 
probably  be  designed  which  would  protect  the  crossing  by  guard 
gates  and  carry  most  of  the  water  beneath  the  crossing  through  in- 
verted syphons,  or  the  cross  currents  could  be  reduced  by  excavating 
a  large  and  expensive  basin  at  the  junction.  This  grade  crossing 
would  be  very  much  more  difficult  than  the  grade  crossing  of  the 
barge  canal  and  Genesee  River  at  Rochester,  pailly  because  the 
Genesee  is  very  wide  at  the  crossing,  but  mostly  because  the  volumes 
of  flow  to  be  handled  are  almost  always  so  verj^  much  smaller  in  the 
Rochester  case. 

Ohjections. — There  are  two  fatal  objections  to  the  proposition  as 
a  ship  canal.  The  first  is  its  great  length  as  compared  to  other  avail- 
able routes.  If  portions  of  the  Niagara  River  are  utilized  the  arti- 
ficial ship  canal  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  need  be  only  8  miles 
long  by  the  LaSalle-Lewiston  route,  or  25  miles  long  by  the  Tona- 
wanda-Olcott  route,  as  these  routes  were  projected  by  the  Deep 
Waterways  Board.  From  Lewiston  to  Lake  Ontario  the  Niagara 
River  is  wide  and  deep,  and  of  moderate  current,  requiring  but  the 
removal  of  a  small  shoal  at  its  mouth  to  make  it  readily  navigable 
by  deep  draft  vessels.  Above  LaSalle  the  upper  Niagara  River  re- 
quires only  a  moderate  amount  of  improvement  to  make  it  navigable 
for  30-foot  draft  with  far  greater  speed  and  safety  than  any  ship 
canal.  The  Deep  Waterways  Board  reported  that  "  between  Buf- 
falo and  a  point  common  to  the  two  routes  in  Lake  Ontario  *  *  * 
in  a  30-foot  channel  a  steamship  of  27  feet  draft  would  be  one  hour 
and  forty-three  minutes  longer  by  the  Tonawanda  route.  Since  the 
cost  of  maintenance  of  the  Lewiston  waterway  would  be  less  than  for 
the  route  from  Tonawanda  to  Olcott.  the  interest  and  expense  ac- 
counts will  be  much  less  for  the  former,  and  as  the  actual  time  saved 
by  a  steamship  on  the  Lewiston  route  would  be  from  11  to  IG  per  cent 
of  the  time  of  passage,  it  is  evident  that  both  economy  in  construc- 
tion and  cost  of  transportation  definitely  determine  the  Lewiston 
waterway  as  the  preferable  route."  The  proposed  Seneca  Shoal- 
Olcott  Route  of  the  Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitar}^  Canal  Co.  has  a  length 
of  40  miles.  Every  reason  which  makes  the  LaSalle  route  better 
than  the  Tonawanda  route  applies  with  double  force  to  a  comparison 
between  the  LaSalle-Lewiston  and  the  Seneca  Shoal-Olcott  routes. 


148      DIVERSION  OF  V.ATiLrt  TKOM   GEEAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  other  fatal  objection  is  the  fact  that  the  proposed  canal  route 
intersects  every  railroad  and  road  entering  Buffalo  from  the  west, 
south,  and  east,  at  each  of  which  crossings  a  drawbridge  would 
])e  required  unless  the  crossings  were  abandoned.  This  is  probably 
the  most  serious  objection  of  all. 

North  of  the  State  of  Georgia  the  only  low  pass  through  the  Ap- 
palachian Eange  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  interior  of  the 
United  States  is  by  way  of  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk 
Rivers.  The  most  important  rail  routes  from  New  York  and  New 
England  follow  this  pass,  and  they  all  enter  Buffalo,  which,  because 
of  its  strategic  position  at  the  junction  of  the  western  end  of  this 
pass  and  eastern  end  of  the  chain  of  upper  Great  Lakes,  has  become 
one  of  the  largest,  most  important,  and  also  most  congested  railroad 
centers  in  the  United  States.  The  proposed  canal  cuts  every  one 
of  the  great  lines  of  communication  between  the  East  and  West 
through  this  pass,  and  cuts  some  of  them  twice.  In  the  first  15  miles 
from  Lake  Erie  it  intersects  10  electric  railroad  tracks,  21  highways 
having  no  trolley  tracks,  and  52  steam  railroad  tracks. 

It  is  estimated  that  a  total  of  more  than  70  separate  drawbridges 
will  be  required  for  the  entire  route.  A  drawbridge  over  a  ship 
canal  is  always  a  source  of  delay  to  traffic  both  over  the  bridge  and 
in  the  canal.  As  it  is  impracticable  for  large  vessels  to  stop  in 
canals  they  are  customarily  given  right  of  way,  and  land  traffic  is  ac- 
cordingly delayed.  Notwithstanding  having  the  right  of  way,  steam- 
ers usually  find  it  necessary  to  reduce  speed  to  a  minimum  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  drawbridges,  and  thus  suffer  considerable  delay.  Occasion- 
ally the  bridge  operating  mechanism  fails  to  work  promptly,  and 
then  serious  accidents  often  occur.  In  a  current  of  3  feet  per  sec- 
ond the  difficulties  would  be  intensified.  Downbound  vessels  would 
not  ha^e  steerage  way  unless  making  at  least  4  to  5  miles  per  hour 
with  respect  to  the  bank.  At  such  speed  they  could  not  be  stopped 
quickly.  In  brief,  such  a  condition  as  would  necessarily  prevail  in 
the  first  15  miles  of  the  route  from  Lake  Erie  would  be  intolerable 
both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  railroads,  and  also  from  that  of  nav- 
igation. 

Other  objections  are  the  lowering  of  Lake  Erie  1.18  feet  at  mean 
stage  which  the  direct  diversion  proposed  would  cause,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  excessive  currents  in  the  present  Black  Rock  Canal.  The 
first  of  these  conditions  could  be  remedied  by  costly  remedial  works; 
the  second  by  an  expensive  enlargement  of  the  Black  Rock  Canal. 

As  far  as  navigation  is  concerned,  therefore,  this  proposition  is 
not  believed  to  be  worthy  of  further  consideration.  From  the  stand- 
])oint  of  sanitation  it  is  treated  in  section  (b),  and  as  a  power  de- 
velopment enterprise  it  is  dealt  with  at  considerable  length  in  Sec- 
tion F. 

8.    OTHER   PROPOSED    NAVIGATION    CANALS,   LAKE   ERIE   TO   LAKE   ONTARIO, 

Aside  from  the  new  Wellnnd  Ship  Canal,  now  partially  con- 
structed, and  the  proposed  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal,  the 
proposed  routes  of  navigation  canals  connecting  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario  have  contemplated  using  ])ortions  of  the  Niagara  River. 

Attention  is  directed  to  Plate  No.  G,  which  is  a  map  showing 
Niagara  River  in  its  relation  to  the  Welland  Canal  and  to  various 


DIATiRSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER.     149 

proposed  canals,  including  that  of  the  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary 
Canal  Co.;  and  also  to  Plate  No.  11,  which  frives  profiles  of  the 
Nia<2;ara  River. 

Before  proceedino;  to  consider  the  various  proi)oso(l  canals,  i\ 
brief  description  of  Niagara  River  and  the  surrounding  terrain  will 
be  given. 

Description  of  Niagara  River. — The  country  traversed  Ijy  the 
Niagara  River  lies  in  two  plains;  separated  by  a  steep  bluff  called 
the  Niagara  escarpment.  The  upper  plain  has  an  undulating  sur- 
face with  a  general  elevation  of  COO  feet  above  sea  level.  The  lower 
or  Lake  Ontario  plain  is  comparatively  smooth  except  wliere  streams 
haA'e  washed  out  narrow-  valleys.  From  its  southern  edge,  which 
has  an  elevation  of  380  to  400  "feet  above  sea  level,  it  slopes  north- 
ward to  an  elevation  of  about  260  feet  at  the  lake  shore,  with  low 
bluffs  10  to  30  feet  high.  A  contour  map  compiled  from  United 
States  Geological  surveys  and  other  sources  is  published  in  House 
Document  No.  149,  Fifty-sixth  Congress,  second  session,  (Report  of 
the  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  Waterways,  Plate  No.  92.) 

The  Niagara  River  forms  the  natural  outlet  of  Lake  Erie  at  Buf- 
falo, discharging  the  surplus  waters  into  Lake  Ontario  at  Youngs- 
town,  N.  Y.  It  is  37  miles  long  by  the  cliannel  on  the  American 
side  of  Grand  Island,  and  33  miles  long  by  the  channel  on  the 
Canadian  side  of  Grand  Island.  The  total  fall  in  water  surface 
from  lake  to  lake  averaged  326.35  feet  for  the  years  1860  to  1917, 
both  inclusive.  Of  this  total  fall  about  162  feet  is  the  sheer  drop 
of  Horseshoe  Falls.  The  discharge  of  the  river  varies  from  about 
110,000  to  400,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  depending  on  the  stage  of 
Lake  Erie.  At  the  average  stage  for  the  years  1860  to  1917,  inclu- 
sive, namely,  572.53,  the  discharge  is  208,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  increment  of  discharge  per  foot  rise  of  lake,  near  mean  stage, 
is  22,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Leaving  Lake  Erie  the  river  flows  over  a  limestone  ledge  in  a 
stream  about  1,600  feet  wide  and  of  15  feet  maximum  depth  at  its 
most  restricted  section.  At  this  point  the  velocity  approximates  8 
miles  per  hour.  In  a  distance  of  3|  miles  from  the  head  of  the 
river  to  the  foot  of  Squaw  Island  the  fall  in  water  surface  is  ap- 
proximately 5.1  feet,  varying  somewdiat  with  the  stage  of  Lake  Erie. 
This  section  of  the  river  acts  as  a  control  on  the  discharge  of  the 
river,  and  is  equivalent  in  its  hydraulic  effect  to  a  submei-ged  weir. 
Changes  in  water  surface  elevation  at  the  foot  of  Squaw  Island  have 
about  seven-tenths  as  much  effect  on  the  discharge  as  equal  changes 
on  Lake  Erie  have.  That  is,  a  rise  of  one-tenth  foot  in  Lake  Erie 
produces  an  increase  in  discharge  of  2.200  cubic  feet  per  second, 
causing  at  the  same  time  a  rise  of  0.082  foot  at  foot  of  Squaw  Island; 
while  a  lowering  of  0.1  foot  at  foot  of  Squaw  Island,  Lake  Erie  ele- 
vation meanwhile  remaining  unchanged,  would  produce  only  1.560 
cubic  feet  per  second  increased  flow.  The  latter  condition  is  possible 
when  the  river  regimen  has  been  disturbed  artificially.  The  Inter- 
national Bridge,  a  single  track  structure  belonging  to  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railroad,  crosses  the  river  at  Squaw  Island  and  has  eight 

river  piers.  ^  ^      ^  j.->        • 

About  three-quarters  of  a  mile  below  Squaw  Island  the  river  is 
divided  by  Strawberry  Island,  and  farther  down  by  Grand  Island. 
The  channel  east  of  Grand  Island  is  known  as  the  American  or 


150      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FEOil   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Tonawanda  Channel,  while  that  west  of  Grand  Island  is  called  the 
Canadian  or  Chippawa  Channel.  From  the  point  of  tlivision  it  is 
12  miles  by  the  Canadian  and  16  miles  by  the  American  channel  to 
the  point  of  reuniting  below  Navy  Island,  about  a  mile  above  Wel- 
land  River.  From  Squaw  Island  to  Welland  River  the  fall  is  4.8 
feet.  The  Chippawa  Channel  averages  between  one-half  and  three- 
fourths  mile  wide,  and  approxhnately  18  feet  deep.  The  Tonawanda 
Channel  for  the  first  7  miles  is  about  one-third  mile  wide  and  25 
feet  deep,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  way  is  about  three-fourths 
mile  wide  and  10  feet  deep.  The  current  averages  about  2  to  2|  feet 
per  second  in  these  two  channels.  The  International  boundary  line 
follows  the  Chippawa  Channel,  close  to  Grand  Island. 

From  1  mile  above  to  1  mile  below  Welland  River  the  Niagara 
River  is  roughly  a  mile  wide,  and  averages  8  to  10  feet  deep.  This 
reach  is  known  as  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  Pool.  Its  average 
elevation  is  about  563  feet.  It  discharges  over  a  natural  rock  barrier 
in  a  waterfall  averaging  5  to  10  feet  in  height,  and  known  as  the  first 
cascade.  Hydraulically,  the  rock  barrier  is  equivalent  to  a  weir,  and 
the  first  cascade  is  a  free  overfall.  Diversions  of  water  below  the 
first  cascade  can  have  no  effect  on  the  river  above  the  cascade,  as  for 
example  the  diversions  on  the  Canadian  side  by  the  Toronto  Power 
Co.,  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.,  International  Railway  Co.,  and 
City  Waterworks  of  Niagara  Falls,  Ontario.  Diversions  from 
Chippawa-Grass  Island  Pool  are  made  on  the  United  States  side  by 
the  plants  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  and  Hydraulic  Power  Co., 
while  on  the  Canadian  side  the  diversion  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co. 
is  made  from  the  lip  of  this  pool. 

The  first  cascade  forms  the  upper  portion  of  a  series  of  cascades 
and  rapids  extending  to  the  brink  of  the  falls.  This  reach  of  river 
is  about  half  a  mile  long  and  is  divided  longitudinally  bv  Goat  Island 
into  the  Canadian  and  American  Rapids,  the  former  being  wide  and 
the  latter  narrow.  The  drop  from  Welland  River  to  brink  of  Horse- 
shoe Falls  is  about  55  feet,  while  to  the  American  Falls  it  is  only  50 
feet.  Horseshoe  Falls  and  American  Falls  are  separated  by  (roat 
Island.  The  former  is  3,000  feet  long  and  162  feet  high ;  the  latter  is 
1,000  feet  long  and  167  feet  high. 

From  the  foot  of  the  falls  the  river  flows  in  a  gorge  whoso  ))anks 
are  180  to  250  feet  high  for  6^  miles  to  Lewiston.  At  the  latter 
locality  the  gi-ound  falls  away  very  abrupth'^  from  an  elevation  of 
about  C)00  feet  to  an  elevation  of  approximately  350  feet.  From  the 
foot  of  the  falls  for  about  2  miles  the  river  is  roughly  800  feet  wide 
at  the  water  surface,  and  100  to  192  feet  or  more  deep.  Its  velocity 
is  moderate,  its  surface  generally  smooth,  and  its  drop  in  water  .sur- 
face from  upper  to  lower  ond  of  the  reach  approximately  5  feet  at 
mean  stage.  This  reach  is  variously  known  as  the  Upper  Gorge 
Pool,  Pool  Below  the  Falls,  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool,  etc.  In  this 
report  it  will  be  designated  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool.  All  of  the 
j^resent  water-power  developments  discharge  into  the  upstream  half 
of  this  pool,  whose  average  elevation  is  aliout  343  feet.  A  highway 
bridge  known  as  the  I^pper  Steel  Arch  Bridge  spans  the  pool  about 
1,000  feet  downstream  from  the  American  Falls. 

Bolow  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  the  next  mile  of  the  river  is  a 
wild,   turbulent    rapids   called   the   Whirlpool    Rapids,   which    dis- 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      151 

charges  into  the  Whirlpool.  The  water  surface  drops  48  feet  from 
upper  to  lower  pool.  The  average  width  at  water  surface  in  the 
rapids  is  400  feet,  and  the  average  depth  is  roughly  30  feet.  At  the 
narrowest  section  the  width  is  320  feet  and  the  mean  depth  32  feet, 
while  at  the  shallowest  section  the  width  is  410  feet  and  the  mean 
depth  17  feet.  The  mean  velocity  is  roughly  25  feet  per  second,  the 
maximum  velocity  exceeding  38  feet  i)er  second.  The  upper  end  of 
the  Whirlpool  Eapids  is  crossed  by  two  double  track  railway  l)ridges, 
one  known  as  the  Michigan  Central  Cantilever  Bridge,  and  the  other 
the  Grand  Trunk  Steel  Arch  Bridge.  The  latter  is  a  double  deck 
structure  carrying  a  highway  under  the  railroad  tracks. 

The  Whirlpool  is  1500  feet  long,  1200  feet  wide,  and,  according  to 
the  soundings  of  Dr.  J.  W.  Spencer,  24  to  126  feet  deep.  Its  average 
elevation  is  292  feet.  The  level  of  the  Whirlpool  fluctuates  through 
a  greater  range  of  stage  than  the  level  of  any  of  the  other  pools, 
and  the  water  surface  is  more  disturbed. 

The  Lower  Rapids  extend  from  the  W^liirl]jool,  3^  miles  to  Lewis- 
ton.  The  total  water  surface  drop  in  this  distance  is  46  feet.  The 
rapids  vary  in  width  from  310  to  900  feet,  and  in  depth  from  40  to 
at  least  150  feet.  The  slope  is  not  as  uniform  as  in  the  whirlpool, 
consisting  in  several  steep  pitches  connected  by  sections  of  consider- 
ably less  sloj^e.  About  three-fourths  mile  below  the  Whirlpool  is  the 
beginning  of  the  narrowest  section,  which  extends  downstream  nearly 
half  a  mile.  This  portion  of  the  rapids  is  abreast  of  a  low  lying 
piece  of  ground  in  the  gorge  on  the  Canadian  side  known  as  Niagara 
Glen  or  Foster  Flats,  and  is  sometimes  called  Foster  Flats  Eapids. 
It  has  a  steep  slope.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  Lower  Rapids  there 
is  a  suspension  bridge  known  as  the  Lewiston-Queenston  Bridge. 

From  the  suspension  bridge  to  Lake  Ontario  is  H  miles,  and  the 
water  surface  drop  is  approximately  one-half  foot.  This  portion  of 
the  river  is  roughly  one-half  to  one-third  mile  wide  and  30  to  60 
feet  deep.  The  current  is  moderate.  The  banks  are  50  to  100  feet 
high,  becoming  lower  near  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  general  direction  of  the  river  is  from  south  to  north,  although 
the  portion  above  the  Falls,  frequently  kno^yn  as  the  Upper  River, 
trends  more  nearly  northwest,  while  the  portion  below  the  Falls,  the 
Lower  River,  flows  in  general  almost  exactly  north.  Just  above  the 
falls  the  river  is  flowing  almost  due  west  and  at  the  foot  of  the  falls  it 
turns  more  than  a  right  angle,  flowing  a  little  east  of  north.  The 
Canadian  Falls  is  south  of  the  American  Falls.  Another  sharp 
right  angled  bend  in  the  river  occurs  at  the  Whirlpool,  where  the 
direction  of  flow  changes  from  northwest  to  northeast. 

The  Niagara  River  is  navigable  for  boats  of  considerable  size  from 
Lake  Erie  to  the  Welland  River  and  to  docks  behind  Conners  Is- 
land. It  is  navigable  also  from  Lewiston  and  Queenston  to  Lake 
Ontario.  In  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  two  small  steamers  operate 
in  summer  time,  carrying  sightseers  up  close  to  the  foot  of  the  falls, 
but  these  boats  do  not  attempt  to  navigate  the  rapids  below. 

The  Niaqara  Route. — The  Niagara  River  route,  including  a  port- 
age around  the  Falls  and  rapids,  had  been  one  of  the  main  thorough- 
fares of  the  Indians  from  time  immemorial,  when,  in  the  seventeenth 
centurv,  it  was  discovered  by  the  French  explorei's  of  the  great  natural 
inland  waterway  of  the  Great  Lakes  system.     As  early  as  1678  the 


152      DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GRE.\T  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RTYER. 

French  had  a  post  which  commanded  the  portage.  The  frontier 
passed  into  the  control  of  the  British  in  1759.  By  both  nations  it 
was  considered  of  vast  importance  because  of  this  route  between  east 
and  west,  and  its  early  growth  was  due  to  this  fact.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  era  of  American  canal 
building  began,  the  idea  of  a  canal  to  replace  the  portage  was  sug- 
gested several  times,  and  it  appears  that  a  survey  for  a  canal  was 
made  in  1784.  In  1798  a  company  was  incorporated  to  build  such  a 
canal,  but  nothing  further  was  accomplished.  Since  that  date  but 
few  years  have  passed  without  agitation  for  the  construction  of  such 
a  canal,  and  many  surveys  and  estimates  have  been  made. 

Examinations  and  surveys  ordered  by  Congress  have  been  heretofore  made  and 
reports  thereon  pxiblished,  as  follows: 


Niagara  Ship  Canal. 

Congressional  Documents. 

Annual  reports 
of  Engineers. 

Recommen- 

v„„.    House  or 
Year-  1  senate. 

No. 

Con- 
gress. 

Session. 

Year. 

Pages. 

dation. 

Five  routes:  depth,   10- 

1836  I  House... 

1837  ...do 

214 
2m 

24th... 

24th... 
38th... 

40th... 

First 

feet;  locks,  200  by   50 
feet. 
Urging  need  for 

. 

Do. 

Five    routes,    depth    12 

1864      ---do !          fil 

First ' 

None. 

feet;  locks,  275  bjM5  feet. 
Six  routes;  depth, 14  feet; 

locks,  275  by  46  feet.. 
Two  routes:  depth,  20J 

1868 
1889 
1S92 

H.  Ex..         197 

Second. . 

1868 
1889 

271-287 
2434 

Do. 
Favorable. 

feet ;  locks  400  by  60 feet. 
Presentation  favorable  to 

1023 
423 
192 
86 
149 

52d.... 
54th... 
54th... 
55th... 
56th... 

First.... 

Do. 

above.                                           i 
Presentation  favorable  to      1896     . .  .do 

...do 

Do. 

a  canal. 
General  preliminarv  ex-      1S97    L..do 

Second.. 

Do. 

amination  and  data. 
Four   routes;    depth    24 
feet:  locks  530  by60feet. 

1897 
1900 

...do.... 
...do.... 

First.... 

1897 

3128-3237 

Untovorable. 
Favorable. 

and  Tonawanda-Olcott 
route;    depth,  21  feet; 
locks,  600  by  60  feet; 
depth,    30   feet;  locks, 
740  by  80  feet. 

Surveys  made  under  other  auspices  are  enumerated  as  follows: 

1784.  First  survey  made  for  a  canal  around  the  Falls  of  Niagara; 
by  private  interests. 

1798.  Company  chartered  by  the  State  of  New  York  to  construct 
a  canal  around  Niagara  Falls,  capable  of  passing  Iwats  of  80  tons 
burden,  said  canal  to  be  completed  10  years  thereafter. 

1808.  Survey  by  James  Geddes,  under  direction  of  surveyor  gen- 
eral of  the  State  of  New  York  of  route  for  a  canal  around  the  falls 
from  Schlosser's  to  Lewiston. 

1808.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  under  United  States.  Senate  reso- 
lution .submitted  report  of  Niagara  Ship  Canal,  Schlossers  to  Lewis- 
ton,  via  The  Devils  Hole. 

1826.  Survey  by  private  individuals,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  a 
charter  from  the  State  of  New  York. 

1853.  Under  charter  granted  by  the  State  of  New  York,  survey 
made  by  Charle.s  B.  Stuart  and  Edward  W.  Serrell  for  a  canal  be- 
tween Tonawanda  Creek  and  Lake  Ontario.     Proposed  dimensions 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     153 

of  canal,  170  feet  wide  at  top,  130  feet  on  the  bottom  and  14  feet 
depth  of  water,  with  locks  300  feet  \on<r  and  70  feet  wide  in  the 
chamber;  estimated  cost,  shortest  line,  8  miles  long,  with  single 
locks,  $10,290,471.59;  with  double  locks,  $18,169,569.09. 

Plans  of  the  United  States  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  Water- 
ways.— All  previous  preliminary  examinations  and  surveys  are  re- 
garded as  superseded  by  the  elaborate  surveys  made  by  the  United 
State  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  Waterways,  whose  report,  in  two 
large  volumes  and  a  portfolio  of  plates,  is  that  noted  on  the  above 
tabulation  as  of  1900,  House  Doc.  149,  50th  Cong.,  '2d  sess.  This 
is  the  most  recent  and  also  the  most  elaborate  and  complete  survey 
and  estimate.  In  the  course  of  the  present  investigation  a  careful 
reconnaissance  was  made  of  both  routes  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake 
Ontario,  which  were  surveyed  by  the  board  and  revision  surveys  of 
the  La  Salle-Lewiston  route  were  made  in  sutHcicnt  detail  to  bring 
the  information  up  to  date.  The  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep 
Waterways  ^yas  appointed  in  1897,  "  to  make  surveys  and  examina- 
tions (including  estimate  of  cost)  of  deep  waterways  and  the  routes 
thereof  between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic  tide  waters."  The 
members  were  Maj.  Charles  W.  Raymond,  Corps  of  Engineers, 
United  States  Army,  Alfred  Noble,  and  George  Y.  Wisner.  The 
work  of  the  board  was  very  extensive  and  of  a  very  high  grade. 
Under  its  direction  nearly  500  square  miles  of  topographic  and  hy- 
drographic  surveys  were  made,  several  hundred  rock  soundings 
taken, many  miles  of  precise  leA^els  run,  and  many  hydraulic  measure- 
rnents  obtained.  It  also  made  extensive  studies  of  traffic  conditions, 
size  of  ships,  speed  of  ships  in  canals,  water  supply  to  summit  levels, 
and  similar  subjects. 

The  board  investigated  two  routes  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake 
Ontario.  One  left  the  Niagara  River  at  Tonawanda  and  entered 
Lake  Ontario  at  Olcott,  about  18  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Niagara  River.  The  other  left  the  river  at  La  Salle  and  entered  the 
lower  river  at  Lewiston,  about  six  miles  above  its  mouth.  The 
board  recommended  the  La  Salle-Lewiston  route  as  offering  the  most 
assistance  to  navigation  and  being  also  the  cheapest. 

The  length  of  the  proposed  LaSalle-Lewiston  canal  is  9.16  miles. 
The  vertical  drop  is  318.8  feet  which  is  to  be  overcome  by  eight  locks, 
arranged  in  one  double  flight  of  six  and  one  double  flight  of  two.  Two 
sets  of  plans  and  estimates  were  made,  one  for  a  21 -foot  channel  and 
the  other  for  a  30-foot  channel.  The  principal  dimensions  of  the 
two  plans  are  as  follows : 


21-foot  cbanneL 

aWoot  channel. 

Width  of  dredged  channel  in  river 

600  feet.     .  . 

Width  of  canal  ( bottom  in  rock  section) , 

240  feet 

T>0  feet 

6(»0  feet 

Width  of  locks 

60  feet       .  . 

Lift  of  locks,  upper  flight  (each) 

40  feet       .  . 

one  set  80  feet. 
40  feet 

Lift  of  locks,  lower  flight  (each) 

39. 4  feet 

39  4  feet 

Estimated  cost 

$38,611,723 

$66,831,857. 

These  costs  include  a  lock  at  Black  Rock  which  has  since  been  built. 
They  also  include  the  cost  of  regulating  works  at  the  head  of  the 


154      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

river.  The  amount  of  water  required  to  be  diverted  from  Niagara 
River  was  not  stated,  but  it  probably  was  less  than  1.000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  The  report  is  very  exhaustive  and  represents  the  latest 
ideas  as  to  what  an  Erie-Ontario  Canal  should  be.  except  that  the 
great  size  of  ships  now  in  use  would  require  that  the  lo;*ks  be  made 
larger  than  recommended.  The  estimates  of  cost  are,  of  course,  quite 
obsolete  because  of  the  recent  rise  in  prices. 

Tlie  improvements  to  the  Black  Rock  Canal,  made  since  the  report 
of  the  Deep  Waterways  Board,  including  construction  of  the  new 
lock  at  Black  Rock,  have  been  described  previously.  Downstream 
from  the  lock  the  Niagara  River  has  been  improved  for  a  distance  of 
2^  miles  to  provide  a  channel  400  feet  wide  and  21  feet  deep  at  low 
water  datum,  extending  to  deep  water  in  the  Tonawanda  Channel, 
from  which  point  the  natural  channel  is  of  ample  width  and  depth 
for  5  miles,  or  nearly  to  the  head  of  the  Tonawanda-Dlcott  route. 
Further  authorized  improvement  will  extend  the  21  foot  channel 
downstream  1^  miles  to  the  TonaAvanda  Iron  &  Steel  Co.  dock.  The 
i-iver  thence  to  the  head  of  the  LaSalle-Lewiston  route,  3|  miles,  has 
lieen  improved  to  provide  a  channel  200  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  deep 
at  low  water  datum.  Scattered  bowlders  moved  into  the  channel  by 
ice  have  reduced  the  available  depth  to  about  8  feet. 

Further  details  of  the  work,  plans,  and  estimates  of  the  Deep 
Waterways  Board  are  given  in  the  following  quotations  from  its 
report : 

A  careful  recoiniaissance  made  by  the  board  in  advance  of  the  field  work 
showed  that  only  two  of  the  routes  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario  were  worthy 
of  investigation,  viz :  The  route  from  the  Niatrara  River  at  Tonawanda  to  Lake 
Ontario  at  Olcott,  and  from  the  river  at  LaSalle  to  Lewiston  and  tlience  through 
the  Niagara  River  to  the  lake. 

These  were  thoroughly  investigated  relative  to  volmne  and  kind  of  material 
to  he  excavated,  nature  and  dimensions  of  structures  which  will  be  needed,  and 
character  of  foundation  on  which  such  structures  will  have  to  be  erected. 

The  difTicuIties  to  be  overcome  on  the  two  routes  are  practic;illy  l!ie  .same  and 
the  real  comparative  merits  of  the  waterways  depend  largely  upon  relative  cost 
to  construct  and  maintain  them  and  the  difference  in  time  rctinired  by  a  type 
steani.ship  to  traverse  the  respective  routes  between  points  common  to  each. 
*     *     * 

The  question  has  been  raised  as  to  the  advisability  of  constructing  locks, 
which  will  cost  several  million  dollars,  as  close  to  the  boundary  between  the 
I'liited  States  and  Canada  as  will  be  the  case  at  the  Lewiston  escarpment;  but 
when  we  consider  the  important  lock  and  regulating  structures  which  will  be 
needed  at  the  head  of  Niagara  River,  the  deep  channels  already  excavated  in 
Canadian  waters  at  the  mouth  of  the  Detroit  River,  and  the  locks  and  canals 
at  Sault  Ste.  IMarie,  it  is  diflicult  to  conceive,  if  the  Lewiston  location  is  objec- 
tionable for  military  i-easons,  why  similar  reasons  should  not  have  prevented 
the  improvement  of  the  entire  upper  lake  system  of  waterways.     *     *     * 

In  (he  very  improbable  event  of  a  war  with  Great  Britain,  every  large  ship 
of  war  possessed  by  this  country  would  be  requir(>d  on  the  high  sea.  Such 
vessels  would  be  unnecessary  on  the  lakes,  since  the  greatest  depth  of  the 
Canadian  waterways  is  only  14  feet. 

Tlie  survey  of  the  Niagara  Ship  Canal  was  conmienced  in  September,  1897, 
and,  including  borings,  was  completed  in  April,  1898.  The  work  consisted  in 
develoi)ing  two  routes  from  I>ake  Krie  to  Lake  Ontario,  one  from  Buffalo,  via 
tlie  Niagara  River  to  Tonawanda,  and  thence  by  ship  canal  to  Olcott,  on  Lake 
Ontario,  and  the  other  by  the  Niagara  River  to  La  Salle,  near  the  lower  end  of 
Grand  Island,  and  thence  by  ship  canal  to  the  Niagara  River  at  Lewiston,  from 
whlcli  place  there  is  a  good  natural  channel  to  Lake  Ontario. 

The  tojiography  of  the  country  was  determined  with  sufliclent  accuracy  to 
develop  contours  of  2-foot  intervals  on  the  field  maps,  and  borings  were  ])ut 
down  at  such  points  as  necessary  to  establish  the  profde  of  tlie  i-o<'k  surlaco 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     155 

where  above  canal  grade,  along  the  line  of  the  proposed  waterway  as  linally 
located  on  the  field  maps.  Fourteen  diamond  drill  l)orings  were  afterwards 
put  down  along  the  location  for  these  two  lines  to  ascertain  the  character  of 
material  to  be  excuvatiil,  and  the  ualui\'  ol'  Inuiuhiliuns  on  which  structures  are 
to  be  founded. 

Particular  examination  was  made  of  the  (^scarpment  extending  from  above 
Lewiston  to  Lockport,  with  an  average  elevation  of  about  020  feet  above  moan 
tide  at  New  York.  A  little  west  of  Lockport  a  narrow  ravine,  known  as  the 
"Gulf"  cuts  through  the  escarpment,  which  has  Inn-n  geiu'rally  regarded  as 
the  best  location  for  locking  down  to  the  lower  plateau. 

Comparative  estimates,  baseil  on  accurate  surveys,  indicate  that  a  better 
line  can  be  located  west  of  the  "  Gulf "  in  which  the  waterway  can  be  con- 
structed at  less  cost. 

Fi-oia  the  loot  of  the  escnrpiiieuL  al  Lockp<»rt  the  plateau,  consisting  of  red 
shale,  gradually  falls  toward  Lake  Ontario. 

The  top  of  the  escarpment  above  Lewiston  has  practically  the  same  elevation 
as  at  Lockport,  but  has  a  .steeper  incline  to\\ard  r>ake  Ontario  than  tiie  latter. 
The  construclion  of  a  waterway  by  either  i-oule  vvill  involve  liie  construction  of 
locks  having  high  lifts. 

On  the  Lewiston  route  the  Niagara  River  constitutes  a  first-class  natural 
harbor  for  the  Lake  Ontario  terminal,  whereas  for  all  the  other  routes  artificial 
harbors  will  have  to  be  constructed. 

Tlie  La  Salle-Lewistou  route  lias  fewer  iinimrtaiit  railroad  crossings  than  the 
Olcott  route,  and  does  not  interfere  with  manufacturing  and  private  enterprises 
to  the  extent  that  the  latter  does  in  the  vicinity  of  Toiiawauda. 

P'rom  an  eugiueeriui;'  and  financial  point  of  view,  and  from  the  less  danger  of 
delays  and  accidents  to  navigation  in  the  comparatively  short  reach  of  restricted 
waterway  on  the  Lewiston  line,  it  appears  to  be  the  preferable  location  on  which 
to  construct  a  ship  canal. 

The  Tonwwanda-Olcott  route. — This  route  leaves  the  Niagara  River  at  the 
head  of  Tonawanda  Island,  with  an  elevation  of  565  feet  above  tide  water  at 
New  York  for  low  stage  of  the  river,  and  continues  at  that  level  13.2  miles  to 
the  head  of  the  escarpment  west  of  Lockport,  where  the  ridge  to  be  cut  through 
has  an  elevation  of  636  feet  above  tide  water,  or  71  feet  above  the  water  surface 
in  the  canal.  From  the  top  of  the  escarpment  the  line  descends  to  Lake  Ontario, 
11.2  miles,  with  2  single  and  3  double  locks  of  40  feet  lift  each,  one  single  lock 
with  30.n  feet  lift,  and  3  double  locks  each  with  30  feet  lift. 

At  a  distance  about  1  mile  above  Lake  Ontario  the  line  enters  the  gorge  of 
Eighteen-mile  Creek  and  follows  it  to  the  lake. 

The  proposed  harbor  at  Olcott  consists  in  widening  Eighteen-mile  Creek  to 
the  width  of  400  feet  from  the  last  lock  of  the  canal  to  the  lake,  and  protecting 
the  entrance  by  breakwaters,  as  shown  on  the  maps.  The  lake  in  front  of  the 
canal  entrance  is  shallow,  with  a  shale  rock  bottom,  which  will  have  to  be 
excavated  for  a  width  of  600  feet  and  for  the  required  depth. 

Between  Niagara  River  and  the  escarpment  at  Lockport  the  rock,  where 
above  bottom  grade  of  the  waterway,  is  either  limestone  or  Niagara  shale, 
overlaid  with  silt,  sand,  gravel,  clay,  or  hardpan. 

From  the  head  of  the  escarpment  north,  the  excavation  will  be  through 
limestone,  sandstone  and  shale,  and  near  Lake  Ontario  throu.gh  soft  red  shale, 
overlaid  with  sand,  gravel,  clay,  or  hardpan. 

La  Salle-Leiriston  Route. — Tliis  rovite  starts  in  Niagara  River  at  the  same 
point  as  the  Touawanda-Olcott  route,  continues  dov.n  the  river  to  the  head 
)f  Cayuga  Island,  and  thence  on  a  tangent  (canal)  with  a  low-water  level  of 
563.5  feet  to  the  escarpment  above  Lewiston.  From  the  top  of  the  escarpment 
the  route  passes  down  the  bluff  to  the  Niagara  about  one-half  mile  below  Lewi.s- 
ton,  with  six  double  locks  of  40  feet  lift  each  and  two  double  locks  of  39.4  feet 
lift  each.  The  fall  of  the  river  from  the  foot  of  Lock  No.  9  to  Lake  Ontario  (6 
miles)  is  about  0.2  feet. 

The  elevation  of  the  top  of  tlie  ridge  above  Lewiston  at  the  point  of  maxi- 
mum cuttting  is  620  feet  above  tide  water  or  56.5  feet  above  the  projiosed  low- 
water  surface  of  the  canal ;  and  for  a  distance  of  6  miles  the  prism  of  the 
waterway  is  entirely  in  rock. 

From  Tonawanda  to  La  Salle,  al)out  4  miles,  rock  composed  of  Salina  shales 
is  from  10  to  20  feet  below  river  level,  and  from  La  Salle  to  the  escarpment 
above  Lewiston  (7.5  miles)  the  excavation  will  be  in  Niagara  limestone  over- 
laid with  clay,  sand,  and  gravel. 


156      DIVERSIOX  OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  excavation  for  the  six  double  locks  down  the  escarpment  about  three- 
fourths  mile  will  be  through  limestone,  s-andstone,  and  sliales,  and  from  the 
foot  of  this  flight  to  Niagara  River,  shales  covered  with  sand,  gravel,  clay.  aiKl 
bowlders. 

From  the  lower  end  of  the  canal  to  Lake  Ontario  (G  miles)  the  river  is  from 
50  feet  to  GO  feet  deep  and  forms  one  of  the  tinest  harbors  on  the  lakes.  The 
bar  in  Lake  Ontario  outside  of  the  entrance  to  the  river  has  a  depth  on  its  crest 
of  24  feet  at  standard  low  water,  and  is  composed  of  sand  and  gravel. 

I'rism  dimensions. — From  a  careful  study  of  the  dimensions  of  the  St.  Clair 
Flats  Canal,  the  Suez  Canal,  the  IManchester  Canal,  the  Amsterdam  Canal, 
the  Kiel  Canala,  and  the  speed  which  steamships  can  maintain  in  these  respec- 
tive waterways,  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  board  that  the  cross  section  of  the 
canal  prism  should  be  made  such  that  a  speed  of  8  miles  per  hour  can  be  main- 
tained ou  tangents  without  danger  to  passing  ships  or  damage  to  the  c:inal 
banks. 

Referring  to  the  discussion  of  the  speed  of  ships  in  the  proposed  deep  water- 
way, in  Appendix  No.  4,  it  will  be  noted  that  for  the  type  of  vessels  best 
adapted  for  the  economical  transportation  of  the  lake  trallic  the  cross  section 
of  canal  prism  necessary  to  permit  a  speed  of  8  miles  per  hour  is  about  5,500 
square  feet  for  a  21-foot  waterway  and  8,000  square  feet  for  a  30-foot 
waterway.' 

The  dimensions  of  lock  structures  which  will  best  subserve  the  traffic  of  the 
waterway  and  the  design  of  the  lock  gates  best  adapted  for  operating  the  locks 
have  been  investigated  under  the  direction  of  the  board  by  specialists  in  such 
construction,  the  results  of  which  are  fully  discusseil  in  Appendix  Nos.  1  and  2. 

The  single  locks,  wliicli  have  been  designed  for  a  30-foot  waterway,  are  to  be 
740  feet  long.  SO  feet  wide,  and  have  lifts  to  conform  with  the  present  de- 
velopment of  water  power  on  the  routes.  Where  flights  of  locks  are  necessary, 
a  duplicate  set  is  provide(^l,  having  a  width  of  GO  feet.  For  a  21-foot  waterway 
the  locks,  whether  single  or  double,  are  to  be  600  feet  long,  60  feet  wide,  and 
have  lifts  the  same  as  in  the  30-foot  waterway.  Consideration  has  been  given 
to  the  advisability  of  making  the  locks  of  the  21 -foot  waterway  SO  feet  wide,  for 
the  purpose  of  tloating  large  ships,  light,  from  the  lake  shipyards  to  the  sea- 
board. 

Projiosed  ship  canal. — In  this  report  the  matter  of  a  ship  canal 
betAveen  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  is  treated  at  considerable  length 
for  two  reasons :  First,  to  comply  with  instructions  contained  in 
department  letters  dated  August  4l  1916,  E.  D.  42608,  September  29, 
1916,  E.  D.  101152,  and  April  28,  1917,  E.  D.  106256,  whicli  cover  the 
preliminary  examination  on  "  Waterway  or  ship  channel  along  the 
most  practicable  route  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  of  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  admit  the  largest  vessels  now  in  use  on  the  Great 
Lakes,-'  ordered  by  Congress  in  the  river  and  harbor  act  of  July  27. 
1916,  which  examination  and  report  were  held  by  the  department  to 
be  superseded  l)y  and  included  in  the  investigation  reported  herein ; 
and  second,  to  comply  with  department  instructions  that  such  a 
canal  should  be  treated  in  the  present  report  with  special  reference 
to  the  practicability  and  advisability  of  making  it  a  combined  power 
and  ship  canal. 

A  summary  of  the  estimates  prepared  is  given  in  section  (f)  of 
this  report,  where  the  prf)ject  is  described  in  considerable  detail  in 
connection  with  other  projects  for  the  development  of  water  power 
at  Niagara  Falls.  For  a  ship  canal  without  power  development  the 
estimated  costs  are  as  follows: 

*  The  flgures  show,  for  21-foot  channel:  Rock  section,  bottom  width  240  foot.  Rides 
slopes,  10  on  1,  area  5,040  square  feet.  Earth  section,  bottom  width  215  feet.  Side 
slopes,  1   on  2,  area  5.497  square  f<'et. 

For  .'JO-foot  channel  :  Rock  sertlon,  bottom  width  250  feet.  Side  slopes.  10  on  1, 
area  7,500  square  feet.  Earth  section,  bottom  width  203  feet.  Side  slopes  1  on  2  ;  area 
7.990  square  feet. 


DmERSIOHr  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      157 


Prism.                                                              Locks.  Cost. 

200  feet  wide,  25  feet  deep 650  feet  long,  70  feet  wide,  25  foot  deep $120,000,000 

200  feet  wide,  30  feet  deep '  800  feet  long,  80  foot  wide,  30  feet  deep |  135,000,000 

300  feet  wide,  30  feet  deep 800  feet  long,  8U  feet  wide,  30  feet  deep 155,652,000 


It  is  important  to  note  that  the  new  Welland  ship  canal,  only  a  few 
miles  distant,  wliich  is  now  partially  completed,  and  which  no  doubt 
will  be  opened  to  navifjation  lon<i'  before  a  canal  in  the  T'nited  States 
could  be  constructed,  will  be  able  to  care  for  all  the  traffic  likely  to 
exist  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  for  many  years  to  come, 
and  that  accordingly^  there  is  no  necessity  for  an  additional  canal. 
Moreover  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  communication  between 
Lake  Ontario  and  the  seaboard  is  still  limited  by  the  St.  Lawrence 
canals  and  shalloAVS  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver  described  previously. 

The  present  commerce  through  the  Welland  Canal  has  been  stated, 
and  also  that  through  the  St.  Marys  River.  A  comparison  shows 
how  very  small  a  part  of  the  Groat  Lakes  commerce  now  uses 
the  Welland  route.  The  extensive  lake  freight  commerce  between 
the  terminal  harbors  on  Lakes  Superior.  Michigan,  and  Huron  to 
harbors  on  Lake  Erie  amounts,  so  far  as  determinable  from  the  com- 
mercial statistics  and  vessel  passages  through  the  St.  Marys  Falls 
canals  and  Detroit  River,  to  at  least  95  per  cent  of  the  total,  which 
aggregated  over  100.000.000  short  tons  in  1916.  leaving  not  over  5  per 
cent  for  the  Welland  Canal-Lake  Ontario  commerce.  The  latter 
commerce  is  represented  in  Table  Xo.  10.  compiled  from  the  report 
of  the  Department  of  Railways  and  Canals,  Canada,  for  the  season 
of  1914: 

Table  No.  10. — Freight  moved  through   WeUand  Canal,  1914. 

Tons. 

Agricultural   products 2,  IIG,  37S 

Forest  products 360,  4.14 

Coal 949.  306 

Miscellaneous 484.  S51 


3,  SCO.  969 

Through  freight  eastward 2.  ORG,  740 

Carried  by  Canadian  vessels 2,936.740 

East  and  west  to  United  States  ports 509.  079 

Carried  by  United  States  vessels 7SS,  3j9 

As  shown  by  the  above  tabulation,  the  freight  movement  is  prin- 
cipally through  freight  eastward.  It  consists  largely  of  grain  from 
upper  Lake  ports,  notably  Fort  William,  in  Canada,  on  Lake  Su- 
perior, and  from  Milwaukee  and  Chicago,  shipped  for  transfer  to  sea- 
going vessels  at  Montreal.  The  coal  shipment  is  from  United  States 
ports  on  Lake  Erie  to  Canada.  The  "forest-products"  shipment  is 
lumber  from  upper  Lake  United  States  and  Canadian  lumber  ports 
to  Lake  Ontario  and  St.  Lawrence  River  United  States  and  Canadian 
ports,  and  pulp  wood  and  wood  pulp  from  upper  Lake  ports  to 
United  States  ports  on  Lake  Ontario  and  from  the  lower  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  Saguenay  River  ports  to  Ll^nited  States  ports  on  Lake 
Erie.  The  latter  and  general  merchandi.se  constitute  the  ])rinoipal 
freight  movement  westward  through  the  Welland  Canal;  but  it  is 
not  extensive,  and  is  necessarily  carried  on  by  Lake  vessels  of  not 
over  14-foot  draft  navigating  the  St.  Lawrence  River  Canals  as 
well  as  the  Welland. 


158      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKE^>  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  amount  of  freight  "  east  and  west  to 
United  States  ports "  is  small — about  500,000  tons.  About  one- 
quarter  of  this  is  grain  and  lumber  eastward  to  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y., 
except  about  one-twentieth  to  Oswego,  X.  Y,,  and  the  other  three- 
quarters  is  the  pulp  wood  above  mentioned  and  general  merchandise 
(railroad  freight)  from  Ogdensburg  westward  to  Chicago  and  Mil- 
waukee. The  railroad  freight  movement  (70,000  to  100,000  tons) 
was,  however,  discontinued  in  1915  on  the  abolishment  of  the  Rut- 
land Railroad  line  of  freight  vessels. 

There  is  no  passenger  service  through  the  Welland  Canal,  and  the 
number  of  yachts  and  motor  boats  traversing  it  is  small.  The  United 
States  lighthouse  tender  for  the  tenth  district  and  the  United  States 
engineer  inspection  vessel.  Buffah*  district,  use  the  canal  for  several 
trips  per  year  to  and  from  Lake  Ontario. 

To  summarize,  the  present  commerce  between  Lakes  Erie  and  On- 
tario nuiy  be  fairly  regarded  as  not  exceeding  1.000.000  freight  tons 
per  annum,  of  wliicli  not  over  10  per  cent  is  United  States  commerce, 
coastwise  or  foreign. 

A  waterway  or  channel  to  admit  the  largest  vessels  now  in  use  on 
the  Great  Lakes  involves  the  dimension  of  depth  or  draft,  as  well 
as  of  length  and  breadth  over  all.  The  question  of  draft  involves 
vessels  al)Out  as  represented  in  the  existing  lake  fleet  whose  possible 
load-draft  is  greater  than  21  feet.  The  percentage  of  such  vessels  in 
the  lake  fleet  of  about  TOO  large  vessels,  length  200  to  600  feet,  may 
be  fairlv  approximated  as  follows: 

Load"draft  20  to  21  feet,  10  per  cent. 

Load  draft  21  to  22  feet.  25  per  cent. 

Load  draft  23  feet,  11  per  cent. 

Load  draft  24  feet,  12  per  cent. 

These  percentages  are  derived  from  molded  depth  of  vessels  as 
given  in  the  official  register  of  vessels,  on  the  assumption  that  for 
vessels  of  the  general  lake  type,  the  molded  depth  is  practically 
equivalent  to  the  sum  of  the  draft  and  freeboard.  There  appear 
to  be  no  regulations  governing  the  amount  of  freeboard  required  on 
vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes,  but  considering  the  amount  required 
on  ocean-going  vessels  and  the  freeboard  of  known  lake  vessels,  it 
has  been  assumed  that  such  vessels  with  a  molded  depth  of  28  feet 
or  less  should  have  6  feet  of  freeboard,  those  from  28  to  31  should 
have  7  feet,  and  those  greater  than  31  should  have  8  feet.  The  largest 
vessel  as  to  draft  is  therefore  taken  to  be  as  of  a  possible  24-foot 
draft. 

It  is  to  he  noted,  however,  that  owing  to  existing  conditions  of 
channels  and  basins  on  the  (xreat  Lakes,  freight  tonnage  is  actually 
carried  in  vessels  as  indicated  by  the  classification  of  vessels  passing 
through  the  St.  Marys  Falls  Canals,  about  as  follows: 

I'ercfiitage  of 

Vessels,  net  registered  tonuage :  ^^^  freigbt 

Under  1,000 1 

1,000  to  2,000 0 

2,0fX)  to  3,000 9 

3,000  to  4,000 28 

4,0(^KJ  to  5,000 27 

.'3,00(J  to  6,000 20 

6,000  and  over 4 

100 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GRF-AT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     159 

The  draft  of  vessels  of  2,000  tons  and  over,  carrying  84  per  cent 
of  the  frei«>ht  was  18  to  21  feet,  and  those  vessels  are  comprised  in 
the  class  of  vessels  that  can  bo  loaded  to  deeper  draft  as  noted  in 
the  table  above.  They  carry  nearly  all  of  the  bulk  freight,  while 
the  remainder  (hereof  and  tiie  merchandise  freiglit  is  carried  in 
package  freighters  and  smaller  vessels  whose  draft  can  not  be  eco- 
nomicall}'  increased. 

The  question  of  length  and  breadth  over  all  is  taken  as  that  of  the 
largest  lake  freight  vessel,  viz,  length  625  feet  and  breadtli  64.2  feet, 
which  excludes  only  a  few  side-wheel  passenger  steamers  of  breadth 
up  to  the  maximum  of  100  feet  over  guards.  Of  a  total  of  150  ves- 
sels over  500  feet  long  and  over  50  feet  beam  over  all.  there  were,  in 
191G,  34  vessels  600  to  625  feet  in  length  and  58  to  64.2  feet  in 
breadth. 

For  further  ti-eatment  of  the  LaSalle-Lewiston  Ship  Canal,  and 
consideration  of  correlative  power  development,  reference  is  made 
to  section  (f )  of  this  report. 

9.  PROPOSED  CANALS,  LAKE  ONTARIO  TO  HUDSON  RIVER. 

Four  water  routes  from  Lake  Ontario  to  the  sea  have  in  the  past 
received  consideration.  One  of  these  is  the  natural  route  by  way  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  other  three  are  by  way  of  the  Hudson 
River,  which  is  reached  in  one  case  b/  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
Lake  St.  Louis,  artifical  canal  from  there  to  Richelieu  River,  up 
Richelieu  River  to  Lake  Champlain,  and  on  to  the  Hudson  by  Lake 
C'hamplain  and  an  artificial  canal;  in  another  case  by  the  St.  Law- 
rence to  Lake  St.  Francis,  then  by  artificial  canal  to  Lake  Champlain, 
and  on  to  the  Hudson  as  before;  and  in  the  third  case  by  way  of  the 
Oswego,  Oneida  and  Mohawk  Rivers.  Only  the  last  route  lies  en- 
tirely in  United  States  territory.  All  four  routes  are  described  in 
the  report  of  the  United  States  Deep  Waterways  Commission  pub- 
lished in  1897  as  House  of  Representatives  Document  No.  192  (54th 
Cong.,  2d  sess.)  and  are  shown  in  plate  2  of  that  report  which  is  here 
reproduced  on  plate  No.  12. 

The  route  from  the  ocean  to  Lake  Ontario  by  way  of  the  Hudson 
River,  Mohawk  River,  Oneida  Lake,  and  Oswego  River  is  one  of  the 
early  water  routes  that  has  been  used  since  the  first  settlements.  It 
formed  the  usual  connection  between  New  York  and  the  Lakes  before 
the  land  route  by  way  of  Rochester  and  Buffalo  was  developed.  A 
proposal  to  improve  "it  bv  locks  at  Little  Falls  was  made  by  the 
royal  Governor  of  New  York  in  1768.  In  1791  the  first  surveys  for 
improving  this  route  were  made  and  some  work  was  done  on  the 
eastern  part  during  the  following  years.  During  the  construction 
of  the  Erie  Canal  there  was  much  agitation  in  favor  of  connecting  it 
with  Lake  Ontario  by  means  of  the  Oswego  River.  This  was  finally 
successful,  and  in  1829  the  "  Oswego  Canal  "  was  opened.  Since  that 
time  it  has  formed  part  of  the  New  York  State  canal  system. 

The  Deep  Waterways  Board  considered  two  routes  from  Lake  On- 
tario to  the  sea,  one  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  Lake  St. 
Francis.  Lake  St.  Francis  to  Lake  Champlain  by  artificial  canal,  and 
on  down  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson  River;  the  other  by  the 
Oswego,  the  Mohawk  and  the  Hudson  Rivers.  It  recommended  the 
latter  as  the  more  desirable.     The  length  of  this  route  from  Lake 


160      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Ontario  at  Oswego  to  the  Hudson  River  at  the  mouth  of  Normans 
Kill  is  172.9  miles.  The  line  starts  1^  miles  west  of  tiie  mouth  of  the 
Oswe<;o  River  and  runs  south  about  6  miles  to  lock  Xo.  4,  where  it 
enters  the  river.  It  follows  the  river  5  miles  to  lock  Xo.  5.  and  then 
goes  across  the  divide  io  miles  to  Oneida  Lake.  After  traversing 
the  length  of  tlie  lake,  21  miles,  it  follows  the  line  of  Wood  Creek  to 
Kome,  a  distance  of  13  miles.  Thence  it  continues  89  miles  down 
the  -Mohawk  River  to  a  point  just  above  Schenectud}',  where  the  line 
leaves  the  Mohawk  and  cuts  across  the  divide,  a  distance  of  11  miles 
to  Xormans  Kill  and  follows  the  kill  for  13  miles  to  the  Hudson 
River.  The  standard  sections  in  rock  are  240  feet  wide  for  the  2i-foot 
channel  and  250  feet  for  the  30-foot.  The  standard  earth  section  has 
side  slopes  of  2  liorizontal  to  1  vertical,  with  berms  10  feet  wide 
situated  5  feet  above  and  5  feet  below  the  water  surface.  There  is 
slope  paving  between  the  berms.  The  bottom  width  is  215  feet  for 
the  21-foot  channel  and  203  feet  for  the  30-foot.  In  Oneida  Lake 
the  width  is  600  feet  and  in  the  Mohawk  River  below  Herkimer  it 
varies  from  203  to  460  feet. 

There  are  29  locks,  the  lift  of  each  varying  from  3  to  42.8  feet  at 
low  water.  The  total  lockage  is  512.6  feet.  Fourteen  of  these  locks 
are  arranged  in  five  flights  of  2,  2,  2,  3,  and  5  locks,  respectively. 
These  loclis  are  all  double,  the  others  are  single.  For  the  21-foot 
channel  all  locks  are  600  foet  long  and  60  feet  wide.  For  the  30-foot 
channel  they  are  740  feet  lo*ng,  the  width  being  80  feet  for  single 
locks,  and  80  feet  and  60  feet,  respectively,  for  the  two  chambers  of 
double  locks. 

There  is  a  summit  level  with  a  length  of  72  miles  extending  from 
Lock  Xo.  7,  west  of  BreAverton  eastward  to  Lock  Xo.  8,  near  Frank- 
fort, including  Oneida  Lake,  which  is  used  as  a  reservoir.  Some 
difficulty  was  encountered  in  finding  a  sufficient  water  supply  for 
this  summit  level,  but  it  was  finally  obtained  by  diverting  part  of 
the  Salmon  River  through  a  feeder.  It  was  estimated  that  the  sum- 
mit level  would  require  a  supply  of  about  1,100  cubic  feet  per  second, 
of  which  about  two-thirds  would  be  water  which  would  normally 
flow  into  Lake  Ontario.  As  this  water  would  eventually  be  divided 
about  equally  between  the  canal  east  and  west  of  the  summit,  it 
foUows  that  some  water  would  be  permanently  diverted  from  the 
Great  Lakes  drainage.  The  route  through  the  Mohawk  Valley  be- 
low Frankfort  is  of  the  slack  water  type,  to  be  maintained  by  8  large 
dams. 

These  plans  were  very  carefully  worked  out  by  the  Deep  Water- 
ways Board  and  were  based  on  extensive  and  carefully  executed 
surveys  and  studies.  The  building  of  the  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal  system  along  this  route  has  made  the  construction  of  this 
ship  canal  as  planned  impossible,  and  has  rendered  very  difficult 
the  proposition  of  providing  any  ship  canal  along  this  route,  especi- 
ally in  respect  to  providing  an  adequate  Avater  supply  for  the  sum- 
mit level. 

10.    OTHER    PRESi:XT   OR    PROPOSED    CAXALS    DIVERTING    WATER    rR0:M    THE 
GREAT  LAKES  OR  THEIR  TRIBUTARIES. 

77ie  Fox  liivrr  Canal. — This  is  a  canal  in  Wisconsin  between  the 
Fox  River,  a  tributary  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  Wisconsin  River, 


DIVERSION   or  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      161 

a  tributary  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  2  miles  long  and  affords  a 
passage  for  boats  137  feet  long,  3-1  feet  wide,  with  a  draft  of  3  feet. 
The  attempt  to  maintain  the  Wisconsin  as  a  navigable  stream  was 
abandoned  in  1887,  and  the  traffic  through  the  canal  is  very  small. 
In  the  improved  Fox  Eiver  there  is  slack  Avater  navigation  witli  a 
draft  of  6  feet,  except  for  shoaling,  from  Green  Bay  to  Montello 
and  of  -4  feet  from  there  to  the  canal.  The  canal  is  supplied  with 
water  from  the  Wisconsin  Kiver,  which  is  about  5  feet  higlier  than 
the  Fox;  hence  there  is  no  diversion  of  water  from  the  (jreat  Lakes 
system  by  the  canal;  on  the  contrary,  a  very  small  addition  of  water 
is  received  from  the  Mississippi  system.  The  work  of  improving 
this  waterway  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Mississippi  was  under- 
taken in  1840  by  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  which  was  assisted  by  a 
grant  from  the  National  (iovernnient  of  091,200  acres  of  land  lying 
along  the  route.  In  1853  the  land  and  works  were  sold  to  an  im- 
provement company,  and  in  1872  the  Federal  Government  assumed 
control  of  the  waterway  by  purchase. 

The  Trent  Canal. — This  is  the  name  applied  to  a  series  of  natural 
and  artificial  waterways  from  Trenton,  Ontario,  at  the  moutli  of  the 
Trent  River,  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  Lake  Ontario,  to  Honey  Harbor, 
about  10  miles  north  of  Midland,  on  (leorgian  Bay,  Lake  Huron. 
This  chain  of  lakes  and  rivers  does  not,  in  its  present  condition,  form 
a  connected  route  for  navigation,  though  various  parts  have  a  con- 
siderable local  use.  By  works  now  building  this  will  become  a 
through  route  from  Lake  Ontario  to  Lake  Huron.  The  route  lies  in 
the  Trent  River,  Rice  Lake,  and  Otonabee  River,  and  Clear,  Stony, 
Lovesick,  Deer,  Buckhorn,  Chemong,  Pigeon,  Sturgeon,  and  Cameron 
Lakes  to  Lake  Balsam,  which  is  the  summit  level,  and  from  Lake 
Balsam  by  a  canal  and  the  Talbot  River  to  Lake  Simcoe.  From 
Lake  Simcoe  the  route  is  through  Lake  Couchiching  and  down  the 
Severn  River  to  Gloucester  Pool,  leaving  Gloucester  Pool  by  the 
Go-Home  Lakes  and  South  Honey  Harbor  and  entering  Georgian 
Bay  at  Skylark  Rock  between  the^  islands  of  Beausoleil  and  Minni- 
coganashene.  Another  passage  between  (xloucester  Pool  and  Geor- 
gian Bay  is  provided  by  a  small  lock  at  Port  Severn.  A  branch  of 
the  main  route  extends 'from  Sturgeon  Lake  south  along  the  Scugog 
River  to  the  town  of  Lindsay,  and  thence  through  Lake  Scugog  to 
Port  Perry.  The  total  length  of  the  main  route  is  245  miles,  and  of 
the  Scugog  Branch  30  miles.  Another  branch  along  the  Holland 
River  from  Lake  Simcoe  to  Newmarket,  a  distance  of  12  miles, 
formed  part  of  the  original  plan,  but  work  on  it  Avas  discontinued  in 
1911.  There  are  46  locks  on  the  main  route  and  one  at  Lindsay  on 
the  Scugog  branch  and  a  small  one  at  Port  Severn.  Two  of  these 
locks  are  of  the  very  unusual  "  hydraulic  lift  "  type,  the  one  at  Peter- 
borough being  noted  for  its  great  lift  of  C5  feet. 

The  18  locks  between  Lake  Ontario  and  Rice  Lake  are  175  feet 
long,  33  feet  wide  (available  dimensions  150  by  30  feet)  and  have  a 
clep'th  of  8  feet  4  inches  on  the  sills.  The  depth  in  the  canal  reaches 
is  9  feet.  This  work  is  not  yet  completed  and  only  a  portion  of  the 
route  is  navigable.  From  River  Lake  to  Lake  Couchiching  the  limit- 
ing dimensions  of  the  locks  are  134  feet  by  33  feet  (available  110  feet 
by^30  feet)  with  depths  of  6  feet  on  the  sills.  This  section  is  open  to 
navigation  with  a  limiting  depth  of  6  feet.     The  Scugog  branch 

27880—21 11 


162      DIVERSION   OF   WATEK  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAG.VRA  RIVER. 

also  is  open  to  6-foot  navigation.  Its  lock  is  142  by  33  feet.  The 
section  from  Lake  Couchiching  to  Georgian  Baj^  is  under  construc- 
tion. The  locks  are  said  to  be  "  large,"  probably  the  same  as  on  the 
Rice  Lake  division,  and  have  a  depth  of  8  feet  4  inches  on  the  sills. 
The  lock  at  Port  Severn  is  100  feet  by  25  feet  with  G-foot  depth. 

The  summit  level  at  Balsam  Lake  has  a  loAv-Avater  elevation  of  840 
which  is  597  feet  above  Lake  Ontario  and  2G2  above  Lake  Huron. 
Nothing  is  known  about  the  Avater  supply  to  this  summit  level.  It 
probably  amounts  to  only  a  few  hundred  cubic  feet  per  second. 
Presumably  part  of  this  is  diverted  from  the  Huron  watershed  to 
the  Ontario  or  vice  cersa,  thus  decreasing  or  increasing  the  flow  of  the 
St.  Clair,  Detroit,  and  Niagara  Kivers  by  a  trifling  amount.  The 
matter  is  of  no  practical  importance  in  any  study  of  lake  levels  or 
allied  subjects. 

This  canal  was  begun  by  the  British  Government  in  1837,  but  work 
was  soon  suspended.  At  various  times  since  then  local  improvements 
have  been  made.  In  1907  the  project  from  the  Bay  of  Quinte  to  Rice 
Lake  was  adopted  bj'  the  Dominion  Government  and  construction 
was  started  in  the  same  vear.  The  cost  of  construction  up  to  March 
31,  1916,  was  $15,626,295^  In  1914  the  vessel  passages  were  3,647  and 
the  tons  of  freight  carried  were  67,715.  In  1915  the  figures  were 
3,433  and  49,904.  respectively. 

The  Rideau  Canal. — The  Rideau  Canal  or  '"  Rideau  navigation  " 
connects  the  Ottawa  River  at  Ottawa,  Ontario,  with  the  eastern 
end  of  Lake  Ontario  at  Kingston,  Ontario,  by  means  of  a  chain  of 
rivers,  lakes,  and  canals  126^  miles  in  length.     From  Ottawa  the 
route  ascends  the  Rideau  River  63  miles  to  Rideau  Lake,  passing 
by  a  lock  at  the  narrows  into  Upper  Rideau  Lake,  which  forms 
the  summit  level.     It  then  descends  through  Mud,  Clear.  Indian, 
Mosquito,  Opinicon,  Sand.  Whitefish  and  Cranberry  Lakes  to  the 
Cataraqui  River  and  29  miles  down  this  river  to  Kingston.     There 
is  a  branch  line  7  miles  from  Beveridges  Bay  on  Rideau  Lake,  to 
the  town  of  Perth.     From  Ottawa  to  the  summit  level  there  are 
53  locks  with  a  total  rise  of  292:^  feet.     From  the  summit  to  Kings- 
ton there  are  14  locks  with  a  total  fall  of  165^  feet.     The  low- 
water   elevations   are:    Ottawa    River   at   Ottawa,    127.4;    Summit 
level.  Upper  Rideau  Lake,  408;   Lake  Ontario   at  Kingston,  243. 
On  the  Perth  branch  there  are  two  locks  with  a  total  lift  of  26 
feet.     The  locks  arc  134  feet  long.  33  feet  wide,  with  a  depth  of 
5  feet  on  the  sills.     The  canal  sections  have  a  navigable  depth  of 
5  feet.     The  bottom  width  is  54  feet  in  rock  and  60  feet  in  earth. 
The  total  cost  of  this  canal  up  to  March  31,  1916,  was  $4,657,668, 
In  1914  the  number  of  vessel  passages  was  2,635  and  the  tons  of 
freight  carried  were  151,739.     In  1915  the  figures  were  2,076  pas- 
sages and   120,781   tons.     Tlie  water  supply   for  this   canal   comes 
from   the  Wolf  Lake  system,  the  Tag  River,  and  the  Mud  Lake 
sy.stem.     It  can  not  exceed  a  few  hundred  cubic  feet  per  second 
A  certain   amount  of  water   is  probably  diverted   from   the  Lake 
Ontario  drainage  to  the  Ottawa  or  \dce  versa.     Tlie  amount  is  so 
small  that  it  can  have  no  practical  effect  upon  the  hydraulic  prob- 
lems of  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 

It  is  an  interesting  historical  point  that  this  canal  was  built  as 
a  military  mea.sure.     During  the  War  of  1812  the  onlv  good  com- 


"DIVERSION    OF   "WATRR    FROM    (JREAT  LAKES   AND    XIAOARA    RIVFR.      1G3 

niunication  botweon  Monliviil  an<l  Lake  Onlaiio  \vas  tlii(»iiL^li  the 
St.  Lawrence  Kiver,  and  this  was  often  internii)te<l  \>y  tlie  Ameri- 
cans Avho  hekl  the  south  bank  of  tl.at  river  for  about  iOO  miles. 
In  1815  a  captain  of  the  Koyal  En<rineers  recommended  the  con- 
struction of  a  military  canal  by  the  Kideau  route  which  would 
avoid  this  difficulty.  Construction  was  commenced  in  182G  and 
finished  in  183'J.  The  canal  Avas  built  by  the  British,  not^  the 
Canadian  (lovernment,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Koyal  Engi- 
neers, but  was  turned  over  to  the  Dominion  in  185G. 

Abdiidoned  New  York  /State  canals. — Three  small  canals  in  Xew 
York  State  formerly  had  some  little  effect  upon  the  water  supply 
of  the  Great  Lakes.  These  w-ere  the  Chenango,  Chemung,  and 
Genesee  Valley  Canals.  The  first  connected  the  Erie  Canal  at 
Utica  with  the  Susquehanna  Kiver  at  Binghamton  with  a  length 
of  97  miles.  The  second  connected  Seneca  Lake  with  the  Chemung 
Kiver,  a  branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  at  Elmira,  with  a  length  of 
23  miles.  The  third  connected  the  Erie  Canal  at  Kochester  with 
the  Allegheny  Kiver  at  Glean  with  a  length  of  107  miles.  The 
canals  were  all  of  the  same  size.  Their  locks  Avere  90  feet  by  15 
feet  horizontally,  by  4  feet  depth;  the  canal  prism  was  20  feet 
wide  on  the  bottom,  42  feet  on  the  w^ater  surface,  and  4  feet  deep ; 
tliey  accommodated  boats  of  75  tons  capacity.  These  canals  have 
all  been  abandoned.  Small  sections  which  serve  as  feeders  to  the 
present  New  York  State  canals  have  been  mentioned  previously  in 
this  report. 

Shenango  Canal. — The  construction  of  this  canal  was  authorized 
in  183G  and  completed  in  1844.  The  route  extended  from  the  city 
of  Erie,  on  Lake  Erie,  to  New  Castle,  on  the  Shenango  Kiver,  where 
it  connected  with  the  Beaver  Canal,  extending  to  Beaver,  i^a.,  on  the 
Ghio  Kiver.  Its  length  was  106  miles,  of  which  96  miles  was  in 
artificial  canal  and  10  miles  was  slack  water  navigation  in  an  im- 
proved river.  The  entire  route  was  in  Pennsylvania.  The  canal 
w^as  30  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  54  feet  on  the  water  surface,  and  4 
feet  deep.  It  had  112  locks  with  a  total  rise  and  fall  of  797^  feet. 
The  locks  were  80  feet  by  15  feet,  and  4  feet  deep.  The  canal 
afforded  navigation  for  boats  of  65  tons  cargo  capacity.  The  total 
cost  of  construction  was  over  $4,000,000.  A  branch  canal  to  the  east 
connected  with  the  Allegheny  Kiver,  and  one  to  the  west  Avith  the 
Ohio  &  Erie  Canal.  The  Slienango  Canal  was  abandoned  in  1870. 
As  it  connected  the  Ohio  Basin  with  the  Great  Lakes,  it  must  have 
caused  some  slight  diversion  of  water  one  way  or  the  other. 

Ohio  (X-  Erie  Canal. — This  canal  runs  from  Portsmouth,  on  the 
Ohio  Kiver,  to  Cleveland,  on  Lake  Erie,  a  distance  of  309  miles. 
Construction  was  commenced  in  1825  and  finished  in  1833.  The 
prism  is  26  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  and  40  feet  on  the  water  surface, 
and  the  depth  is  4  feet.  There  were  originally  161  locks,  Avith  a  total 
rise  and  fall  of  a  little  over  1,200  feet.  The  locks  Avere  90  feet  by 
15  feet,  and  4  feet  deep.  The  maximum  sized  boat  Avhich  could  navi- 
gate the  canal  was  of  90  tons  capacity.  The  cost  of  construction  was 
$4,695,204.  The  summit  level  diverted  a  small  amount  of  water 
from  the  Tuscarawas  Kiver,  a  tributary  of  the  Ohio,  into  Lake  Erie. 

This  canal  has  been  abandoned. 

Miami  &  Erie  Canal.— The  Miami  &  Erie  Canal  runs  from  Cin- 
cinnati, on  the  Ohio  Kiver,  to  Toledo,  on  Lake  Erie,  by  way  of 


164      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Dayton  and  Defiance.  Its  lenofth  is  244  miles.  It  was  commenced  in 
1825  and  completed  in  1845.  The  dimensions  of  locks  and  prism  on 
the  three  divisions  are  as  follows : 


Division. 

Width  at 
surface. 

Width  on 
bottom. 

Depth  of 
pri<m. 

Length 
of  lock. 

Width  of 
lock. 

Depth 
on  sill. 

Cincinnati-Dayton 

40 
50 
60 

26 
36 
46 

4 
5 
6 

87 

15 
16 
15 

4 

Daj-ton-De  fiance 

5 

Defiance-Toledo 

90 

6 

There  are  105  locks,  and  the  total  rise  and  fall  is  907  feet.  The 
cost  of  construction  was  it^5 .920.200.  The  water  supply  for  the 
summit  level  was  obtained  chiefly  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Miami 
River  and  a  small  quantity  was  probably  diverted  into  the  Missis- 
sippi basin. 

This  canal  has  been  abandoned. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  altofrether  the  Federal  Government 
donated  to  the  State  of  Ohio  1,230,522  acres  of  land  in  aid  of  canal 
construction. 

Proposed  Lake  Erie  &  Ohio  River  Canal. — This  is  a  proposed  barge 
canal  connecting-  the  Ohio  Eiver  at  the  mouth  of  the  Beaver  River  with 
Lake  Erie  either  at  Indian  Creek  or  Ashtabula.  The  route  lies  partly 
in  Pennsylvania  and  parti}'  in  Ohio.  Surveys  for  such  a  canal  were 
made  in  18b9  by  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1894  by  the  Pittsburgh 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  in  1905  by  the  Merchants  and  Manufac- 
turers' Association  of  Pittsburgh.  As  a  result  of  this  last  investiga- 
tion the  Lake  Erie  &  Ohio  Ri^  er  Ship  Canal  Co.  ^^■as  organized  to 
build  and  operate  the  waterAvny.  This  company  spent  $G0.00O  for 
suiveys  and  studies  and  reported  favorably  on  the  project,  but  owing 
to  the  financial  panic  of  1907,  was  unable  to  secure  the  funds  for  its 
construction.  In  1911  tlie  National  Waterways  Commission  studied 
the  project.  It  reported  the  project  both  feasible  and  desirable  and 
recommended  that  if  local  interests  would  build  the  canal  the  Fed- 
eral Government  should  construct  the  harbor  at  its  Lake  Erie  end  and 
deepen  the  Ohio  River  from  Beaver  River  to  Pittsburgh.  About  this 
time  the  Lake  Erie  iv  Ohio  RiA'er  Canal  Association  was  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  constructing  the  canal  witli  public  funds.  These  funds 
were  to  be  obtained  from  the  counties  bordering  on  the  canal  and  the 
waterways  connecting  Avith  it  and  from  the  States  of  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  and  West  Virginia  and  the  National  Government.  The  asso- 
ciation obtained  from  the  three  States  the  legislation  necessary  to 
enable  it  to  proceed.  The  project  was  interrupted  by  the  war,  and 
it  is  not  known  what  action,  if  any,  is  now  proposed. 

The  following  description  of  the  proposed  canal  is  taken  from  the 
1917  report  of  the  Lake  Erie  &  Ohio  River  Canal  Board  of  the  State 
of  Pennsylvania : 

The  route  of  tlie  canal  should  be  as  follows:  Regimiiiifr  at  the  mouth  of  tlie 
I{<'iiv(!r  Uivf'i-  in  the  StaU-  of  I'oimsylv;inia  iind  runniiif;  thcnoc  in  the  channel 
of  said  river  20.7  miles  to  the  junction  of  the  Mahoning  and  Shenanffo  Rivers; 
thence  in  the  channel  of  the  Mahoning  River  29.4  miles  to  Niles,  Oliio,  witii 
only  such  departures  from  siiid  river  channels  as  are  necessary  to  eliminate 
unnavigable  curves;  thence  following  {::enerally  the  valley  of  Mo.'<quito  Creek 
about  8.4  miles  to  a  point  in  Trumbtill  County,  approximately  2.5  miles  south- 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     105 

west  of  the  village  of  Cortland,  Ohio,  which  point  is  the  southerly  limit  of  the 
summit  level  of  the  proposed  canal ;  thence  in  u  course  almost  due  north  across 
said  summit  level  a  distance  of  27.3  miles  to  a  point  aiiout  '^  miles  east  of  Kock 
Creek,  Ohio,  which  point  is  the  northern  limit  of  the  summit,  level  ;  thence  hy 
the  valleys  of  Grand  Kiver  and  Indian  Creek  ahout  15.7  miles  to  a  i)olnt  at  or 
near  the  mouth  of  Indian  (h'eek,  on  Lake  Krie,  approximately  V>h  miles  west  of 
Ashtabula,  making  the  total  length  of  the  route  101 J  miles. 

On  this  route  the  elevation  to  be  ascended  from  the  moutii  ni  ilic  Heaver 
Kiver  to  the  sunniiit  level  is  li82  feet  and  the  descent  fnnn  ilie  sumiiut  level  to 
the  lake  827  feet. 

The  number  of  locks  i-eciuired  will  be  20,  with  lifts  of  frojii  10  to  30  feet. 

The  canal  should  be  not  less  than  12  feet  deep,  with  locks  50  feet  in  width 
by  400  feet  in  length,  with  depth  of  12  feet  over  miter  sills.  The  bottom  width 
of  the  canal  should  be  not  less  than  140  feet  and  its  surface  not  less  than  188  feet. 

The  cost  of  this  canal  at  prices  prevailing  in  1914-15  is  estimated  to  be 
$65,000,000  and  its  capacity  38,000,000  tons  per  ainium.  This  estimate  of  co.st 
does  not  include  bi-anches  to  New  ('astle.  I'a.,  and  Warren,  Ohio,  each  of  which 
will  cost,  roughly,  $3,500,0(X). 

The  projiosed  canal  connects  Hie  two  argcst  inland  waterways  in  the  United 
States  and  traverses  a  distiict  through  which  there  is  a  tonnage  movement 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  district  of  equal  area  in  the  world. 

The  water  supply  for  the  summit  level  of  the  proposed  canal 
comes  from  the  headwaters  of  French  Creek,  Shenango  River,  and 
Mosquito  Creek,  tributaries  of  the  (J)hio  River;  and  from  the  liead 
Avaters  of  Mill  Creek  and  the  Ashtabula  River,  tributaries  of  Lake 
Erie.  The  total  supply  is  estimated  at  382  cubic  feet  per  second,  or 
667  cubic  feet  per  second  if  the  canal  be  provided  with  double  locks. 
As  this  small  amount  is  to  be  drawn  partly  from  the  Erie  drainage, 
but  largely  from  the  Ohio  drainage,  and  is  to  be  discharged  from  the 
summit  level  about  equally  in  each  direction,  it  is  evident  that  the 
resultant  effect  would  be  a  slight  additional  supply  of  water  to  the 
Great  Lakes  system  rather  than  a  diversion  therefrom. 

Proposed  Lake  Erie-Lake  Michigan  Canal. — A  canal  to  connect 
the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan  with  the  western  end  of  Lake 
Erie  has  latel}'^  been  proposed.  This  canal  would  shorten  the  water 
route  from  Chicago  to  the  East  by  about  400  miles.  In  1911  and 
1912  the  National  Waterways  Commission  investigated  this  route. 
It  recommended  that  a  ship  canal  should  not  be  considered,  but 
thought  that  a  barge  canal  along  this  route  might  be  justified,  and 
urged  that  the  Corps  of  Engineers  make  a  survey  and  careful  study 
of  a  barge-canal  project.  A  special  board  of  engineer  officers  was 
appointed.  This  board  reported  in  1917  (see  II.  Doc.  No.  313,  65th 
Cong.,  1st  sess.).    The  essential  points  of  the  report  are  as  follows: 

Two  types  of  canal  are  discu-ssed:  The  first,  a  ship  canal  with  a  depth  of 
24  feet ;  the  second,  a  barge  canal  with  a  depth  not  to  exceed  16  feet.  The 
principal  argument  advanced  in  favor  of  the  former  is  that  a  ship  canal  wotdd 
be  necessary  to  compete  with  the  Georgian  Bay  Ship  Canal,  which  is  contem- 
plated by  Canada,  and  that  it  would  allow  the  ordinary  lake  steanu-rs  to  pass 
through  without  breaking  bulk.  In  support  of  the  barge  canal,  it  is  urged  that 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  traffic  of  the  canal  would  consist  of  through 
freight  between  Chicago  and  New  York,  and  that  the  dimensions  of  the  water- 
way need  not  be  materially  greater  than  those  of  the  New  IL'ork  State  Barge 
Canal.  The  only  advantage  a  ship  canal  would  offer  for  freight  between  Chi- 
cago and  New  York  \\ould  be  the  saving  in  time  over  the  present  route  through 
the  Straits  of  Mackinac.  An  analysis  of  the  relative  time  of  the  route  by  the 
canal  and  by  the  Straits  of  Mackinac  indicates  a  saving  in  favor  of  the  canal 
for  a  lake  speed  of  less  than  11  miles  per  hour,  but  a  loss  if  the  lake  speed 
were  increased  to  11  miles  or  more.  Considering  the  relative  merits  of  the 
ship  and  barge  canals,  the  special  board  is  of  opinion  that  the  former  does  not 
oifer  sufiicient  advantages  to  justify  its  selection. 


166      DIVEKSIOX   OF  AVATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  XIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  dimensions  CMiuteuiplated  for  tlie  ))arge  canal  conform  generally  to  those 
of  the  New  York  State  canal,  and  for  the  channel  are:  Depth,  12  feet;  over- 
head clearance,  18  feet;  bottom  width.  110  feet,  increasing  in  open  water  and 
ar  bends;  and  for  the  locks,  width,  45  feet;  length  between  quoins,  338  feet. 
These  dimensions  are  considered  suitable  for  a  vessel  300  feet  long,  42  feet  beam, 
and  10  feet  draft. 

A  number  of  routes  were  covereti  by  reconnaissance,  and  of  these  two  were 
selected  for  survey.  Both  follow  the  Maumee  from  Toledo  to  Fort  A\'ayne, 
whence  there  is  a  northern  and  a  southern  route  to  Lake  ^Michigan.  The 
Maumee  River  is  canalized  by  locks  and  tixed  dams.  The  elevation  of  the 
pool  at  Fort  Wayne  is  740  feet  above  sea  level,  170  feet  above  Lake  Erie.  The 
length  of  this  section  is  lOn.5  miles. 

The  northern  route  is  through  Elkhart  and  South  Bend  to  Michigan  City. 
Its  summit  is  250  feet  above  Lake  Erie ;  its  length,  00.7  miles,  and  it  has 
14  locks  and  7  gxiard  gates.  The  total  length  of  the  northern  route  from 
Toledo  to  Alichigan  City  is  242.5  miles;  to  Calumet  Harbor,  275  miles;  and 
to  Chicago  Harbor,  280.5  miles.  The  total  lift  above  Lake  Erie  is  250  feet, 
and  above  L.ike  Michigan,  241  feet,  and  there  are  23  locks  and  14  guai'd 
gates  on  the  entire  route. 

The  southern  route  is  by  way  of  Huntington  and  Rochester  to  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Gary,  thence  via  Calumet  River  and  Indiana  Harbor  to  Calumet 
Harbor.  Its  length  is  82.7  miles,  its  summit,  765  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
it  has  9  locks  and  10  guard  gates.  The  total  length  of  this  route  from  Toledo 
to  Calumet  Harbor  is  269.5  miles,  and  to  Chicago  Harl)or,  281.5.  The  total 
lift  above  Lake  Erie  is  195  feet  and  above  Lake  IVIichigan,  186  feet,  and 
there  are  18  locks  and  17  guard  gates.  From  an  engineering  standpoint  either 
route  is  feasible,  but  there  are  fewer  difficulties  to  be  overcome  on  the 
northern  than  on  the  .southern  route,  and  the  water  supply  system  of  the 
northern  route  is  .superior.  Navigation  condiiions  would  be  practically  the 
same  by  either  route.  A  larger  population  and  nxa-e  manufacturing  interests 
would  be  served  by  the  northern  route,  and  for  various  reasons  given  the  special 
board  prefers  this  routes 

It  is  estimated  that  with  the  assistance  of  flash  boards,  reservoirs,  and 
steam  auxiliary  it  may  be  practicable  to  develop  ii  daily  output  of  16,089  horse- 
iwwer  from  the  dams  of  the  Maumee,  provided  all  the  power  be  developed  as  a 
whole,  and  that  this  might  eventually  produce  a  revenue  of  .S9C,.50<J. 

Estimates  of  cost  are  given  as  follows : 


Route. 


Single  locks. 


Double  locks. 


Northern. 
Southern. 


$13.5,078,248 
1.35, 956, 195 


$147,042,764 

148,829,893 


These  figures  include  right  of  way,  water  power,  damages,  bridges,  and  termi- 
nals at  intermediate  points,  but  not  at  Toledo  and  Chicago,  operation  and 
maintenance  for  the  northern  route  are  estimated  at  $2,026,173  for  single 
locks  and  $2,205,642  for  double  locks,  and,  for  the  southern  route,  $2,039,343  for 
single  locks  and  $2,232,447  for  double  locks. 

The  special  board's  analysis  of  traftic  possibilities  and  the  economic  aspect 
of  the  project  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  its  value  should  be  based  primarily 
on  its  use  as  a  part  of  a  through  waterway  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
and  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  although  it 
might  reasonably  be  expected  that  it  would  confer  benefits  in  the  way  of 
local  traffic.  The  special  board  finds  that  so  far  as  cost  of  carriage  and  time 
of  transit  are  concerned  the  existing  through  water  route  from  Chicago  to 
New  York  via  th€  Straits  of  Mackinac  is  preferable  to  the  proposed  water- 
way, even  if  the  large  govennnental  expenditure  be  not  considered.  It  is  of 
opinion  that  the  i)roposed  waterway  could  not  offer  rates  which  would  be 
economically  sound  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  low  to  attract  the  traffic. 

Comparing  the  waterway  with  rail  the  special  board  finds  that  it  would  be  far 
more  expensive  than  a  railroad  of  CHjual  capacity,  and  that  it  would  have  the 
serious  disadvantage  of  being  closed  to  traflic  several  months  of  each  year 
by  ice.  The  special  board  is  of  opinion  that  as  a  general  principle  no  exi)endi- 
ture  for  additional   tran.sportation   facilities   is  warranted   if  equal   or  better 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     167 

and  adequate  facilities  already  exist  or  might  have  been  otherwise  provided  at 
less  cost,  and  in  the  present  case  tlie  existing  route  affords  a  means  of 
cheaper  transportation  of  far  gi-eater  capacity.  The  special  Ijoard  finds  that 
the  possible  retin-ns  to  the  United  States  from  the  water  power  that  might  be 
developed  would  be  relatively  so  small  that  they  would  have  little  weight 
in  determining  the  advisability  of  constructing  the  waterway.  In  conclusion 
the  special  board  expresses  tlie  opinion  that  a  waterway  on  either  of  the 
proposed  routes  promises  no  advantages  over  present  nu-ans  of  transportation 
at  all  commensurate  with  its  cost  and  that  the  construction  of  such  a  water- 
way should  not  be  undertaken  by  the  Uiuted  States.  One  memlier  .suggests 
further  study  looking  toward  the  needs  of  the  future. 

The  required  water  supply  was  estimated  not  to  exceed  1,200  cubic 
feet  per  second  for  double  locks  and  maximum  trailic  possible.  This 
supply  would  come  mostly  from  the  tributaries  of  Lake  Michigan 
and  Lake  Erie  and  would  result  in  a  slight  transfer  of  water  from 
one  basin  to  the  other.  A  small  amount  avouUI  probably  be  received 
from  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  this  would  result 
in  a  gain  to  the  (ireat  Lakes  Basin.  The  water  supply  details  were 
not  worked  out  fully. 

Profosed  Georgian  Bay  Ship  Canal. — The  Georgian  Bay  Ship 
Canal  project  is  a  very  large  and  ambitious  scheme.  The  route  by 
the  Ottawa  River  and  Lake  Ni pissing  to  Georgian  Bay  was  first 
used  by  Champlain  in  1615.  For  two  centuries  tliereafter  it  was  an 
important  route  of  the  western  fur  trade.  The  improvement  of  navi- 
gation along  this  line  began  with  the  building  of  a  small  lock  at 
Vaudreuil  near  the  eastern  end  in  1810.  Two  Ottawa  River  canals, 
namely,  the  Carillon  and  Grenville,  and  the  Rideau  Canal  from 
Ottawa  to  Kingston  were  known  as  the  Military  Canal.  Construc- 
tion of  them  was  commenced  in  1827  and  finished  in  183:3.  The  St. 
Anne  de  Bellevue  Lock  was  opened  in  1841.  Since  then  the  Ottawa 
locks  have  been  enlarged  at  various  times.  In  1894  the  Montreal, 
Ottawa  &  Georgian  Bay  Canal  Co.  was  incorporated  to  build  a 
canal  with  a  depth  of  at  least  9  feet  from  Georgian  Ba}^  to  Montreal. 
Its  charter  as  amended  in  1908  provided  that  construction  should  be 
started  in  1910  and  completed  in  1916.  As  far  as  is  known,  no  work 
of  importance  has  been  done  by  this  company. 

In  1904  the  Dominion  parliament  appropriated  $250,000  for  mak- 
ing a  detailed  survey  of  this  route.  The  board  reported  in  1909 
that  the  canal  could  be  built  from  Montreal  Harbor  through  the 
Ottawa  River,  Mattawa  River,  Lake  Nipissing,  and  the  French  River 
to  French  River  Village,  on  Georgian  Bay  for  $100,000,000,  and  in 
10  years'  time.  Annual  maintenance  was  estimated  at  $900,000.  The 
canal  would  be  440  miles  long  and  would  be  large  enough  for  the 
largest  lake  freighters.  The  summit  level  was  to  be  at  elevation  677, 
which  is  659  feet  above  Montreal  harbor,  98  feet  above  Georgian 
Bay,  and  29  feet  above  Lake  Nipissing.  The  proposed  canal  has  23 
locks  east  of  the  summit  and  4  locks  west,  27  locks  in  all.  The 
locks  are  650  feet  long  and  65  feet  wide,  with  22  feet  clear  depth  on 
the  sill.  In  the  river  sections  slack  water  is  secured  by  18  dams.  The 
route  has  28  miles  of  canal  with  a  bottom  width  of  200  feet,  66  miles 
of  dredged  channel  with  a  bottom  width  of  300  feet  and  346  miles  of 
river  and  lake  waterway  with  widths  varying  from  300  feet  up  to 
half  a  mile. 

The  water  supply  for  the  summit  level  is  all  obtained  from  streams 
naturally  tributary  to  the  Ottawa  River.    Hence  a  certain  amount  of 


168      DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER 

^vate^  would  be  diverted  from  tliis  river  into  (ieor<2:ian  Bay.  The 
effect  on  the  (Jreat  Lakes  and  their  connecting;  rivers  woukl  be  in- 
siiiniiicant.  as  the  total  quantity  of  Avater  estimated  to  be  required 
by  the  summit  level  is  less  than  600  cubic  feet  ]3er  second. 

For  several  years  after  this  report  was  published  there  was  much 
controvers}'  between  the  advocates  of  the  (ieorfrian  Bay  Canal  and 
those  who  favored  enlarfrins:  the  Welland  Canal.  Eventually  the 
Welland  Canal  was  j^referred.  and  it  is  understood  that  the  Georf^ian 
Bav  schejiie  is  now  dormant  althou<rh  it  still  has  vi^rorous  supporters 
and  may  be  revived  at  any  time. 

W,   S.   KiCHMOND. 
Skction   B. 
DIVEUSIOXS   FOR   SANITARY  PURPOSES. 
1.    CHICAGO  SANITARY  CANAL. 

In  the  foUowinof  description  and  discussion  of  the  sanitary  features 
of  the  Chicaofo  Sanitary  and  Ship  Canal,  and  allied  projects  of  the 
Sanitary  District  of  Chica<2;o,  it  is  not  intended  to  repeat  anything 
already  set  down  in  Section  A  of  this  report,  where  the  navigation 
features  of  both  the  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  and  the  Illinois  and 
Miciiigan  Canal  are  U'eated.  but  only  to  elaborate  sufficienth'  to  make 
clear  the  sanitary  features.  Attention  is  invited  to  the  maps  given 
on  plates  4  and  5  and  to  photographs  Xos.  11  to  IG. 

Otoijinphi/  of  (Uf^frift. — The  city  of  Chicago  is  situated  in  what 
geologists  call  the  "Chicago  Plain."  This  is  a  crescent-shaped  strip 
of  low  land  lying  along  the  southwest  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
bounded  by  the  lake  and  by  a  range  of  low  hills  called  the  "Val- 
paraiso morain."  The  plain  begins  at  Winnetka  on  the  north  and 
extends  along  the  south  shore  be^^ond  Gary.  Its  width  varies  from 
2  to  15  miles. 

Three  rivers — the  Des  Plaines,  the  Chicago,  and  the  Calumet — 
dj'ain  the  Chicago  Plain.  The  Des  Plaines  Piver  rises  in  the  State  of 
Wisconsin  and  runs  nearly  due  south,  parallel  with  the  lake  shore, 
and  generally  not  more  than  8  or  10  miles  from  it,  until  it  reaches 
a  point  about  13  miles  in  a  southwest  direction  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Chicago  Kiver.  Here  is  a  slight  depression  a  mile  or  moie  in 
width  extending  across  from  the  Des  Plaines  to  the  South  Branch 
of  Chicago  River  through  which  a  part  of  the  waters  of  the  Des 
Plaines.  in  time  of  flood,  formerly  were  discharged  into  Lake 
Michigan. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  through  this  depression  there  was  once 
an  outlet  from  the  Lakes  to  the  Mississippi,  which  was  closed  by 
the  recession  of  the  waters  of  the  lake.  Lven  now  the  surface  of 
Lake  Michigan  is  only  8  or  9  feet  below  this  simimit.  The  Des 
Plaines  River,  from  the  depression  described,  changes  its  course  and 
runs  in  a  nearly  southwest  direction  until  it  joins  the  Kankakee, 
forming  the  Illinois  River.  Except  in  floods,  the  Des  Plaines  is  very 
shallow,  often  l)eing  reduced  in  dry  seasons  to  a  mere  brook,  dis- 
charging less  than  17  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  valley,  however, 
averages  a  mile  wide  and  is  terminated  on  both  sides  by  well-mai-ked 
terraces  which  become  higher  and  higher  as  they  approach  the  Illi- 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GRICAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      169 

nois.  There  is  much  evidence  that  the  water,  when  this  was  the  great 
outlet  of  the  lakes,  extended  i'rom  blutt'  to  bluff.  The  total  length 
of  the  Des  Plaines  is  about  105  miles. 

The  Chicago  River,  flowing  at  right  angles  to  tlie  lake  shore,  is 
onl}'  about  1  mile  in  length.  It  is  formed  by  tlie  junction  of  the 
North  and  South  Branches.  The  North  Branch  rises  in  Lake  County 
and  has  a  lengtli  of  about  "27  miles,  rougldy  parallel  to  the  lake  shore 
and  distant  from  it  about  1  to  7  miles.  Tlie  South  Bi-andi  has  a 
length  of  about  4  miles  from  its  forks  to  the  junction  with  the  North 
Branch.  The  AVest  Fork  originally  flowed  from  Mud  Lake  near 
the  present  Kedzie  Avenue  bridge  and  extended  east  to  the  forks,  a 
distance  of  about  2^  miles.  The  South  Fork  is  about  1^  miles  long. 
Its  east  arm  and  west  arm  each  had  an  original  length  of  a  little 
over  1  mile. 

The  depression  lying  between  the  Des  Plaines  Kiver  and  the  West 
Fork  of  the  Chicago  Iviver  was  formerly  occupied  by  a  swampy  pond 
or  chain  of  ponds.  The  early  P'rench  "traders  called  this  "  Le  Petit 
Lac,"'  Avhile  the  English  name  was  ''  Portage  Lake."  Later  the  name 
"  Mud  Lake  "  was  commonly  used.  The  lake  was  about  5  miles  long 
and  from  one-foui-th  of  a  mile  to  1  mile  in  width.  It  extended  from 
Kedzie  Avenue  nearly  to  the  Des  Plaines  River.  In  very  dry  sum- 
mers it  was  reduced  to  a  mere  mud  hole.  Under  more  favoraI:)le  con- 
ditions the  water  was  several  feet  deep  and  discharged  into  either 
the  Chicago  or  Des  I*laines  Rivers.  An  early  trade  route  between 
Canada  and  the  ^lississippi  Valley  ran  here  and  under  favorable  con- 
ditions boats  of  several  tons  burtlien  could  be  floated  through.  At 
other  times  a  portage  of  from  1  to  4  miles  was  required.  During 
floods  of  the  Des  Plaines  a  large  amount  of  water  was  discharged 
through  Mud  Lake  and  the  Chicago  River  into  Lake  Michigan. 

In  1868  the  "  Ogden  Ditch  "  was  excavated  through  Mud  Lake, 
and  six  years  later  the  ''  Ogden  Dam  "  at  the  southwest  end  of  the 
ditch  was  built  to  keep  out  the  Des  Plaines  floods.  As  a  result  of 
this  construction  and  of  the  general  settlement  and  drainage  of  the 
surrounding  countrj^  Mud  Lake  gradually  disappeared.  All  that 
is  now  visible  on  its  former  site  is  the  Ogden  Ditcli  and  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  West  Fork  of  Chicago  River  above  Kedzie  Avenue. 

The  Calumet  River  rises  in  Laporte  County,  Ind.,  and  flows  in  a 
AA'^esterly  direction,  nearly  parallel  to  the  shore  of  Lake  ^lichigan,  a 
distance  of  about  45  miles  to  a  suburb  known  as  Blue  Island.  Here 
it  turns  abruptly  and  takes  an  easterly  direction  parallel  to  its  pre- 
vious course  but  2  or  3  miles  farther  north.  It  hnalh'  reaches  its 
natural  outlet  to  the  lake  after  doubling  on  itself  nearly  22  miles. 
To  distinguish  its  two  parallel  portions  the  southern  has  been  named 
the  "Little  Calumet*'  and  the  northern  the  ''Grand  Calumet."' 

The  natural  outlet  mentioned  above  is  about  3^  miles  east  of  Gary. 
It  has  been  practically  closed  by  aquatic  growth  and  drifting  sand, 
and  the  river  now  discharges  into  Lake  Michigan  through  an  arti- 
ficial channel  passing  between  Calumet  Lake  and  Wolf  Lake  and 
forming  the  harbor  of  South  Chicago.  It  connects  with  the  Calumet 
near  Hegewisch.  This  channel  is  said  to  have  been  opened  by  the 
Indians  and  traders  about  1811.  It  has  subsequently  been  enlarged 
by  various  navigation  interests.  Since  1870  it  has  been  improved 
by  the  Government  and  novr  affords  an  excellent  harbor  with  piers 
and  breakwater  affordino-  shelter  for  the  largest  lake  vessels. 


170      niVERSIOX  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RRrER. 

From  the  extreme  westerly  point  of  the  Little  Calumet  River, 
south  of  Blue  Island,  another  depression  leads  west  to  the  Des 
Plaines  River.  This  is  called  "  The  Sa<?  "  and  is  very  similar  to  the 
one  described  above  between  the  Chicao;o  and  Des  Plaines.  The  Sag 
is  about  15  miles  longr  and  rather  less  than  a  mile  wide.  Like  the 
northern  depression,  it  once  served  as  a  southerly  outlet  for  the 
waters  of  the  lake. 

Ed'iAorat'wn  and  settlement. — In  the  late  summer  of  1073  the  ex- 
plorin<r  expedition  of  Louis  Joliet  and  Pere  Marquette  passed 
throu«rh  the  Chicago  portage  on  their  return  from  their  first  voyage 
to  the  Mississippi.  This  is  the  first  known  appearance  of  white  men 
at  Chicago  and  the  first  use  by  white  men  of  the  Chicago-Des  Plaines 
portage.  The  further  use  of  the  portage  is  recounted  by  La  Salle, 
Tonty.  Joutcl,  and  other  explorers  during  the  next  dozen  years. 
In  1097  Tonty  and  La  Forest  had  a  Avarehouse  and  trading  post  at 
"'•  Chica^u  "  and  this  is  the  earliest  recorded  settlement  there.  A 
Jesuit.  Father  Dablon,  made  an  official  report  in  1673  on  the  new 
discoveries  around  the  Avestern  lakes  and  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
In  this  he  proposed  the  excavation  of  a  ship  canal  connecting  Lake 
^Michigan  and  the  Des  Plaines  River.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  mention  of  an  idea  which  has  been  much  in  men's  minds  ever 
since  and  resulted,  after  the  lapse  of  two  and  a  quarter  centuries, 
in  the  construction  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  the  Chicago  route  was  much  used 
b}'  traders  and  travelers.  At  times  white  men  lived  at  the  lake  end, 
tind  a  fort  built  there  by  the  French  was  garrisoned  for  awhile,  but 
no  permanent  settlement  seems  to  have  resulted.  In  1795  Gen.  An- 
thony Wayne  made  a  treaty  with  the  Indians  whereby  they  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  among  other  lands,  "  one  piece  of  land  6  miles 
square  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  River,  empt^nng  into  the  south- 
west end  of  Lake  Michigan,  where  a  fort  formerly  stood."  This 
treaty  also  assured  the  United  States  the  free  use  of  the  Chicago- 
Des  Plaines  portage.  In  1803  Fort  Dearborn  was  built  and  gar- 
risoned. There  was  then  but  one  house  outside  of  the  fort.  In  1812 
there  were  five  houses,  but  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Fngland 
the  fort  was  abandoned  and  nearly  all  of  the  garrison  and  settlers 
were  massacred  by  the  Indians.  The  fort  was  rebuilt  in  1816  and  a 
new  treaty  signed  by  which  the  Indians  gave  up  a  strip  of  land  10 
miles  wide  on  each  side  of  the  Chicago  River,  the  portage,  and  the 
Des  Plaines  River. 

The  ''  town  of  Chicago  "  was  platted  by  the  Commissicmers  of  the 
Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  in  1830.  It  contained  about  a  dozen 
houses  and  le.ss  than  100  inhabitants.  Its  growth  was  slow  until 
the  close  of  the  Black  Hawk  War  in  1833.  The  first  census,  taken 
in  1837.  showed  a  population  of  more  than  4,000.  Since  then  the 
growth  has  been  rapid  and  continuous,  with  an  average  yearly  incre- 
ment of  over  8  per  cent.  In  1918  the  population  of  the  city  of 
Chicago  was  estimated  at  2,575,000. 

Early  sanitary  conditions. — The  early  settlers  drew  their  water 
supply  from  shallow  wells  or  from  the  lake  shore.  In  the  thirties 
water  carts  did  a  big  business.  These  were  filled  at  the  shore  and 
peddled  water  from  house  to  house.  In  1836  the  Chicago  Hydraulic 
■Co,  was  incorporated  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  public  water 


DIVERSION    OV  WATER   FROIM   GREAT   LAlxKS   AND   XIACARA  RIVER.      171 

supply.  Its  water  works  system  went  into  oi)eration  in  1842.  The 
intake  was  about  500  feet  olF  shore  and  water  was  pumped  by  steam 
power  and  distributed  throu<>^h  wooden  pipes  to  the  South  Side  and 
l^art  of  the  West  Side  of  the  city.  The  North  Side  was  still  supplied 
from  wells  and  carts.  The  pumpin^r  station  was  at  the  corner  of 
Lake  Street  and  Michi<>an  Avenue  and  the  intake  was  close  to  the 
jnouth  of  the  Chica<!;o  River.  Tlie  river  served  as  a  sewer  for  a  large 
part  of  tlie  city  and  was  rajjidly  becoming  very  foul.  By  1850  the 
w^ater  supplied  by  the  hydraulic  company  was  intolerably  bad  and 
the  supply  was  quite  inade(|uate,  being  only  sufHcient  for  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  city.     An  epidemic  of  cholera  occurred  in  this  year. 

In  1851  the  city  obtained  the  incorporation  of  the  City  Hydraulic 
Co.  It  bought  the  rights  and  franchise  of  the  older  company  and 
■commenced  pumping  in  1854.  The  intake  was  a  basin  on  the  lake 
shore  protected  by  a  brealrwater.  It  was  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Chicago  Avenue,  about  3,000  feet  north  of  the  river.  For  several 
}ears  the  operation  of  the  new  works  was  uniform  and  satisfactory. 
Then,  as  the  population  of  the  city  and  the  pollution  of  the  lake 
shore  and  river  increased,  the  quality  of  the  water  suppl}^  again 
became  very  bad. 

Since  1860  the  history  of  the  Chicago  water  supply  shows  a  steady 
and  continuous  growth  coml)ined  with  ever-renewed  efforts  to  get  a 
purer  supply  by  extending  the  intake  farther  into  the  lake  to  escape 
the  increasing  pollution  of  the  shore  waters.  In  1864  the  first  tun- 
nel was  built.  This  was  5  feet  in  diameter  and  2  miles  long,  and 
had  at  its  outer  end  an  intake  crib  reaching  above  the  lake  surface. 
The  building  of  new  tunnels  and  intakes  has  continued  at  intervals 
ever  since  imtil  now^  there  are  no  less  than  seven  intake  cribs.  The 
newest  and  largest  is  nearly  4  miles  from  shore.  These  great  works 
have  cost  the  city  many  millions  of  dollars. 

In  its  youngest  days  the  city  was  quite  without  drains  or  sewers. 
As  the  population  increased,  drainage  and  sewage  was  allowed  to  run 
in  the  gutters  of  the  streets.  In  1849  the  city  commenced  a  compre- 
hensive system  of  planked  streets.  Some  of  these  were  cut  down  to 
a  very  low  grade,  in  order  that  the  street  might  drain  the  abutting 
property.  A  few  small  w^ooden  sewers  were  built,  chiefly  on  Clark, 
La  Salle,  and  Wells  Streets.  They  drained  into  the  river  and  ex- 
tended no  farther  south  than  Randolph  Street.  By  this  time  the 
population  had  reached  30,000  and  conditions  were  very  bad.  The 
following  extract  from  a  local  newspaper  in  the  svmimer  of  1850 
gives  a  picture  of  the  situation: 

The  wonder  is  not  that  we  have  had  cholera  in  our  midst  for  two  seasons  in 
succession,  and  that  the  common  diseases  of  the  country  are  fatally  prevalent 
during  the  suunner  months,  but  that  a  worse  plague  does  not  take  up  perma- 
nent residence  with  us.  Many  of  the  populous  localities  are  noisome  quag- 
mires, the  gutters  running  with  filth  at  which  the  very  swine  turn  up  their 
noses  in  supreme  disgust.  Even  some  portions  of  the  planked  streets,  say,  for 
instance.  Lake  between  Clark  and  La  Salle,  are  scarcely  in  better  sanitary 
condition  than  those  which  are  not  planked.  The  gutters  at  the  crossings  are 
clogged  up,  leaving  standing  pools  of  indescribable  liquid,  there  to  salute  the 
noses  of  passers-by.  There  being  no  chance  to  drain  them  properly,  the  water 
accumulates  under  the  planking,  into  which  flows  all  manner  of  filth,  and 
during  the  hot  weather  of  the  last  few  weeks  the  whole  reeking  mass  of 
abominations  has  steamed  up  through  every  opening,  and  the  miasma  thus 
elaborated  has  been  wafted  into  the  neighboring  shops  and  dwellings  to  poison 
their  inmates. 


172      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

In  the  next  few  years  nmcli  was  done  toward  drainin<r  the  swamps 
that  surrounded  the  city  and  some  40  or  50  square  miles  were  re- 
chiimed,  but  provision  for  city  sewage  removal  made  little  prog- 
ress. In  1854  there  were  only  44  miles  of  sewers  within  tlie  city. 
In  1855  a  board  of  sewer  commissioners  for  the  city  was  incorporated, 
which  prepared  a  plan  for  a  comprehensive  system  of  sewers  to  cover 
the  principal  portions  of  the  city.  The  Chicago  River,  with  its 
Xorth  and  South  branches,  naturally  divide  the  city  into  three 
drainage  districts.  The  new  sewers  of  the  west  and  north  districts 
Avere  to  drain  into  the  river,  wliile  those  of  the  south  district  drained 
about  half  into  the  river  and  half  directly  into  the  lake.  Work 
was  at  once  commenced  on  this  system.  From  this  time  on  the 
growth  of  the  sewerage  system  has  paralleled  the  growth  of  the  city. 

The  natural  flow  of  the  Chicago  River,  except  at  flood  times,  "is 
very  small.  As  the  city  grew  the  distilling  and  slaughtering  indus- 
tries becanie  very  important  and  discharged  vast  quantities  of  waste 
into  the  river,  which  already  received  the  drainage  of  a  rapidly 
growing  city.  By  1845  the  'stream  had  become  terribly  offensive. 
The  east  and  west  arms  of  the  South  Branch  became  mere  stagnant, 
scum-covered  cesspools  or  septic  tanks  which  received  the  blood  and 
refuse  from  the  great  packing  plants.  The  other  parts  of  the  river 
were  nearly  as  bad.  Unsightly,  filthy  scum  floated  on  the  surface, 
foul  odors  from  the  surface  drifted  across  the  city,  and  deep  beds 
of  sludge  were  deposited  on  the  bottom,  to  the  obstruction  of  navi- 
gation. Summer  thunderstorms  or  sudden  lowerings  of  the  lake 
occasionally  set  up  a  current  in  the  river  and  sent  some  of  its  con- 
taminated waters  into  the  lake.  The  spring  freshets  of  the  Chicago 
and  Des  Plaines  flushed  out  the  whole  accumulation  of  poisonous 
sludge  and  scum,  and  only  too  often  drifted  them  toward  and  about 
the  waterworks  intakes. 

As  a  natural  result  of  these  conditions,  the  general  health  of  the 
community  was  very  poor  and  the  death  rate  from  all  diseases  w^as 
high.  All  intestinal  and  Avater-bornc  diseases  were  widespread  and 
typhoid  fever  was  endemic.  Several  severe  epidemics  of  water-borne 
diseases  occuried.  notably  those  of  Asiatic  cholera  in  1834  and  1849 
and  of  typhoid  in  1892. 

Early  sanltm^j  improvements. — The  opening  of  the  Illinois  and 
Michigan  Canal  in  1848  was  the  first  occurrence  that  tended  to  im- 
prove the  bad  condition  of  the  Chicago  River.  This  canal  had  a 
summit  level  about  8  feet  above  the  lake  which  received  ])art  of  its 
supply  by  puminige  from  the  river.  The  pumps  were  located  at 
Bridgeport,  at  the  head  of  the  canal,  near  what  is  now  Ashland  Ave- 
nue. AVhile  this  pumping  had  been  intended  only  to  supply  water 
for  the  navigation  of  the  canal,  it  was  soon  found  that  it  was  causing 
sufficient  current  in  the  South  Branch  to  perceptibly  cleanse  its 
waters.  This  led  to  an  arrangement  with  the  canal  commissioners 
in  1865  ])y  which  the  latter  agreed  to  pump  Avater  from  the  river 
at  certain  times  for  the  relief  of  the  city  from  the  serious  annoyances 
of  a  badly  contaminated  river.  The  pumping  was  <-hiefly  done  in  the 
summer  and  early  fall  when  the  river  conditions  were  at  their  worst. 
The  usual  rate  was  200  cubic  feet  per  second  or  a  little  less. 

In  1871  the  summit  level  of  the  canal  was  lowered  so  as  to  draw 
its  supply  directly  from  the  ri\er.     It  was  hoped  that  this  Avould 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     173 

result  in  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  flow  of  lake  water  through 
the  South  Branch  suflicient  to  keep  it  in  good  condition.  These 
hopes  were  not  realized.  The  volume  discharged  down  the  canal  was 
less  than  had  been  expected,  while  under  certain  conditions  of  wind, 
rainfall,  and  lake  level  the  flow  toward  the  lake  was  reestaldished. 
In  1879  there  was  a  lakeward  current  for  ;5()  days  and  no  percej)til)le 
current  either  way  for  10  days.  The  mean  flow  was  less  than  300 
cubic  feet  per  second.  As  the  population  of  the  city  was  now  about 
half  a  million  and  the  greater  part  of  the  sewage  went  down  the 
canal,  its  pollution  was  very  great.  The  dilution  obtained  probably 
did  not  exceed  1  cubic  foot  per  second  for  each  thousand  inhal^itants. 
The  canal  carried  a  disgusting  tilthiness  and  an  overwhelming  odor 
throughout  its  whole  length. 

In  1881  the  protest  of  the  people  of  Joliet  and  other  parts  of  the 
Des  Plaines  and  Illinois  \\ilJeys  had  become  so  loud  that  the  State 
passed  a  resolution  requiring  Chicago  to  provide  a  flow  of  1,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  or  abandon  the  use  of  the  canal  for  sewage  dilution. 
In  compliance  with  these  resolutions  the  city  built  a  new  pumping 
station  of  the  required  capacity  at  Bridgeport,  together  with  a  lock 
to  prevent  back  flow  from  the  canal  into  the  ri^er.  Pum])ing  com- 
menced in  1883.  For  a  few  years  this  afforded  suflicient  dilution  in 
the  canal  and  there  were  no  more  complaints  from  the  valley.  Un- 
fortunately when  the  pumping  plant  was  installed  Lake  INIicliigan 
stood  at  a  very  high  stage  and  the  pumps  were  given  only  suflicient 
capacity  to  provide  the  legal  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second  under  these 
conditions.  In  1886  the  lake  level  began  to  fall,  and  continued  to 
do  so  until  in  1891  it  was  about  2  feet  lower  than  when  the  pumps 
were  installed.  Their  capacity  thereby  being  reduced  to  a  little  more 
than  600  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  the  growth  of  the  city  had  con- 
tinued at  its  usual  rate,  the  nuisance  along  the  canal  became  at  times 
as  bad  as  ever. 

For  many  years  the  North  Branch  of  the  Chicago  River  occasioned 
no  serious  trouble.  It  did  not  receive  a  great  deal  of  domestic  sew- 
age, and  most  of  the  slaughterhouses  were  on  the  oth(U'  branch.  By 
1870  the  northward  growth  of  the  city  and  the  discharge  of  the 
refuse  from  several  large  distilleries  into  the  Xorth  Branch  had 
produced  a  serious  nuisance  there.  To  abate  this  the  Fullerton  Ave- 
nue conduit  was  constructed  and  put  in  operation  in  1880.  This 
was  a  12-foot  circular,  brick-lined  tunnel,  about  12.000  feet  long, 
extending  from  an  intake  in  the  lake  to  the  river,  along  the  line  of 
Fullerton  Avenue.  The  pumping  station  was  at  the  river  end  of 
the  conduit.  The  capacity  of  the  pumps  was  about  400  cubic  feet 
per  second.  The  usual  pumpage  was  something  more  than  half  as 
much.  For  some  years  this  was  enough  to  keep  the  North  Branch 
in  reasonably  good  condition. 

Development  of  the  drainage- canal  'plan. — Throughout  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  phenomenal  and  sustained  growth  of  Chicago 
continually  frustrated  all  attempted  solutions  of  its  sanitarj^  prob- 
lems. On  several  occasions  plans  were  adopted  which  were  expected 
to  cure  certain  evils,  and  before  a  decade  had  elapsed  after  their 
completion  the  growth  of  the  city  had  made  conditions  as  bad  as 
ever. 


174      DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Much  was  done  by  the  Citizens'  Association  of  Chicago  between 
the  years  1880  and  1889  in  creating  and  fostering  a  public  sentiment 
which  demanded  better  drainage  and  water  supply  for  the  city. 
Several  expert  examinations  were  made  by  the  association,  and  its 
reports  were  given  to  the  people  through  the  daily  papers  and  printed 
j)amphlets.  These  investigations  and  the  resulting  discussions  led 
to  a  more  exact  and  complete  investigation  by  the  drainage  commis- 
sion under  the  authority  of  the  city.  In  1880  the  association  re- 
ferred the  question  of  main  drainage  to  a  committee,  with  a  request 
that  they  recommend  some  system  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage 
which  would  be  adequate  for  the  present  and  future  needs  of  the 
city.  In  its  final  report  the  committee  recommended  a  canal  from 
the  South  Branch  of  the  Chicago  River  to  the  Des  Planes  River  at 
Joliet.  A  drainage  district  was  to  be  formed  including  South  Chi- 
cago, Lake.  Cicero,  and  the  towns  of  the  North  Shore.  The  total 
cost  of  the  project  was  estimated  at  $12,000,000.  The  importance  of 
this  report  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  suggested  the  idea  whi(h 
developed  into  the  law  of  1889  creating  the  Sanitary  District  of 
Chicago  and  providing  for  the  drainage  canal. 

Prompted  by  the  recommendations  of  the  Chicago  Citizens'  As- 
sociation and  the  urgent  appeals  of  the  press,  the  city  council  passed 
a  resolution  in  January,  188(>,  authorizing  the  creation  of  a  drain- 
age and  water  supply  commission  of  three  members.  Mayor  Har- 
rison appointed  Rudolph  Hering,  Benezette  Williams,  and  Samuel  (t. 
Artingstall.  A  preliminar}'  report  was  made  in  January,  1887,  but 
the  work  of  the  commission  was  not  finished,  as  the  city  council  was 
unwilling  to  provide  the  necessary  funds.  The  commission  recom- 
mended a  drainage  canal  system  very  similar  to  the  one  afterward 
constructed,  including  the  Calumet-Sag  branch.  The  system  also 
included  the  diversion  of  the  flood  waters  of  the  upper  Des  Plaines 
and  North  Branch  into  the  lake  by  a  canal  through  Bowmanville, 
some  distance  north  of  the  city. 

In  May,  1889,  after  two  and  a  half  3'ears  of  investigation  and  de- 
bate the  State  legislature  passed  the  bill  creating  the  Sanitar}'^  Dis- 
trict of  Chicago.  The  original  district  was  laid  out  with  an  area 
of  185  square  miles  and  included  a  number  of  municipalities  which 
Avere  later  annexed  in  large  part  to  the  city  of  Chicago.  The  project 
Avas  adopted  by  popular  vote  in  November,  1889.  and  trustees  were 
elected  the  following  month.  The  board  organized  January  12,  1890. 
The  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois  affirmed  tlie  validitv  of  the  act  in 
June,  1890. 

The  North  Shore  was  annexed  by  the  act  of  1903,  thus  extending 
the  district  to  the  north  line  of  Cook  County.  It  comprised  the 
townships  of  Evanston,  Niles,  and  New  Trier  and  parts  of  three 
others,  an  area  of  78.G  square  miles  along  the  lake  shore  and  in  the 
Chicago  River  basin,  the  drainage  problems  of  which  are  largely 
identified  with  those  of  the  original  district. 

The  Calumet  region,  also  annexed  by  the  act  of  1903,  covered  the 
urban  district  south  of  Eighty-seventh  Street  and  west  of  the  In- 
diana State  line.  It  comprised  that  ])art  of  Chicago  south  of 
Eighty-seventh  Street,  the  town.ship  of  Calumet,  and  parts  of  three 
other  townships,  an  area  of  94.5  square  miles,  wholly  in  the  Calumet 
Basin,  the  drainage  problems  of  which  are  quite  independent  of 


DR^RSIOX   OF  WATER  FRO:\:   GREAT  LAKES  AXD   XIAGARA  RIVER.      175 

those  of  the  Chicago  Basin  but  are  complicated  with  those  of  tlie 
urban  district  of  the  Cahimet  Basin  east  of  the  State  line  in  northern 
Indiana. 

With  the  annexed  territories,  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago 
covers  the  entire  water  front  of  Cook  County,  with  a  sliore  line  of 
some  33  miles.  By  subsequent  annexation  of  districts  to  the  west., 
its  total  area  has  been  increased  to  388.14  square  miles.  Its  esti- 
mated population  in  July,  1918,  was  2,761,000,  of  wliom  iCkOOO  live 
in  the  C'alumet  subdivision.  The  inluibitants  of  tlie  Calumet  drain- 
age basin  in  the  State  of  Indiana  are  estimated  at  about  108,000. 

The  law  of  1889  constituted  the  sanitary  district  as  a  "  quasi- 
municipal  corporation"  for  the  purpose  of  disposing  of  the  diain- 
age  and  scAvage  of  the  communities  composing  the  district.  It  is 
empowered  to  lev}^  taxes  within  the  district  and  issue  bonds  on  the 
district's  credit.  It  can  develop  and  sell  such  new  water  power  as 
its  sanitary  operations  render  available  and,  in  general,  do  all  things 
necessary  for  or  naturally  arising  from  its  main  purpose.  The  law 
prescribed  that  any  drainage  canal  constructed  must  have  a  flow 
of  at  least  3^  cubic  feet  per  second  for  each  thousand  persons  tribu- 
tary to  it,  and  must  be  "  kept  and  maintained  of  such  size  and  in  such 
condition  that  the  water  thereof  shall  be  neither  offensive  or  in- 
jurious to  the  health  of  any  of  the  people  of  this  State."  Where  the 
canal  ran  through  rock  it  was  to  have  a  capacity  of  at  least  10,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  and  in  earth  it  could  be  of  half  this  capacity 
with  provision  for  enlarging  to  10,000. 

Work  Avas  commenced  on  the  excavation  of  the  canal  in  1892  and 
on  the  collateral  improvement  of  the  Chicago  River  in  1890.  A  de- 
scription of  the  canal  and  the  river  improvement  will  be  found  in 
Sections  A  and  C  of  this  report. 

An  intercepting  sewer  system  covering  the  lake  front  from  Eighty- 
seventh  Street  to  the  northern  city  limits  was  constructed  by  the 
city  of  Chicago.  The  northern  division  discharges  through  a  10- 
foot  conduit  betAveen  the  lake  and  the  North  Branch  at  LaAArence 
AA'enue.  This  conduit  is  much  larger  than  Avould  be  required  for 
seAvage  alone,  and  is  used  to  flush  the  North  Branch  by  pumping 
water  from  the  lake.  The  pumping  Avorks  are  on  Lawrence  AA^enue 
about  three-quarters  mile  from  the  lake  shore.  Pumping  began  in 
1908.  In  1917  the  mean  pumpage  from  the  lake  Avas  109  cubic  feet 
per  second.  The  pumps  were  not  operated  to  pump  AA^ater  from  the 
lake  in  February  and  very  little  in  March,  presumably  because  the 
spring  floods  flushed  the  North  Branch  sufficiently  Avithout  artificial 
aid.  The  maximum  monthly  mean  pumpage  from  the  lake  Avas  314 
cubic  feet  per  second.  At  times  as  much  as  500  cubic  feet  per  second 
is  pumped  from  the  lake  for  a  few  hours.  The  capacity  of  the  pump- 
ing station  and  conduit  is  about  873  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  Avhich  38 
is  intended  for  the  dry-weather  sewage,  "250  for  the  storm- water  flow, 
and  the  remaining  585  for  lake  water. 

The  southern  division  of  the  intercepting  sewer  system  discharges 
through  a  20-foot  conduit  at  Thirty-ninth  Street.  This  conduit  ex- 
tends from  the  lake  to  the  "  Stockyard  Slip "  or  east  arm  of  the 
South  Fork.  A  pumping  station  on  the  lake  shore  at  Thirty-ninth 
Street  is  intendecl  to  pump  lake  water  through  this  conduit  to  flush 
the  South  Fork.    Pumping  began  in  1907.    In  1917  very  little  pump- 


170      DIVERSION    OF   WAihK   FHO-M    (Jl'.EAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER. 


inofof  lake  water  was  Jone:  none  \\liatever  (liiiin<r  nine  months.  The 
monthlv  mean  pumpage  (hiring-  each  of  the  other  tliree  months  Avas 
10.  l;U!  ami  -27  ciihic  i^eet  per  second,  respectively.  Tlie  capacity'  of 
the  Thirty-ninth  Street  comhiits  ami  pumps  is  li.OOO  cubic  feet  per 
second.  Of  this  l")!)  is  desiirned  to  handle  the  drv-wei\ther  flowage. 
500  the  storm  llow.  and  the  remaining  1.350  lake  water. 

The  North  Shore  Canal  extends  from  the  lake  shore  in  the  village 
of  Wilmette  to  the  Xorth  liranch  at  Law-rence  Avenue,  and  is 
intended  to  provide  an  outlet  for  the  shore  towns  and  the  territorj'^ 
north  of  the  city  limits  and  to  furnish  additional  water  for  flushinir 
the  Xorth  Branch.  This  channel  is  26  feet  w'ide  on  the  bottom.  12 
feet  deep,  and  about  8^  miles  long,  and  is  operated  by  pumping  works 
at  Wilmette.  It  was  opened  in  1910.  In  1917  the  mean  pumpage 
Avas  518  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  maximum  monthly  mean  being 
770  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  capacity  of  the  pumps  and  canal  is 
about  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  part  of  the  Des  Plaines  River  paralleling  the  drainage  canal 
was  straightened  and  improved,  and  some  levees  were  built  on  the 
east  side  of  the  river.  A  spillway,  opened  in  1909,  leads  from  the 
river  to  the  canal  at  Willow  Springs.  As  a  result  of  these  changes 
the  spring  freshets  of  the  Des  Plaines  no  longer  discharge  into  Ogden 
Ditch  and  the  South  Branch  of  the  Chicago  River. 

It  is  understood  that  the  Fullerton  Avenue  pumping  station,  which 
was  formerly  used  for  flushing  the  North  Branch  with  lake  water, 
is  no  longer  in  use. 

The  yearly  mean  flow  of  the  drainage  canal  from  its  opening  to 
1917  as  i-ei)orted  bv  the  engineers  of  the  Sanitary  District  is  given  in 
Table  No.  11. 

Table  No.  11. — Yearly  mean  diversion  through  Chicuoo  Sanitary  Canal  as  re- 
Ijorted  by  cnyinecr  of  the  sanitary  district  in  cubic  feci  ijer  second. 


1900 2,  900 

1901 4,  046 

1902 4,  302 

1903 4,  971 

1904 4,  793 

190.5 4,  480 

1906 4,  473 

1907 5, 116 

1908 4,  421 


1909 2,  766 

1910 3,  458 

1911 6,  445 

1912 6,  424 

1913 7. 191 

1914 7, 105 

1915 6,  971 

1916 7,  325 

1917 7,  786 


These  figures  represent  the  flow  at  Lockport.  They  include  the 
natural  drainage  of  the  Chicago  Basin,  the  pumpage  of  the  three 
stations  described  above,  the  sewage  of  the  district,  and  occasional 
Des  Plaines  flood  water  entering  by  the  spillway  at  Willow  Springs. 
In  1917,  when  the  mean  flow  was  7,786  cubic  feet  per  second,  the 
maximum  flow  reported  was.  17,500  and  the  minimum  2,150.  The 
maximum  daily  mean  flow  in  1917  was  9,891  cubic  feet  per  second 
and  the  minimum  daily  mean  5,184.  The  maximum  monthly  mean 
was  8,907  and  the  minimum  monthly  mean  6.916,  On  a  score  or  more 
of  days  between  April  and  November,  1917,  the  discharge  for  a  time 
ran  very  high,  the  highest  peak  reported  being  17.500  cubic  feet 
per  second  on  September  23.  The  explanation  for  these  high  dis- 
charge values,  as  given  by  the  chief  engineer,  is  that  repair  work  on 
the  walls  of  the  canal  necessitated  drawing:  down  the  canal  level  on 


Dn'ERSIOISr  OF  water  from  great  lakes  and  NIAGARA  RIVER.     177 

these  days,  and  this  could  be  accomplished  only  by  opening  the 
controlling  works  so  as  to  create  a  very  large  flow,  especially  as  Lake 
Michigan  stood  1  to  2  feet  above  datum. 

All  tlie  values  of  discharge  given  in  the  preceding  ])aragraph  are 
either  taken  direct  or  derived  from  figures  submitted  by  the  chief 
engineer  of  tlie  Sanitary  District.  It  is  believed  tluit  they  are  too 
small  by  5  to  12  per  cent.  The  monthly  averages  of  reported  flow 
through  the  main  canal  have  been  checked  against  the  flow  of  the 
Des  Plaines  Kiver  at  Joliet  as  measured  by  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey.  The  gauging  section  of  the  Geological  Survey  does 
not  include  the  flow  leaving  Joliet  in  the  Illinois  &  Michigan  Canal, 
and  it  does  include  the  natural  flow  of  the  Des  Plaines  above  the 
mouth  of  the  drainage  canal.  These  quantities  have  been  measured 
separately  by  the  survey.  Adding  the  former  quantity  to  the  flow 
found  nt  tlie  gauging  st^ition  and  subtracting  the  latter  quantity, 
there  results  of  volume  of  flow  which  must  have  come  down  the  Main 
Drainage  Canal.  For  the  34  months,  March,  1915,  to  December,  1917, 
both  inclusive,  the  drainage  canal  discharge,  as  computed  from  the 
discharge  data  of  the  Geological  Survey,  avei'ages  12  per  cent  greater 
than  as  reported  by  the  Sanitary  District,  the  excess  for  the  month  of 
maximum  difference  being  19  per  cent  and  for  the  minimum  5  per 
cent.  Such  measurements  by  the  Geological  Survey  are  usually  con- 
sidered reliable  within  2  or  3  per  cent,  with  5  per  cent  an  outside 
limit.  The  values  given  by  the  Sanitary  District,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  obtained  by  computing  the  discharge  of  turbines  at  the  power 
house  and  of  flow  over  spillways.  In  computing  turbine  discharge  the 
machine  efficiency  is  assumed  to  be  that  shown  by  a  new  model  wheel. 
Usually  turbines  deteriorate  with  age  and  their  efficiencies  become 
less,  so  that  they  consume  more  water  in  producing  a  given  amount 
of  power.  It  is  thought  that  proper  allowance  has  not  been  made 
for  this  factor.  It  is  also  believed  that  the  flow  over  the  wasteways 
is  somewhat  greater  than  as  given  by  the  formula  used. 

Another  reason  for  believing  the  Sanitary  District  figures  too  small 
is  that  they  give  smaller  values  for  the  flow  on  certain  days  in  De- 
cember, 1913,  than  actual  measurements  by  the  United  States  Lake 
Survey.  A  perfectly  satisfactory  comparison  of  the  two  sets  of 
values  is  not  possible,  because  most  of  the  Lake  Survey  measure- 
ments were  taken  when  the  storage  in  the  canal  was  accumulating, 
so  that  the  flow  at  Lemont,  where  the  Lake  Survey  measurements 
were  taken,  was  larger  than  at  the  controlling  works,  7  miles  below. 
The  Lake  Survey  measurements  average  10  per  cent  larger  than  the 
sanitary  district  figures.  On  the  day  when  measurements  were 
made  almost  continuoush^  for  24  hours  they  show  4^  per  cent 
larger. 

The  flow  in  the  lower  end  of  the  canal  always  varies  considerably 
during  the  day,  being  generally  small  during  the  daytime  and 
large  at  night.  The  flow  is  regulated  mostly  by  the  draft  of  water 
nt  the  power  house,  which  carries  a  heavy  lighting  load  at  night. 
The  Saturday  and  Sunday  loads  do  not  differ  greatly  from  the 
loads  of  other  week  days. 

During  the  12  hours  or  more  that  the  heavy  night  load  is  on  the 
storage  in  the  canal  is  being  drawn  down  while  the  water  surface 

27880—21 12 


178      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

profile  along  the  canal  trratlually  approaches  its  new  position  of 
equilibrium.  This  equilibrium  requires  much  more  than  12  hours 
for  establishment,  and  it  therefore  happens  that  the  flow  into  the 
upper  end  of  the  canal  has  not  become  as  frreat  as  the  floAv 
out  of  the  lower  end  at  daybreak  when  the  liij:htin<r  load  is  thrown 
oil'.  During  tlie  daytime  conditions  are  reversed,  and  the  inflow  is 
greater  than  the  outfloAv.  the  storage  being  built  up  slowly.  Be- 
cause of  this  fact  the  diversion  from  Lake  Michigan  is  never  quite 
as  large  as  the  maximum  figures  indicate,  but  the  monthly  and 
yearly  averages  are  practically  free  from  this  effect.  A  small  por- 
tion of  the  diversion  is,  of  course,  diverted  from  the  Chicago  Kiver 
watershed,  and  so  is  withheld  from  Lake  Michigan  but  not  diverted 
tlierefrom.  In  times  of  greatest  storms  this  local  yield  probably 
etjuals  or  exceeds  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  present  sj/stem. — By  the  construction  of  the  elaborate  drain- 
age system  described  above  the  poor  sanitary  conditions  of  a  half 
centurv  ago  have  largely  been  remedied.  All  the  important  sections 
of  the  river  receive  sufficient  lake  Avater  to  keep  up  a  continuous 
current  through  them.  Septic  action  no  longer  occurs  in  them  and 
no  serious  nuisance  exists.  The  city's  water  supply  comes  from 
intakes  well  out  in  the  lake,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  its  quality 
is  very  satisfactory.  The  improvement  in  sanitation  has  been  re- 
flected in  a  decrease  in  the  death  rate  of  the  city,  particularly,  of 
course,  in  deaths  from  water-borne  disease.  The  typhoid  rate  in 
1918  was  lower  than  in  any  other  large  city  of  the  Ignited  States. 
Down  the  Des  Plaines  and  Illinois  Rivers  for  many  miles  the  sewage 
pollution  is  very  noticeable  and  often  offensive,  although  no  really 
serious  nuisance  appears  to  exist.  At  Ottawa,  for  example,  the 
river  is  dark  and  discolored  in  appearance,  and  a  stale,  strong  odor 
arises  which  is  very  disagreeable  to  persons  along  the  shores  or  on 
the  river  in  boats,  and  is  plainly  noticeable  to  those  crossing  the  high- 
way bridge  high  above  the  water.  A  short  distance  from  the  river, 
however,  the  nostrils  do  not  detect  it.  All  fishes  and  aquatic  vege- 
table growths  have  disappeared  down  to  this  i)oint  and  for  some 
distance  below.  Conditions  are  better  than  they  were  when,  in  times 
of  very  small  sumriier  flow,  these  streams  receive<l  the  sewage  of 
Joliet,  Peoria,  and  other  cities.  In  the  lower  Illinois  River  the  carp 
fisheries  are  said  to  have  improved  since  the  canal  Avas  ojiened.  The 
Avater-power  industi'ies  in  the  valley  have  l:)een  much  benefited.  The 
damage  to  navigation  interests  in  the  Great  Lakes  system  is  discussed 
in  Sections  G  and  H  of  this  report. 

The  laAv  creating  the  sanitary  district  provided  that  Avhere  seAvage 
was  dispo.sed  of  by  dilution  the  amount  of  Avater  supplied  should  be 
not  less  than  3^  cubic  feet  per  second  for  every  1,000  population 
served.  This  rate  has  not  been  maintained,  the  apparent  reason 
therefor  being  the  opposition  of  the  shipping  interests  and  the  War 
Department.  In  the  last  fcAv  years  this  rate  has  been  reached,  or 
vciv  nearly  reached,  throughout  the  greater  part  of  July,  August^ 
and  September,  but  only  occasionally  during  the  Avinter  and  spring- 
It  is  the  general  opinion  of  sanitary  engineers  that  this  i-ate  of  3^ 
cubic  feet  per  second  per  1,000  population  represents  the  loAver  limit 
of  permissil)le  dilution  and  that  a  greater  amount  is  usually  needed 
to  'dve  satisfactorv  results. 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      179 

There  now  remain  only  two  thinf^s  that  threaten  the  purity  of  the 
Chicao:o  water  siii)ply.  One  is  the  discharfje  of  the  C'ahiniet  liiver  at 
South  Chicajxo.  Tliis  carries  the  draina<!:e  from  an  area  of  827  s<iuare 
miles  and  the  sewa<ie  of  878,000  peopk>.  Normally  the  lake  cuirent 
at  the  point  of  disc'har<>e  sets  to  the  southeast  and  carries  the  pollu- 
tion awa}'  from  the  C"hica<;o  waterworks  intakes,  hut  under  certain 
unusual  weather  comlitions  the  current  is  reversed  and  the  Avater 
supply  to  the  more  southerly  intakes  may  be  poisoned.  The  other 
thm<i:  is  the  occasional  restoration  of  the  old  eastward  flow  in  the 
Chica<^-o  River,  due  to  sudden  intense  storms.  When  a  very  violent 
rainstorm  strikes  the  whole  Chicago  Basin  the  total  run-ot!  becomes 
very  nearl}^  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  possibly  more.  If  the 
canal  is  dischar<rin<i-  nuich  less  than  this  aiuount,  it  is  possible  that 
some  flow  into  the  lake  may  occur  before  the  dischar<re  of  the  canal 
can  be  increased  enough  to  carry  away  the  whole  storm  run-olf.  If 
this  occurs  some  pollution  of  the  water  supply  nuiy  result. 

The  Calumet-Sag  Canal. — AVhen  the  population  of  the  South  Chi- 
cago region  began  to  increase  rapidly,  it  became  evident  that  its  sew- 
age was  a  considerable  menace  to  the  Chicago  water  supply.  In 
1903  this  region  was  annexed  to  the  Sanitary  District.  Its  popula- 
tion was  then  about  100,000,  Mr.  Kudolph  Ilering.  a  well-known 
sanitary  engineer,  made  a  study  of  disposing  of  its  sewage.  He  re- 
ported that  it  was  feasible  to  treat  the  sewage  by  sprinkling  filters  and 
other  apparatus  so  that  there  would  be  practically  no  danger  of  in- 
juring the  Chicago  water.  He  recommended,  however,  that  disposal 
hy  dilution  through  a  canal  running  from  the  Little  Calumet  River  to 
the  drainage  canal  Avas  cheaper  and  more  desirable.  The  proposed 
canal  was  to  run  from  the  mouth  of  Stony  Creek,  on  the  little  Calu- 
met River,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  east  of  Blue  Island,  to  a  point  on 
the  canal  about  3  miles  above  Lemont.  Its  length  Avould  be  about 
16  miles.  Its  discharge  capacity  AA-as  planned  to  be  4.000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  This  scheme  Avas  adopted  by  the  district,  except  that  the 
capacity  was  to  be  made  only  2,?)00  cubic  feet  per  second  at  first, 
and  later  enlarged  progressively  to  the  full  4,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  capacity.  As  first  constructed,  the  canal  was  to  be  20  feet 
deep,  60  feet  wide  in  rock,  and  36  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  in  earth, 
AA'ith  side  slopes  of  1  on  2  or  flatter.  When  enlarged  to  ultimate  ca- 
pacity it  was  to  be  22  feet  deep,  90  feet  Avide  in  rock  cut,  and  70  feet 
AA'ide  at  the  bottom  in  earth  cut,  Avith  side  slopes  of  3  on  5.  Construc- 
tion was  commenced  October  16,  1907,  but  Avas  soon  stopped  because 
of  opposition  by  the  War  Department.  On  March  23,  1908,  the 
United  States  brought  suit  to  restrain  the  Sanitary  District  from 
going  ahead  with  the  construction,  but  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
termining in  the  courts  the  question  of  jurisdiction.  Little  or  no  prog- 
ress was  made  in  the  construction  until  the  Secretary  of  War.  on 
June  30,  1910,  granted  a  permit  to  complete  the  Avork  provided  the 
quantity  of  AA^ater  diA'erted  from  Lake  Michigan  through  both  the 
Calumet  RiA^er  and  the  Chicago  River  together  should  not  exceed  the 
diversion  already  authorized  by  the  Secretary  of  War  for  the  Chi- 
cago RiA^er,  namely,  250.000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  Avhich  is  the  equiva- 
lent of  4,166§  cubic  feet  per  second.  Beginning  in  1911  the  work  Avas 
prosecuted  with  considerable  vigor  until  at  present  it  is  nearW  com- 
plete, though  not  in  use. 


180    Dn-ERsrox  of  water  from  great  lakes  axd  xiagara  river. 

The  operation  of  this  canal  will  prevent  sewage  from  the  Calumet 
resrion  from  enterins:  tlie  lalce  durinir  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
During  tlie  si)ring  fresliets  and  (hiring  heavy  summer  rains,  how- 
ever, its  capacity  Avill  he  much  too  small  and  a  large  flow  into  the 
lake  must  result.  The  drainage  area  of  these  rivers  is  large  and 
flood  flow  is  much  greater  than  in  the  Chicago  River.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  the  maximum  flood  flow  of  the  Calumet  River  exceeds 
15 .000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  flow  exceeds  the  capacity  of  the 
Sag  Canal  many  times  each  year,  and  each  time  this  happens  there 
will  be  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  lake  at  South  Chicago,  unless 
jirovision  is  made  to  keep  all  sewage  out  of  the  Calumet.  The  situa- 
tion could  be  somewhat  relieved  by  opening  the  old  (irrand  Calumet 
outlet  east  of  (rary  or  by  the  construction  of  a  new  artilicial  outlet, 
but  this  Avould  be  but  a  partial  cure,  as  the  floods  of  the  Little  Calu- 
met alone  far  exceed  the  capacity  of  the  Sag  Canal.  Any  such  inter- 
ference with  the  Grand  Calumet  drainage  would  require  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  State  of  Indiana. 

The  •'  &t.  Loim-Chicago  laicsiiity — On  the  very  day  that  the 
drainage  canal  was  opened  the  State  of  Missouri  brought  suit  to 
prevent  its  use.  This  suit  was  a  proceeding  in  equity  instituted  by 
the  State  of  Missouri  on  January  17,  1000,  against  the  State  of  Illi- 
nois arid  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,  prayinir  for  an  injunc- 
tion airainst  the  defendant  from  draining  into  the  Mississippi  River 
the  sewage  and  drainage  of  said  sanitary  district  by  way  of  the 
Chicago  Drainage  Canal  and  the  channels  of  the  Des  Plaines  and 
Illinois  Rivers.  Later  a  supplementary  bill  was  filed  alleging  that 
since  the  original  bill  of  com]:)laint  was  filed  the  canal  has  been 
opened  and  that  all  the  evil  effects  apprehended  have  l)een  jjroduced 
by  it.  The  introduction  of  evidence  occupied  several  years.  A  very 
large  number  of  witnesses  were  examined,  including  many  of  the 
leading  physicians,  bacteriologists,  and  sanitary  engineers  of  the 
United  States.  The  expert  opinions  of  these  men  Avere  extraordina- 
rily divergent  and  in  many  cases  absolutely  contradictory.  Some 
claimed  that  the  operation  of  the  sanitary  canal  had  made  the 
St.  Louis  water  supply  dangerous  and  unsatisfactory,  while  others 
claimed  that  it  had  improved  the  quality  and  safety  of  that  supph\ 
The  case  was  argued  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
in  October,  1905.  The  court  app-arently  felt  that  real  damage  to 
the  St.  Louis  water  sup])ly  v.as  not  definitely  proven,  for  on  Feb- 
ruary 19,  1906,  the  case  was  dismissed  without  prejudice.  If  l)etter 
evidence  or  proofs  were  discovered  on  the  Missouri  side  a  similar  suit 
might  be  brought  a  second  time,  but  no  such  action  has  been  taken. 

The  Federal  permits. — ^lention  has  already  been  made  in  the  de- 
scription of  the  Calumet-Sag  Canal  of  certain  permits  issued  by  the 
Secretary  of  War.  The  first  request  for  a  Federal  permit  made  by 
the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  was  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of 
War  under  date  of  June  16,  1896,  at  which  time  excavation  of  the 
main  drainage  canal  was  "vvell  under  way.  This  request  was  to 
widen  and  deejien  the  South  Branch  of  Chicago  River  at  designated 
lK)ints  in  order  that  it  might  have  capacity  to  conduct  to  the  head  of 
the  artificial  canal  a  flow  of  5,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  at  a 
velocity  of  1^  miles  per  hour.  The  request  was  granted  by  letter  of 
the  Secretary  of  War,  dated  July  3,  1896,  under  specified  conditions, 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIYEK.      181 

arnon<r  Avhicli  was  the  following-:  "That  the  authority  shall  not  bo 
interpreted  as  approval  of  the  plans  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chi- 
('a«ro  to  introduce  a  current  into  Chica<io  Eiver.  This  latter  propo- 
sition must  be  hei'eafter  subniiUed  for  consideration."  Fuither  i)er- 
niits  respectino;  Chicatro  River  iniiirovement  Avere  granted  Xovember 
IC),  1897.  November  30,  1898,  January  13,  1899,  March  10,  1899,  and 
May  12,  1899. 

On  April  22,  1899,  the  Sanitary  District  made  application  to  the 
Secretary  of  War  for  permission  to  open  the  canal  as  soon  as  com- 
pleted and  discharge  through  it  Avaters  of  Chicago  River  and  Lake 
Michigan,  reversing  the  current  in  Chicago  River.  This  permit  was 
granted  May  8,  1899,  it  being  expressly  stipulated  that  the  permit 
was  temporary  and  revocable  at  will ;  that  it  would  be  changed  if 
found  necessary  to  protect  commerce  in  the  river  from  unreasonable 
obstruction  because  of  the  current,  or  to  protect  property  from  in- 
jury; and  also,  "  That  it  is  distinctly  understood  that  it  is  the  inten- 
tion of  the  Secretary  of  War  to  sul)mit  the  questions  connected  Avitli 
the  work  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  to  Congress  for  consid- 
eration and  final  action,  and  that  this  permit  shall  be  subject  to  such 
action  as  may  be  taken  by  Congress." 

An  additional  ]:)ermit  with  reference  to  improvement  of  Chicago 
River  was  granted  July  11,  1900. 

On  April  9,  1901,  the  permit  of  May  8,  1899,  was  modified,  re- 
stricting the  flow  til  rough  Chicago  River  and  its  Soutli  Brancli  to  a 
maximum  of  200,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  equal  to  3,333^  cubic  feet 
per  second.  The  permit  recites  that  "  it  is  alleged  by  various  com- 
mercial and  navigation  interests  that  the  present  discharge  from  the 
river  into  the  drainage  canal  sometimes  exceeds  300,000  cubic  feet 
per  minute,  causing  a  velocity  of  nearly  3  miles  per  hour,  which 
greatly  endangers  navigation  in  the  present  condition  of  the  river." 
I'pon  application  of  the  sanitary  district,  another  modification  was 
made  by  the  Secretary  of  War  on  July  23,  1901,  permitting  a  flow 
of  300,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  between  the  hours  of  4  p.  m.  and 
midnight,  each  day.  Another  permit,  dated  December  5,  1901,  set 
the  rate  of  flow  at  250,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  (4,167  cubic  feet 
per  second)  throughout  the  24  hours  of  each  day.  Upon  application 
of  the  sanitary  district,  dated  December  29,  1902,  a  permit  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  was  issued  on  January  17,  1903,  granting  permis- 
sion to  divert  350,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  during  the  closed  season 
of  navigation  and  requiring  reduction  to  250.000  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute after  March  31,  1903.    This  permit  is  still  in  force. 

Wishing  to  construct  the  Calumet-Sag  Canal  and  divert  Lake 
Michigan  water  through  it,  thereby  reversing  the  current  in  the  Cal- 
umet River,  the  Sanitary  District  on  November  28,  1906,  made  appli- 
cation to  the  Secretary  of  War.  On  March  14,  1907,  the  petition  was 
denied.  Another  similar  application  was  made  June  27,  1910. 
Thereupon  the  Secretary  of  War,  on  June  30,  1910,  granted  a  permit 
to  complete  the  canal  and  appurtenant  works,  provided  "that  the 
amount  of  water  withdrawn  from  Lake  Michigan  through  the  Chi- 
cago and  Calumet  Rivers  together  shall  not  exceed  the  total  amount 
of  250,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  (4,167  cubic  feet  per  second)  already" 
authorized  to  be  withdrawn  through  the  Chicago  River  alone." 

Meantime,  on  September  11,  1907,  the  Secretary  of  War  issued  a- 
permit  to  connect  the  North  Shore  Canal  with  Lake  Michigan  at 


182       DIVERSION    OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AXD   XIA(iARA   RIVER. 

AVilmette  and  abstract  water  from  the  lake  throuofh  the  same,  pro- 
vided ''  that  the  total  diversion  of  -water  from  Lake  Michiiran  throiiofh 
the  Chicairo  Kiver  into  the  Illinois  River  shall  be  no  greater  than 
already  authorized  by  past  War  Department  permits."' 

On  February  5,  1912.  the  Sanitary  District  tiled  with  the  Secretary 
of  War  an  application  for  an  '"  enlargement "  of  the  permit  of  May  8, 
1899,  as  modified  by  subsequent  pei-mits,  to  embrace  a  flow  through 
both  the  Chicago  and  Calumet  Rivers  not  to  exceed  10,000  cubic  feet 
jDer  second.  This  petition  was  denied  in  a  reply  dated  January  8, 
1913,  which  went  into  the  subject  to  considerable  lengtli  and  which 
was  prepared  only  after  extended  hearings  at  which  oj^position  was 
raised  by  important  interests  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Recently  the  Sanitary  District  has  endea^-ored  to  get  Congress  to 
pass  a  bill  authorizing  a  diversion  of  12,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  but 
without  success. 

Case  of  the  United  States  v.  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago. — On 
March  23,  1908.  the  Attorney  General  of  the  United  States  caused  to 
be  filed  in  the  United  States  Circuit  Court,  Northern  District  of 
Illinois,  Eastern  Division,  a  bill  of  complaint,  Xo.  29019,  seeking  to 
enjoin  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  from  constructing  the  Calu- 
met-Sag Canal,  diverting  through  it  the  waters  of  Calumet  River  or 
Lake  Michigan  and  reversing  the  current  in  Calumet  River. 

It  was  alleged  by  the  Government  that  these  acts  would  lessen, 
impede,  and  obstruct  navigation  in  the  navigable  Calumet  River, 
and  would  lower  the  level  of  Lake  Michigan  and  thus  decrease  its 
navigability,  and  therefore  were  unlawful  under  section  10  of  the 
river  and  harbor  appropriation  act  of  March  3,  1899,  because  they 
had  neither  been  authorized  by  Congress  nor  recommended  by  the 
Chief  of  P^ngineers,  United  States  Army,  and  approved  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  War. 

The  respondent  answered,  denying  or  belittling  each  allegation,  de- 
nying that  the  Calumet  River  was  navigable  within  the  meaning  of 
the  term,  or  that  diverting  water  from  Lake  Michigan  would  lower 
its  level,  or  that  the  act  of  March  3,  1899,  was  applicable  or  even  a 
constitutional  or  valid  enactment.  At  the  same  time  the  respondent 
claimed  the  project  would  benefit  navigation  ;  that  State  law  required 
it  to  carry  out  the  project;  that  it  was  the  only  authorized  agency 
for  ]^roviding  the  needed  drainage  and  sewerage,  and  the  |)roi)()sed 
method  was  the  only  lawful  one  under  State  enactment:  that  it  made 
application  to  the  Secretary  of  War  for  a  permit  only  as  a  mere 
matter  of  comity;  and  that  the  old  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  laws 
constituted  authorization  by  Congress. 

This  answer  Avas  filed  March  23,  1908. 

Evidence  of  the  com])lainant  was  taken  fi-om  February  15,  1909,  to 
July  8,  1909.  The  defendant  proceeded  to  again  open  negotiations 
with  the  War  Department  and  did  not  for  a  time  take  testimony  on  its 
own  behalf.  The  Government  testimony  was  directed  to  the  questions 
of  the  effect  of  the  diversion  upon  the  navigable  capacity  of  the  lakes 
and  their  connecting  waters,  and  the  resulting  injury  to  the  interests 
of  navigation.  When,  finally,  on  May  31  and  June  1,  1911,  the  de- 
fendant took  testimony,  it  was  not  directed  toward  meeting  the  testi- 
mony of  the  (Tovernment  witnesses,  but  rather  to  establishing  the  de- 
sirability of  the  project  from  a  sanitary  standpoint  and  to  showing 
that  while  there  were  other  efficient  methods  for  the  disposal  of  the 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      183 

sewage  of  the  Caliiiiiet  district,  the  projiosed  dihition  method  Avas  the 
cheapest.  Thereupon  the  case  rested  while  the  defendant  again  nego- 
tiated with  the  Secretary  of  War.  On  March  18,  1918,  the  defendant 
renewed  taking  its  evidence. 

On  October  G,  11)18,  because  of  the  refusal  of  the  defendant  to  com- 
l)ly  with  the  terms  of  the  permit  of  the  Secretary  of  War  respecting 
the  diversion  tlirough  Chicago  Kiver.  the  Attorney  Oeneral  caused 
another  bill,  ecpiity  No.  114.  to  be  Hied  in  the  same  court,  praying  that 
the  defen(hint  be  enjoined  from  diverting  more  than  4,167  cubic  feet 
of  Avater  per  second  from  Lake  Michigan  througli  Chicago  Kiver. 

It  was  averred  that  Congress  had  never  authorized  any  diversion 
througli  Chicago  Kiver,  and  that  the  diversion  recommended  by  the 
Chief  of  Engineers  and  permitted  by  the  Secretary  of  AVar  was'  lim- 
ited to  4,167  cubic  feet  per  second;  that  the  diversion  greatly  ex- 
ceeded this  amount  and  was  therefore  unhnvful  under  section  10  of 
the  rivers  and  harbors  act  of  March  3,  1899.  It  was  further  held  that 
the  defendant  by  this  unauthorized  diversion  modified  and  altered  the 
Chicago  Kiver,  and  also  lowered  oil  the  Great  Lakes  except  Superior, 
and  all  the  outflow  rivers,  injuring  them  and  obstructing  navigation. 

The  Sanitarj^  District  answered  denying  that  it  asked  for  lake  water 
or  other  than  Chicago  Kiver  water,  that  its  diversion  exceeded  4,167 
cubic  feet  per  second,  that  it  had  or  would  lower  lake  levels,  that  it 
injured  navigation,  or  that  permission  from  the  Secretary  of  War  was 
necessary.  It  claimed  that  its  works  Avere  required  under  the  police 
power  of  the  State  of  Illinois  by  the  sanitary  district  act  of  May  29, 
1889 ;  that  the  Avorks  planned  would  completely  care  for  the  necessary 
sewage  and  drainage ;  that  they  provided  the  only  method  of  keeping 
sewage  out  of  the  lake  and  preserving  the  drinking  water  pure ;  and 
that  this  exercise  of  police  power  was  paramount  to  any  Federal  au- 
thority. It  claimed  further  that  a  diA'ersion  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  Avas  necessary  to  keep  flood  waters  out  of  Lake  Michigan ;  that 
the  diA^ersion  was  absolutely  necessary  to  the  health  of  the  people; 
that  because  of  the  A'ery  Ioav  watershed  divide  and  the  A^ery  large 
l)opulation  Chicago's  case  was  very  unlike  that  of  anv  other  lake  city ; 
that  $82,000,000  had  been  spent  on  the  work  Avhile  the  United  States 
knew  of  the  State's  action  and  yet  did  not  protest ;  that  the  United 
States  had  cooperated  to  the  extent  of  spending  $1,000,000  on  the  im- 
proA'ement  of  the  Chicago  KiA^er ;  that  it  had  indicated  its  approval  by 
many  investigations  and  in  reports  of  its  officials ;  that  in  the  case  of 
the  United  States  v.  Economy  Light  &  Power  Co.  it  had  held  that  the 
State,  by  cliA^ersions  from  Chicago  KiA^er  and  Lake  Michigan,  had 
made  the  navigability  of  the  Des  Plaines  Kiver  an  accomplished  fact ; 
that  GoA^ernment  records  show  that  the  full  loAvering  claimed  by  the 
(xovernment  could  be  compensated  at  an  expense  of  $5,000,000  or  less ; 
that  the  lake  levels  had  been  loAvered  by  the  act  of  the  United  States, 
of  Canada,  and  of  private  persons;  that  the  United  States  had  no 
right  to  limit  the  diA'ersion ;  and  that  it  would  cost  about  $300,000,000 
for  some  other  method  of  caring  for  the  sewage  and  Avater  supply, 
which  Avas  prohibitive  because  of  the  constitutional  debt  limit,  and 
Avhich  could  not  provide  a  method  as  satisfactory  or  efficient,  and  that 
$82,000,000  already  expended  would  be  practically  Avasted. 

The  two  suits  were  consolidated  and  heard  as  one,  and  the  taking 
of  evidence,  begun  on  March  18,  1913,  Avas  continued  until  its  final 
completion  on  December  19,  1914.    Altogether,  a  large  number  of  ex- 


184      DI^"ERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

pert  witnesses  was  called  on  each  side.  The  aro;iiments  of  counsel  on 
the  law  and  facts  were  presented  in  1915.  The  decision  of  the  dis- 
trict court  has  not  been  rendered.^ 

It  developed  in  the  testimony  that  the  defendant's  witnesses  did 
not  deny  the  lowering  of  lake  and  river  levels  or  injury  to  naviga- 
tion, but  belittled  them.  The  controversy  was  over  the  extent  of  the 
lowering,  held  by  the  defendant  to  be  only  about  60  to  80  per  cent 
as  great  as  by  the  complainant,  and  the  amount  of  the  damage  to 
navigation  was  held  by  the  defendant  to  be  much  less  than  by  the 
complainant.  Admission  was  made  that  the  diversion  had  for  years 
greatly  exceeded  4,107  cubic  feet  per  second. 

It  was  also  admitted  that  sections  9  and  10  of  the  river  and  harbor 
act  of  March  3,  1899,  were  constitutional.  Inasmuch  as  construction 
of  the  drainage  canal  was  commenced  September  3,  1892,  and  was 
nearly  complete  on  March  3,  1899,  the  defendant  argues  that  this  act 
could  not  be  applied.  The  complainant  points  out  that  sections  9 
and  10  were  mainly  corroborative  of  section  10  of  the  river  and 
harbor  act  of  September  19,  1890,  which  was  passed  prior  to  the  com- 
mencement of  construction  of  the  drainage  canal  and  constitutes  all 
needed  authority  in  the  case.  The  Sanitary  District  points  out  that  it 
is  empowered  and  required  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  by  dilution  under 
the  sanitary  district  act  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  passed  May  29,  1889, 
prior  to  both  river  and  harbor  acts  noted  above.  The  Government 
shows  that,  although  the  sanitary  district  act  was  passed  May  29, 
1889,  nothing  pertaining  to  the  construction  of  the  canal  Avas  accom- 
plished until  after  September  19,  1890. 

In  the  testimony  the  defendant  claims  the  financial  burden  caused 
the  district  by  a  strict  limitation  to  a  diversion  of  4,167  cubic  feet 
per  second  would  be  approximately  $250,000,000.       • 

Jurisdiction  of  Federal  Government. — It  appears  that  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Federal  courts  and  legislature-  over  the  (}uestion  of 
diversion  of  water  through  the  drainage  canal  arises  from  three  con- 
stitutional considerations,  namely,  that  the  Federal  (lovernment  is 
the  only  agency  that  can  deal  with  questions  of  foreign  relations; 
that  the  Federal  Government  has  to  deal  with  disputes  and  damage 
claims  between  different  States;  and  that  Congress  has  jurisdiction 
over  the  maintenance  and  improvement  of  navigable  waterways. 
The  diA^ersion  of  water  at  Chicago  affects  the  regimen  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  and  increases  flood  heights  in  7  States,  all  of  which  have 
spent  money  for  flood  protection,  changing  conditions  in  about  1,000 
miles  of  navigable  channel  in  the  Mississippi  and  its  branches,  much 
of  Avhich  lias  been  improved  by  the  Federal  Government.  This  di- 
version also  has  an  adverse  effect  on  the  depths  of  the  St.  Marys,  St. 
Clair,  Detroit,  Niagara,  and  St.  Lawrence  Rivers,  Avhich  aVe  all 
navigable  streams  improved  by  Federal  aid,  on  the  depths  of  five 
great  Government  ship  locks,  and  on  the  depths  in  more  than  100 
harl)ors  and  channels  on  the  Great  Lakes  Avhich  are  dredged  and 
maintained  by  the  Federal  Goverment.  It  has  reduced  tlie  depths  on 
the  sills  of  the  Lockport  and  Oswego  locks  of  the  Xew  Yoi-k  State 
Barge  Canal  and  has  injured  local  liarl)or  improvements  in  seven 
States.  Similar  damage  has  been  done  to  a  score  of  the  Canadian 
harbors,  to  the  three  great  Canadian  ship  canals,  and  to  the   St. 


trict 


'District  Judge  rendered  an  opinion  June  19.  1920.  decreeing  that  the  Sanitary  Dls- 
ct  be  enjoined  from   diverting  more  water  than   authorized   by   the   War  DepartiiK-nt. 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  IIIVER.      185 

Lawrence  River  where  it  rims  througli  Canadian  territory.*  These 
many  and  intricate  matters  of  interstate  and  international  impor- 
tance can  not  justly  be  dealt  with  by  the  State  of  Illinois  alone,  but 
are  proper  subjects  to  be  handled  by  the  National  Government. 

The  futurt. — The  greatest  single  factor  in  creating  Chicago's  sani- 
tary troubles  has  not  been  her  geograi)hical  position,  nor  the  nature 
of  her  soil,  nor  the  presence  of  the  packing-house  wastes.  It  is  the 
unprecedentedly  great  and  sustained  growth  of  the  cit}'  that  has 
repeatedly  frustrated  all  solutions.  If  this  growth  continues,  the 
drainage  canal  will  become  an  inadequate  sewer  just  as  the  Illinois  & 
Michigan  Canal  did  40  years  ago.  By  1950  the  sanitary  district 
ma\'  be  reasonably  expected  to  contain  5,000,000  people,  while 
G.000.000  or  7,000,000  or  even  more  would  not  be  beyond  the  bounds  of 
possibility.  If  this  happens,  the  thickly  inhabited  urban  region 
will  very  likely  spread  to  the  south  and  west,  and  the  sanitary  dis- 
trict w^ill  have  to  be  extended  to  cover  nearly  all  of  Cook  County 
and  tlie  eastern  third  of  Du  Page  County.  The  ultimate  possible 
population  of  the  territory  centering  on  the  Chicago  Kiver,  whose 
sewage  must  be  kept  out  of  Lake  Michigan,  exceeds  15,000,000  in 
Illinois,  wdth  perhaps  10,000,000  more  in  Indiana. 

The  legal  rate  of  dilution  which  the  sanitary  district  is  required 
to  maintain  is  3^  cubic  feet  per  second  for  each  1,000  inhabitants. 
That  would  require  a  discharge  of  8,G70  cubic  feet  per  second  to 
serve  the  present  population  if  the  Calumet-Sag  Canal  is  not  in  opera- 
tion, and  9,220  cubic  feet  per  second,  including  the  Calumet  district. 
The  total  capacity  of  the  canal,  at  its  usually  estimated  value  of 
14,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  would  afford  the  legal  dilution  for 
the  sewage  of  4,200,000  people.  If  the  district  be  granted  the  use  of 
14,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  in  20  or  30  years  it  must  come  back 
and  ask  for  more  in  order  to  continue  extending  the  dilution  method. 
To  supply  the  legal  dilution  for  a  population  of  15,000,000  would 
require  50,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  is  far  in  excess  of  the 
present  capacity  of  the  Illinois  Valley.  It  would  add  to  the  floods 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  would  so  lower  the  Great  Lakes  and  their 
connecting  waters  as  to  require  a  complete  readjustment  of  the  whole 
Lake  system  of  navigation. 

It  is  evident  that  dilution  by  means  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 
can  not  be  considered  as  a  permanent  solution  of  the  sanitary  prob- 
lems of  the  district.  On  the  other  hand  the  great  convenience  of 
the  present  system  and  the  fact  that  some  hundred  millions  of  dollars 
have  already  been  spent  on  it  are  points  on  the  other  side  that  should 
be  taken  into  account.  The  fact  is  that  this  question  is  one  that 
can  not  properly  be  decided  by  the  uncompromising  victory  of  one 
or  the  other  of  the  conflicting  interests  involved.  It  should  rather 
be  settled  by  Congress  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  greatest  value 
to  the  whole  country.  The  13  States  interested,  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  the  City  and  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,  the  shipping 
interests  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  water-power  interests,  should  each 
be  allowed  to  present  their  case,  and  every  effort  be  made  to  safe- 
guard the  interests  of  each  with  due  regard  to  the  rights  and  neces- 
sities of  the  others.  ^Vithout  going  into  details  it  may  be  said  that  the 
final  decision  might  well  contain  the  following  elements:  (1)  The 
Sanitary  District  to  be  allowed  the  use  of  such  water  as  may  be  found 
necessary  to  dispose  of  by  dilution  the  sewage  now  entering  the 


186      DIVERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA   RIVER. 

Chica fro  River,  and  to  prevent  any  flow  from  the  Chicaoo  River  into 
the  hike  diirin«r  storms.  (2)  Works  to  be  built  on  the  rivers  of 
the  (neat  Lakes  system  to  compensate  for  the  lowerin<r  of  water 
levels  due  to  this  diversion.  These  works  to  be  desianeil  an<l  l)uilt 
jointly  by  the  I'nited  States  and  Canada  and  paid  for  by  the  Sanitary 
I)istric't  of  Clnca<2;o.  (3)  The  Sanitary  District  to  be  prohibited 
absolutely  from  any  further  diversion,  regardless  of  increase  in  popu- 
lation, and  directed  to  proceed  forthwith  to  formulate  a  compre- 
liensive  scheme  of  purification,  and  to  proceed  with  its  installation 
in  order  that  any  effluent  discharged  into  the  Des  Plaines  or  Illinois 
Rivers  can  be  sent  down  the  A'alley  without  nuisance  or  danger  even 
though  the  dilution  obtained  is  much  less  than  3^  cubic  feet  per 
second  per  thousand  of  population,  (-i)  The  diversion  to  be  so  effected 
as  not  to  hinder  navigation  in  the  Chicago  River.  (5)  The  question 
of  the  Sag  Canal  to  have  special  consideration,  thought  being  given 
to  the  future  needs  of  Garj',  Indiana  Harbor,  Hammond,  and  the 
other  towns  in  Indiana  on  the  Calumet  drainage.  Diversion  through 
the  Calumet-Sag  Canal  to  be  allowed  only  if  a  comprehensive  scheme 
can  be  devised  which  will  protect  the  purity  of  Lake  Michigan  in 
spite  of  spring  floods  or  summer  thunderstorms.  (6)  The  pollu- 
tion of  lake  Avaters  by  ships  to  be  prevented.  (7)  A  fair  license  fee 
])er  cubic  foot  of  Avater  per  second  di^'erted  to  be  paid  the  Federal 
Government. 

2.    BLACK  RIVER  CANAL. 

The  Great  Lakes  drainage  system  contains  no  less  than  18  streams 
bearing  the  name  '"  Black  River "  or  "  Black  Creek."  The  Black 
River  considered  here  rises  nortliAvest  of  Port  Sanilac,  Mich.,  about 
11  miles  west  of  Lake  Huron,  flows  south,  passes  through  the  city  of 
Port  Huron,  and  enters  the  St.  Clair  Ri^-er  about  2]  miles  l)elow  the 
foot  of  Lake  Huron.  Its  length  is  about  65  miles,  and  it  drains  about 
450  square  miles  of  territory.  During  the  spring  freshets  the  dis- 
charge of  this  river  amounts  to  several  thousand  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, but  during  the  summer  months  there  is  practically  no  flow. 

The  scAvage  from  a  large  part  of  Port  Huron  is  discharged  into 
this  river,  including  vei\y  foul  Avastes  from  a  sulphite  pulp  mill. 
Formerly,  during  the  summer  months,  the  loAver  part  of  the  river 
became  a  stagnant  cesspool  extending  through  the  heart  of  the  city. 
The  unsightly  a])pearance  and  extremely  offensiA'e  odor  of  the  stream 
constituted  an  intolerable  nuisance. 

To  remedy  these  conditions  the  city  constructed  a  canal  from  Lake 
Huron  to  a  ])oint  on  the  river  above  the  city.  Through  this  channel 
there  noAv  floAvs  a  constant  current  of  Avater,  preventing  stagnation 
in  the  lower  reach  of  the  river.  The  canal  leaves  Lake  Huron  at  a 
jKunt  about  If  miles  aboA'e  Fort  Gratiot  Light,  and  runs  directly  to 
the  nearest  bend  of  the  river,  a  distance  of  about  5,800  feet.  It  hits 
the  river  4|  miles  above  its  mouth.  The  canal  has  a  bottom  Avidth  of 
25  feet  Avith  side  slopes  of  approximately  U  to  1.  The  average  depth 
of  Avater  is  G  feet.  The  fall  from  the  head  of  the  canal  to  the  mouth 
of  Black  River  averages  about  1.25  feet,  Avhich  is  api)roximatelv  one- 
quarter  r)f  the  total  fall  of  the  St.  Clair  River.  The  maximum  fall 
is  said  to  be  about  2^  feet.  This  fall  occurs  almost  entirely  in  the 
canal  itself. 


DIVERSTON   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     187 

The  mean  discharge  is  reported  to  be  about  400  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, and  the  maximum  about  twice  as  much.  Construction  of  the 
canal  was  commenced  in  1901  and  completed  in  1912.  The  cost  was 
about  $125,000.  The  upper  end  of  the  canal  is  frequently  partly 
blocked  by  sand  and  gravel  from  Lake  Huron  and  requires  consid- 
erable dredging  to  keep  it  clear.  Aside  from  this  difficulty  the  opera- 
tion of  the  canal  has  been  entirely  successful  and  the  results  desired 
have  been  obtained. 

The  effect  of  this  diversion  is  treated  briefly  in  Section  G  of  this 
report.  The  principle  involved  is  important,  iDut  the  actual  eifect  is 
very  slight. 

Photographs  Xos.  50  and  51  show,  respectively,  the  head  of  the 
Black  Eiver  Canal  and  the  mouth  of  Black  River. 

3.  PROPOSED  ERIE   AND  ONTARIO   SANITARY  CANAL. 

The  proposed  power,  ship,  and  sanitary  canal  of  the  Erie  & 
Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  Co.  has  been  described  in  section  A  of  this 
report.  It  is  understood  that  the  sewage  of  Lackawanna  and  other 
southern  and  eastern  suburbs  of  Buffalo  will  be  discharged  directly 
into  this  canal.  Buffalo  Creek  is  to  be  reversed,  and  its  flow,  to- 
gether with  the  4,000  or  5.000  cubic  feet  per  second  admitted  to  the 
branch  canal  at  Black  Rock,  is  expected  to  cause  a  constant  inflow 
of  Lake  Erie  water  into  Buffalo  Harbor.  All  the  sewage  will  then 
go  down  the  canals  and  none  down  the  river  except  a  very  little 
through  the  Black  Rock  ship  lock.  The  sewage  of  Black  Rock, 
North  Buffalo,  and  Tonawanda  Avill  discharge  directly  into  the 
branch  canal.  North  Tonawanda  would  probably  be  connected  with 
the  main  canal  by  a  trunk  sewer  or,  possibly,  would  discharge  its 
sewage  into  the  barge  canal.  Intercepting  sewers  would  be  re- 
quired along  the  river  front  of  both  the  Tonawandas  to  collect  sew- 
age now  discharged  into  the  river.  The  estimate  submitted  by  the 
company  provides  for  rough  screening  of  the  sewage  before  it  en- 
ters the  canal,  and  in  some  of  the  prospectuses  an  offer  is  made  to 
give  it  whatever  further  treatment  it  may  require  to  prevent  form- 
ing dangerous  or  offensive  conditions  in  Lake  Ontario. 

The  proposed  diversion  of  water  is  26,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
This  is  described  in  the  draft  of  a  bill  sul^mitted  by  the  company  as 
"the  use  of  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  allowed  by  the 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  for  power,  together  with  6,000  cubic  feet 
of  water  per  second  further  allowed  by  article  5  of  said  treaty  for 
sanitation  and  navigation." 

The  present  population  of  the  area  to  be  served  by  the  canal  is 
perhaps  600,000.  Allowing  for  future  growth,  6,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  is  about  the  quantity  that  would  be  required  to  dilute  the 
sewage  from  this  district  and  carry  it  away  without  creating  anj- 
serious  nuisance.  Under  the  proposed  scheme,  when  20,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  have  been  diverted  for  power  develoi^ment  all  the 
sewage  of  this  region  could  be  properly  diluted  and  carried  away 
by  the  same  water.  In  fact,  the  dilution  would  be  more  than  three 
times  as  great  as  is  usually  considered  necessar^^  To  divert  6,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  additional  for  "  sanitary  purposes  "  is  a  pro- 
posal of  doubtful  justification.    Whether  or  not  it  would  be  possible 


188      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKE?  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

without  violatino:  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  is  a  question  of  hiw. 
It  appears  contrary  to  the  intent  of  the  treaty. 

That  the  water  of  the  Xia<^ara  Kiver  is  now  contaminated  and 
polhited  by  sewage  can  not  be  denied.  AVithout  purification  it  is  not 
tit  to  drink.  The  city  of  Buti'ak)  gets  its  water  supply  from  an  in- 
take which  normally  receives  Lake  Erie  water  with  little  or  no  con- 
tamination from  Buffalo  or  Lackawanna  sewage.  Under  unusual 
conditions  of  winds  and  currents  it  may  be  so  contaminated.  The 
cities  of  Tonawanda,  North  TonaAvanda,  Lockport.  and  Niagara 
Falls  receive  a  suppl}^  that  is  seriously  polluted.  The  solution  of  the 
i:)roblem  of  giving  these  cities  a  satisfactory  supply  can  l)e  attempted 
by  two  different  methods.  It  may  be  determined,  on  the  one  hand, 
to  bring  the  whole  207,000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  the  Niagara  River 
water  into  a  pure,  safe,  potable  condition  and  retain  it  so.  On  the 
other  hand  some  pollution,  devoid  of  gross  nuisance,  may  be  per- 
mitted, the  main  effort  being  directed  toward  purification  of  the  300 
or  -100  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  which  is  pumped  to  supply 
the  cities  of  the  Niagara  frontier,  including  Buffalo. 

The  veiw  thorough  investigations  Ijy  the  International  Joint  Com- 
mission have  shown  conclusivel}'  that  the  water  of  Lake  Erie  does 
not  afford  a  safe  domestic  suppl}-.  It  is  contaminated  by  the  waste 
of  the  mam'  cities  on  its  shores  and  of  the  vast  fleet  on  its  waters. 
The  rapidly  increasing  population  of  both  shores  of  the  river  and  of 
Grand  Island  adds  its  pollution  to  the  river  waters.  After  the  ut- 
most has  been  done  to  exclude  the  sewage  of  Buffalo  and  its  suburbs 
from  the  river,  the  water  will  still  need  treatment  before  it  is  fit 
for  use.  The  solution  of  the  problem  l)y  the  first  method  will  neces- 
sarily be  incomplete. 

While  the  first  method  tries  to  maintain  the  waters  of  an  immense 
river,  draining  a  settled  area  of  276,000  square  miles,  in  a  pure  and 
potable  condition,  the  second  method  applies  intensive  methods  of 
])urification  to  the  small  ([uantity  of  water  which  needs  to  be  pure. 
Onl}^  about  one  six-hundredths  of  the  flow  of  the  river  need  be 
treated.  That  this  may  surely  and  economically  be  accomplished  is 
abundantly  demonstrated  by  the  experience  of  the  citv  of  Niagara 
Falls. 

Niagara  Falls  was  formerly  supplied  by  the  Western  NeAV  York 
Water  Co.,  with  untreated  Niagara  River  water  taken  from  near  the 
American  shore.  The  supply  was  badh^  polluted  by  the  sewage  of 
Buffalo,  the  Tonawandas,  La  Salle,  and  Echota.  The  dangerous  na- 
ture of  the  water  was  notorious,  and  intelligent  people  depended 
largely  on  wells  and  bottled  spring  water  for  their  drinking  wat€r. 
Nevertheless,  typhoid  fever  was  endemic  to  a  marked  degree.  The 
typhoid  death  rate  varied  from  93  to  224  per  100,000  and  was  one  of 
the  highest  in  the  United  States.  As  the  city  is  visited  by  more  than 
1.000.000  siglitseers  every  year,  it  served  as  a  focus  of  infection  for 
spreading  the  disease  over  the  entire  country.  In  1012  the  city 
ojjcned  a  municipal  waterworlcs  with  mechanical  filters,  and  soon 
after  the  Western  New  York  Water  Co.  began  clilorinating  it-;  snp- 
ply.  The  typhoid  rate  fell  at  once,  and  since  then  has  been  only 
about  one-tenth  as  great  as  before.  Table  No.  12  shows  the  death 
rates  due  to  typhoid  fever  since  1903,  expressed  as  deaths  per  100,000 
of  population : 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     189 


Table  No.  12. — Typlioid  fever  death  rate  per  100,000  in  Niufjara  Fulls,  N.  Y. 

ino.3  to  J  on. 


]!>(i:5 212 


li»04 

.  _      _    153 

1905      _  

224 

1906 

1907 

14S 

190S 

_  __     96 

1909        _  __. 

.  _          93 

1910 

.  _   -      _  102 

1911 

167 

3912  ' 2S 

1913 25 

1914 10 

1915 

1916 

1917 


11 
10 


Meau  of  6  years 14 


Mean  of  8  years 149 

The  International  Joint  Commission  has  made  a  very  extended 
and  thorough  study  of  the  polhition  of  boundary  waters,  including 
Niagara  River.  The  commission  recommends  seAvage  treatment  by 
Buffalo  and  other  cities  along  the  river  to  an  extent  which  will  abate 
present  nuisances  and  greatly  lessen  the  dangers  from  pollution, 
holding  that  purification  of  water  supplies  will  still  be  required,  the 
sewage-purification  processes  providing  a  "  margin  of  safety  "  for 
the  water-supply  purification  works.  The  report  of  the  commission 
was,  in  part,  as  follows : 

The  reference  specifically  calls  for  consideration  by  the  commission,  of  drain- 
aw  canals  as  a  possible  way  or  means  of  remedyintc  «i'  preventing  the  trans- 
boundary  effect  of  pollution.  The  only  suggestion  that  lias  been  made  before 
the  commission  of  a  drainage  canal  project  is  that  promoted  by  the  Erie  & 
Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  Co.  This  convi)any  was  organized  primarily  for  power 
purposes,  but  among  the  objects  in  its  application  for  incorporation  is  remedy- 
ing the  pollution  of  tlie  Niagara  River  by  the  construction  of  a  canal  starting 
at  or  near  the  mouth  of  Smokes  Creek  in  the  city  of  Lackawanna  and  thence 
running  through  a  well-settled  counti-y  to  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  proposed  that 
the  canal  should  be  uscmI  f.'-ce  of  chaige  l)y  the  citi(^s  of  Lackawanna,  Buffalo, 
Tonawnnda,  North  Tonawanda,  Niagara  Falls  (United  States),  and  Lockport, 
and  by  other  municipalities  and  communities  on  the  United  States  side  of  the 
Niagara  River  to  carry  off  their  sewage  and  storm  flows,  which  are  now  dis- 
charged into  Lake  P]rie  and  the  Niagara  River,  provided  each  city  or  town 
make  its  own  connection  with  the  canal  without  expense  to  the  company.  Tlie 
company  applied  to  the  Secretary  of  War  for  the  LTnited  States  by  applica- 
tion dated  April  28,  1912,  for  perndssion  to  divert  for  its  purposes  6,000  second- 
feet  of  water  from  Lake  Erie  and  the  Niagara  River.  The  necessary  authority 
for  the  diversion  of  this  \\ater  was  denied  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  but  the  company  desired  to  secure  from  the  commission  an  approval  of 
the  canal  as  a  feasible  solution  of  fhe  pollution  problem  in  the  Niagara  River. 
Opportunities  were  afforded  the  company  to  appear  before  the  commission  on 
several  occasions.  The  company's  president.  Mr.  filillard  F.  Bowen;  its  counsel, 
i\lr.  George  Clinton,  and  others  on  its  behalf  made  at  the  different  .sittings  able 
and  lengthy  arguments,  and  briefs  were  submitted  to  the  commission  contain- 
ing statements  of  fact  and  arguments  from  Messrs.  Randolph,  Clinton,  Bowen, 
and  Shiras  in  support  of  the  schema.  Quite  a  large  amount  of  evidence  was 
taken,  as  will  appear  on  reference  to  the  records  of  the  commission.  The  finan- 
cial and  sanitary  features  of  the  project  did  not,  however,  appear  to  have 
been  sufficiently  investigated.  The  plans  and  data  submitted  were  conse- 
quently referred  to  the  consulting  engineer  foi-  further  investigation  and  report. 
His  report  was  decidedly  adverse  to  the  undertaking  for  two  principal  reasons: 
(1)  It  proposed  to  receive  sewage  in  its  raw  condition  into  the  canal,  thus 
creating  a  large  open  sewer.  A  condition,  of  serious  menace  would  therefore 
ol)tain  throughout  its  length,  and  if  the  sewage  were  allowed  to  pass  into  Lake 
Ontario  conditions  there  won]0  be  at  least  no  less  objectionable  than  they  are 
at  present.  (2)  The  treatment  required  to  prevent  nuisance  in  such  a  canal 
v.'ould  necessarily  be  more  complete  and  correspondingly  expensive  than  treat- 
ment required  for  the  protection  of  rhe  Niagara  River,  a  result  due  to  the  com- 


»  Filter  instaUed. 


190      1»IVERSI0X   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD   XIAGARA  RIVER 

ixiratively  small  voluiue  of  diluting  water  available  in  the  canal  and  the  con- 
se<^iuent  necessity  for  thorouirh  treatment  of  the  sewaire  by  expensive  oxidizing 
metliods.  These  ivasdns  would  aiiply  with  niuc'ii  .mvaler  force  in  the  fulure. 
Buffalo  and  the  towns  below  are  rapidly  growinjr.  Should  their  combined 
popuhition  reaeh  a  total  of  1.U<MJ,^AM),  the  djlutins  power  of  vhe  diverted  water 
would  be  so  inadequate  that  durinj?  the  summer  months  the  waters  of  the  canal 
would  be  devoid  of  oxy;.'en,  dark  in  color,  and  foul  smelling.  One  nuisance 
would  be  abatetl  by  the  creation  of  a  nuich  greater  nuisance,  which  could  only 
be  corrected  by  the  most  intense  sewage  jiuriticatiou.  The  commission,  after 
full  consideration  of  all  the  features  of  the  project,  is  of  the  opinion  that  be- 
sides being  objectionable  on  otlier  grounds  it  is  inadvisable  as  a  sanitary 
measure. 

(»n  the  genei-al  question  of  drainage  canals  as  a  method  of  sewage  disposal 
the  commission  is  unable  to  express  any  opinion,  as  each  case  must  be  decided 
upon  its  merits.  Consideration  of  any  scheme  involves  a  study  of  the  amount  of 
water  available  for  diversion,  the  water-carrying  capacity  of  the  canal,  the 
amount  of  raw  sewage  to  be  discharged  into  it,  the  character  and  cost  of  treat- 
ment of  the  sewage  to  be  carried,  and  the  consequent  interference  with  the 
many  other  interests  which  may  be  affected,  all  of  which  elements  vary  accord- 
ing to  local  circumstances  and  conditions. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  proposed  sanitary  canal  will  not  make 
the  Xiagara  Eiver  a  safe  and  satisfactory  water  supply  for  the  fron- 
tier cities  without  further  treatment  b}^  individual  communities.  The 
studies  and  estimates  in  Section  F  of  this  report  show  that  a  com- 
bined power  and  ship  canal  on  the  La  Salle-Lewiston  route  would 
develop  as  much  power  as  the  proposed  sanitary  canal,  would  l)e  a 
much  better  ship  canal,  and  would  be  nuich  cheaper.  The  differ- 
ence in  cost  of  the  two  canals  Avould  be  far  more  than  enouirh  to 
provide  water  purification  plants  for  all  the  frontier  cities.  More- 
over, if  these  cities  build  such  plants,  the  cost  will  be  borne  by  the 
people  benefited,  while  under  the  plan  of  the  Erie  &  Ontario  Sani- 
tary Canal  Co.  the  cost  of  providing  better  water  for  these  cities  is 
to  be  added  to  the  price  of  power  and  borne  by  the  customers  of  the 
company.     Surely  this  is  an  inequitable  arranofement. 

The  conclusion  must  be  that,  considered  as  a  sanitary  project,  this 
scheme  has  little  to  recommend  it.  Its  navigational  and  power 
aspects  are  treated  in  Sections  A  and  F,  respectively,  of  this  report. 

4.  DIVERSIOXS  OF  CITIES. 

The  only  remaining  diversions  of  water  from  the  Great  Lakes  sj^s- 
tem  for  sanitary  purposes  are  the  diversions  of  cities  bordering  the 
Great  Lakes  and  outflow  rivers  for  water  supply  and  sewer  flusliing. 
The  most  notable  example  of  flushing  is  that  at  Milwaukee,  where 
nearly  1,000  culnc  feet  of  water  per  second  is  ptunped  at  three  jjump- 
ing  stations  to  flush  the  Milwaukee,  Menomonee.  and  Kinnickinnic 
Rivers.  In  this  instance  the  lake  water  used  in  flushing  these  rivers 
and  a  few  trunk  sewers  is  soon  returned  to  the  lake  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  points  of  diversion.  At  Chicago  the  pumpage  for  water 
supply  is  about  1,050  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  exjuu-ience  of  sani- 
tary engineers  is  that  practically  the  full  amount  of  the  water  supply 
eventually  finds  its  way  into  the  sewers.  In  the  case  of  Chicago  the 
sewage  passes  down  the  drainage  canal,  hence  the  water  supply  forms 
a  part  of  the  diversion  measured  at  Lockpoi-t.  and  previously  dis- 
cussed in  this  section.  The  other  cities  all  return  their  supplies  to 
the  lakes  and  connecting  waters  within  a  few  miles  of  the  point  of 
div<'i-if)n.     The  quantities  are  small.     At  Buffalo  the  diversion  is 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.      191 

approximately  220  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  Detroit,  the  largest  lake 
city  after  Chicaoo,  it  amounts  on  the  average  to  225  cubic  feet  per 
second.  The  effects  of  all  these  diversions,  except  that  at  Chicago, 
upon  lake  levels  or  navigation  are  absolutely  trivial. 

W.  S.  Richmond. 
Section  C. 

DIVERSIONS  FOR  POWER  PURPOSES. 
].    ST.  :\rARTS  FALLS  CANALS. 

The  total  diversion  of  water  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  for  power  develop- 
ment is  approximately  43,()()()  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  the  rapids  of 
the  St.  Marys  River  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  there  is  a  head  of  from  17 
to  21  feet  which  is  available  for  power  development.  The  mean  flow 
of  the  river,  including  the  ship  canals  and  power  canals,  is  about 
75,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  It  thus  appears  that  a  little  more  than 
half  of  the  river  flow  is  used  to  develop  power.  The  total  power  pro- 
duction averages  about  54,750  horsepower.  The  compensating  works 
which  prevent  this  use  of  water  from  lowering  Lake  Superioi-  unduly 
are  described  in  Section  G  of  this  report,  which  deals  with  lake  levels. 

There  are  three  power  plants  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  one  on  the  Ca- 
nadian side  and  two  on  the  American.  The  location  of  each  is  shown 
on  the  map  on  plate  No.  3. 

Government  plants. — The  United  States  Government  power  plant 
is  located  in  the  rapids  on  the  American  side  abreast  of  the  west  end 
of  the  fourth  lock.  A  small  plant  was  first  constructed  by  the  Edison 
Sault  Light  &  Power  Co.  in  1887.  and  was  extended  from  time  to  time. 
It  was  located  a  little  south  of  the  present  site.  In  1906  the  present 
plant  was  built,  extending  farther  into  the  rapids  than  the  earlier 
one,  and  estimated  to  divert  about  1,400  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  plant  was  acquired  by  the  United  States  in  1912  and  leased  to 
the  Edison  Sault  Electric  Co.  by  the  Secretary  of  War  under  date  of 
June  25,  1912.  Under  the  terms  of  this  lease  the  plant  was  enlarged 
in  1915-16  and  another  unit  added,  making  a  total  installation  of 
about  2,575  horsepower.  The  lease  contemplates  a  final  development 
of  5,335  horsepower  over  and  above  the  power  required  by  the  LTnited 
States  for  lighting  and  operating  locks  and  other  purposes. 

The  headrace  of  this  plant  is  formed  by  a  dike  about  2,700  feet 
long  extending  downstream  from  one  of  the  piers  of  the  International 
Bridge  at  the  head  of  the  rapids,  and  is  closed  at  its  lower  end  by  a 
pier,  sluice  gates,  and  the  power  house.  The  total  length  of  this  head- 
race is  about  2,100  feet,  its  Avidth  is  about  700  feet,  and  its  depth 
varies  from  2  to  10  feet.  The  gross  head  varies  from  17  to  21  feet, 
the  head  at  the  power  house  ranging  from  17  to  19^  feet.  A  tailrace 
approximately  100  feet  wide  leads  downstream  from  the  power  house 
about  1,700  feet  to  a  point  near  the  foot  of  the  rapids. 

The  power  house  contains  five  units.  Four  of  these  are  71-inch 
Sampson  turbines,  each  with  vertical  shaft  direct  connected  to  a  450- 
kilowatt  generator  delivering  three-phase  alternating  current.  The 
fifth  unit  is  a  60-inch  Allis-Chalmers  vertical-shaft  turbine  direct 
connected  to  an  alternator.  There  are  also  two  small  turbines,  rated 
at  110  horsepower  each,  which  drive  the  exciters.    The  average  power 


192      DITEKSION   OF   WATEll  FR01\I   GREAT  LAKES  AND  XIAGARA  RIVER, 

developed  is  750  horsepower.  The  water  consumed  is  1,030  cubic 
feet  per  second,  of  which  500  cubic  feet  per  second  is  estimated  to  be 
wasted  through  the  shiices  or  lost  by  leaka^ie  throu<jh  the  dike. 

Part  of  the  power  is  used  b}'  the  United  States  for  li^ditinir  and 
operating  locks  anil  the  remainder  carries  a  miscellaneous  lin;ht  and 
power  load  in  the  city  of  Sanlt  Ste.  Marie,  Alich.  The  contem- 
plated ultimate  dcA-elopment  of  5.335  horsepower  over  and  above  the 
power  required  by  the  United  States  will  probably  require  a  diver- 
sion of  somewhat  more  than  4,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Michfc/on  Northern  Poiver  Co. — The  plant  of  the  ^Iichi<?an 
Northern  Power  Co.  is  on  the  American  shore  about  a  mile  l)elow 
the  locks  and  is  supplied  with  wati^r  by  a  canal  runninni;  from  near 
the  Avestern  entrance  of  the  ship  canal.  This  canal  or  headrace  is 
about  12.000  feet  lon<j.  The  doAvnstream  portion  has  a  trapezoidal 
cross  section  162  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  200  feet  wide  at  the  water 
surface,  and  about  24  deet  deep,  lined  with  timber.  The  upper  part 
is  a  rock  cut  of  equivalent  size.  The  gross  head  varies  from  17  to  21 
feet.    The  net  head  at  the  ])Ower  house  at  present  is  about  IG  feet. 

The  power  house  contains  79  pairs  of  turbines,  15  pairs  of  341:-inch 
and  G4  pairs  of  33-inch,  direct  connected  by  horizontal  shafts  to 
small  electric  jrenerators.  The  average  amount  of  water  used  is 
30,000  cubic  feet  per  second  and  the  average  power  output  is 
35,000  horsepower.  Part  of  this  power  is  used  for  street  railway 
operation,  but  the  bulk  of  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  calcium 
•earbide  in  the  nearby  plant  of  the  Union  Carbide  Co. 

This  plant  was  built  by  the  Michigan  Lake  Superior  Power  Co.  in 
1898-1902.  About  8,500  cubic  feet  per  second  were  used  in  1906.  In 
1909,  35  out  of  the  42  units  installed  were  generally  in  use.  About 
12,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  was  being  consumed,  and  the 
average  output  was  about  11,000  horsepower.  In  1913  the  name  was 
changed  to  Michigan  Xorthern  Power  Co.,  and  under  terms  of  a 
lea.se  executed  by  the  Secretary  of  War  ]\Iay  28,  1914,  the  company 
■completed  its  plant  by  the  addition  of  37  new  units.  No  further  ex- 
tension of  the  plant  is  contemplated,  but  the  amount  of  water  used 
may  be  increased  by  perhaps  10  per  cent. 

Great  Lakes  Power  Co. — The  plant  of  the  Great  Lakes  Power  Co. 
IS  in  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Ontario,  about  500  feet  north  of  the  eastern 
gates  of  the  Canadian  lock.  The  headrace  leads  from  the  bay  north 
of  the  u))per  entrance  to  the  Canadian  ship  canal.  It  is  a  little  more 
than  2.000  feet  long,  4,500  including  channel  through  the  bay,  and  is 
now  being  enlarged  to  a  width  of  400  feet  and  depth  of  12  feet.  The 
gross  head  varies  from  17  to  21  feet,  the  head  at  the  power  house 
averaging   about   18   feet. 

The  old  jiower  house  contains  three  old  51-inch  350-horsepower 
McCormick  turbines  which  are  connected  to  dynamos  by  gears.  The 
new  poAver  house  contains  24  modern  vertical-shaft  hydroelectric 
units.  These  are  Allis-Chalmers  turbines  rated  at  825  horseyiower 
each.  The  pulp  mill  contains  12  units,  each  consisting  of  five  31-inch 
American  runners  mounted  on  a  horizontal  shaft  and  rated  at  1,200 
horsepower.  These  drive  the  pulp  grinders.  The  total  rated  power 
of  the  installation  is  approximately  35,000  horsepower  at  a  head  of 
18  to  18.5  feet.  The  average  power  developed  is  19,000  horsepower 
■and  the  average  water  u.sed  is  12,000  cubic  feet  per  second.     This 


Photograph  No.  45.— NEW    YORK    STATE    BARGE    CANAL. 
By-Pass  at  Lockport.  N.  Y 


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Photograph   No.  46,-    NEW    YORK    STATE    BARLhE    CANAL. 
Guara    Lock    No.  72,  Old    Erie   Canal,  Hamilton    Street,  Burfalo,   N.  Y. 


ituyraiji^   iMu.  4;.      ;>  i  .    LAWRENCE    CANALS. 
Waste  Weir  and  Gates  at  Lock  No.  27. 


Photograph  No.  48.— ST.    LAWRENCE   CANALS. 
Galop  Canal  above  Iroquois,  Ontario. 


Photograph  Nc.  49.— ST.    LAWRENCE    CANALS. 
Lock  No.  24. 


Photograph  No.  50. —  HEAD    OF    BLACK    RIVER    CANAL,    LAKE    HURON. 


Photograph  No.  51. —  MOUTH    OF  BLACK    RIVER,    PORT   HURON,    MICH. 


i  J^ 


Photograph    No.    53.      CANAL    OF    MICHIGAN    NORTHERN    POWER    CO,.SAULT   STE. 

MARIE.    MICH. 


Photograph   No.  55.  -SECTOR   DAM   AT  POWER   HOUSE  OF  SANITARY  DISTRICT  OF 

CHICAGO.    ILL. 


Photograph  No.  56.— POWER    HOUSE   AT  JOLIET.    ILL. 


Photograph  No.  57.— DAM    ON    ILLINOIS    RIVER   AT    MARSEILLES.    ILL. 


Photograph  No.  58.— MAIN    POWER    CANAL   AT    MARSEILLES.    ILL. 


Photograph  No.  59.— MILLS   AND    POWER   HOUSf 


MARSEILLES    DAM. 


Photograph  No.  60.— MILLS    NEAR    LOCK    NO.    i.    OLD    WELLAND   CANAL. 


Photograph   No.  61. -MILLS    NEAR    LOCK    NO.    2.    OLD    WELLAND    CANAL. 


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DIVERSION    OF   WATEIl    FROM    (IKKAT    I.AKKS    AND    NIACAltA   lllVF.lt.      193 

power  is  used  for  <)}H'r!itin<r  :i  lar;j:t'  paper  mill  aiul  I'oi"  >iippl\iiiLr 
power  for  a  steel  plant,  city  lin[litin«2:  and  ])inni)in;r.  and  ^fcncral  roni- 
mercial  purposes. 

This  plant  was  l)nilt  l»y  tlie  Lake  Superior  Tower  Co.  in  ls'.)r.-lt>(il, 
and  acquired  bv  the  i)resent  owners  in  IHK),  since  when  it  has  been 
greatly  enlarged.  It  is  understood  that  the  present  |)lant  is  jjlannecl 
for  the  use  of  about  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  power  outputs  and  Avater  consumptions  given  above  are  only 
approximate  and  the  gross  head  is  not  accurately  known,  .so  the 
efficiency  of  the  plants  can  only  be  estimated  rougldy.  At  the  time 
when  these  figures  were  compiled  the  total  fall  at  the  Soo  was  about 
19  feet.  Tender  this  head,  with  100  per  cent  efficiency.  1  cul)ic  foot 
of  water  ])er  second  would  produce  2.1()  horsepower.  Table  No.  13 
shows  the  efficiency  of  the  various  plants. 

Table  No.  13. — Present  operation.  Siiidt   Stc  Marie  pmrer  plantn. 


Plant. 


United  States  Government 

Michigan  Northern  Power  Co. 
Great  Lakes  Power  Co 


Total  or  weighted  average. 


Water 

u.sed 

(cubic 

feet  per 

second). 


Power 
produced 
(horse- 
power). 


Ilorse- 
powcr 
per  cubic 
foof  per 
second. 


1  1,030  750 

30,000        35,000 
12,000         19,000 


0.73 
1.17 
1.58 


Over-all 

efn- 
ciency. 


PtTcent. 
34 
54 
73 


43,030  i      54.750 


1.27 


.59 


1  Including  500  cubic  feet  per  second  wasted. 


The  overall  efficiency  of  the  Government  plant  based  on  the  530 
cubic  feet  per  second  actually  passing  through  its  turbines  is  65  per 
cent. 

In  photograph  No.  52  is  a  rear  view  of  the  Government  power 
house.    No.  53  is  of  the  canal  of  the  Michigan  Northern  Power  Co. 


2.   CHICAGO   DRAINAGE    CANAL. 

Lockport  plant.— At  the  downstream  end  of  the  Chicago  Drainage 
Canal  6,800  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  are,  on  the  average,  used 
in  the  production  of  hvdroelectric  power.  The  use  of  this  water  is 
secondary  and  incidental  to  its  primary  use  in  diluting  the  sewage 
of  Chicago  under  the  present  disposal  system.  This  water  is  a  por- 
tion of  that  already  reported  in  Section  B  as  being  diverted  from 
Lake  Michigan  for  sanitary  uses.  ,       x-     , 

The  «yeneral  location  of  the  power  house  is  shown  on  plate  >o.  4. 

After  the  opening  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  in  1000.  the  sani- 
tary district  decided  to  develop  the  water  power  which  was  available 
at  its  lower  end.  As  the  bed  of  the  Des  Plaines  River  has  a  stee]) 
slope  immediately  below^  the  controlling  works  at  Lockport,  the  canal 
was  extended,  mainlv  by  rock  and  earth  em])ankments,  2  miles  to  the 
present  site  of  the  power  house,  and  the  lock  and  spillways  beside  it, 
which  are  described  in  Section  A  of  this  report.  The  channel  exten- 
sion has  a  depth  of  24  feet  at  lowest  prevailing  stage  and  a  minimum 
27880—21 13 


194      DIVERSION    OF    WATER  FKO.M   GREAT   LAKES   AND    NIAGARA   RIVER. 

width  of  160  feet.  The  total  drop  in  water  surface  from  Lake  Miehi- 
tran  to  the  Des  Phiines  River  below  the  power  house  is  about  45  feet 
at  extreme  low  water  in  the  Des  Plaines  River.  Several  feet  of  head 
are  lost  in  the  canal,  the  loss  varying-  with  the  volume  of  flow.  In  the 
years  1915-1917  the  maxinumi  head  was  41  feet,  the  minimum  2G,  and 
the  mean  34.5  feet.  The  phint  began  to  generate  power  in  December, 
1907. 

The  power  house  contains  seven  units.  Each  unit  has  six  54-inch 
runners  placed  in  pairs  on  a  horizontal  shaft  submerged  in  an  open 
flume.  Access  to  the  bearings  is  obtained  tlirough  steel  cofferdams  or 
manhole  shafts  extending  to  the  surface.  These  units  run  at  163 
revohitions  per  minute  and  are  rated  at  6,000  horsepower  each.  The 
generators  are  direct  connected  to  the  turbines.  They  generate  three- 
phase  alternating  current  at  6,600  volts,  60  cycles,  and  are  rated  at 
4.01)0  kilowatts  each.  Each  generator  has  three  single-phase  trans- 
formers which  raise  the  voltage  to  44,000  volts. 

There  are  three  exciters,  rated  at  350  kilowatts,  250  volts,  driven 
by  three  small  turbines.  Space  is  reserved  for  the  installation  of  one 
more  of  the  large  units. 

Most  of  the  power  developed  is  transmitted  to  Chicago,  whei-e  it 
carries  a  large  street  lighting  load  and  a  general  commercial  load.  A 
small  amount  is  distributed  at  6.600  volts  in  the  cities  of  Joliet  and 
Lockport.  During  the  year  1917  the  average  output  was  17,900  horse- 
power, the  maximum  output  for  one  half-hour  period  being  32.100 
horsepower.  The  average  consumption  of  water  by  the  power  plant 
for  the  same  year  was  stated  by  the  chief  engineer  to  be  6,850  cubic 
feet  per  second,  the  minimum  consumption  for  any  half-hour  period 
being  2,380  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  cost  of  the  power-development  plant,  including  the  2-mile 
extension  of  the  canal,  was  a  little  more  than  $5,000,000. 

Photograph  No.  54  is  a  downstream  view  of  the  power  house  and 
Xo.  55  is  of  the  main  sector  dam  beside  the  power  house.  Attention  is 
also  called  to  Nos.  12  and  15,  given  previously. 

Joliet  ylant. — The  water  passing  through  the  drainage  canal  power 
house  at  Lockport  is  used  again  by  plants  at  Joliet  and  Marseilles. 
At  Joliet  the  power  house  contains  32  turbines  of  various  sizes,  from 
48-inch  to  68-inch,  driving  10  generators  having  a  total  rated  ca- 
])acity  of  3,740  kilowatts.  Poth  alternating  and  direct  current  is 
pr(jduced  and  sold  for  general  conmiercial  and  lighting  loads.  The 
average  amount  of  water  used  is  re])orted  to  be  5,250  cubic  feet  per 
second  and  the  average  power  production  3,350  horse  power.  The 
dam  forms  part  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  system  and  is 
owned  by  the  State  of  Illinois.  The  head  varies  from  9  to  13  feet, 
averaging  about  10  feet.  It  is  understood  that  the  water  power  is 
leased  from  the  State  by  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago.  The 
plant  formerly  was  the  property  of  the  Economy  Light  &  Power  Co. 

The  power  house  is  shown  on  ])hotograph  Xo.  56.  A  view  of  the 
dam  has  been  given  as  photograph  Xo.  16. 

MarHeilUiS  jjlant. — At  ^larseilles,  111.,  there  is  a  dam  across  the 
Illinois  River  owned  by  the  Alarscilles  Land  &  Water  Power  Co., 
affording  a  head  of  about  11  feet.  The  power  is  used  in  a  number  of 
plants,  partly  to  generate  electricity  and  parti}'  in  the  manufacture 
of  coarse  grades  of  paper.    Many  of  the  installations  are  old  and  of 


DIVERSION    OF   WATKII    TUOM    OltilAT    LAKKS   ANI»    NIACAItA    lilNKi:.      ][\i) 

low  efficiency.  Tlic  ciipacity  o(  llu-c  plants  is  siicli  that  to^ri'tluT 
they  use  the  (lischai<i;e  of  the  (h'aina<re  canal  and  most  of  the  onli- 
nary  flow  of  the  Illinois  Kiver.  The  company  advertises  the  pi-odnc- 
tion  10,000  horsepower. 

Photoirraphs  Xos.  57,  oS.  and  51)  show,  respectively,  the  Marseilles 
Dam,  the  larirest  canal,  and  some  of  the  niilN  and  power  houses 
along  the  river  below  the  dam. 

The  three  developments  described  aboNc  are  the  only  (»ne-  of  any 
importance  using  the  water  diverted  from  Lake  Michigan  through 
the  Chicago  Drainage  ("anal.  The  horse  power  per  cul)ic  foot  per 
second  obtained  at  these  sites  is  estimated  to  he  loughly  as  follows: 

Lockport L'. 'i 

Joliet .  U 

Marseilles _     .7 

Total :{.  K 

The  Ernst  Board  of  Engineers  proposed  for  the  Illinois  and 
Des  Plaines  Rivers  a  waterway  having  nine  locks  with  an  aggregate 
low-water  lift  of  130  feet,  including  all  lifts  up  to  Lake  Michigan 
level.  Of  this  total,  116  feet  were  available  for  water  power.  If 
this  project  was  developed  and  modern  hydroelectric  plants  installed, 
a  total  of  11  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per  second  might  be  obtained. 

Ottava  plant. — In  addition  to  the  three  ])lants  described,  there  is 
a  very  small  installation  at  Ottawa,  111.,  taking  water  from  a  l)ranch 
of  the  Illinois  and  ^Michigan  (^anal.  I'liis  i)lant  operates  eight  hours 
a  da3%  using  about  120  cubic  feet  per  second  while  oj^erating.  The 
head  is  28.9  feet.  The  power  developed  is  probably  between  200  and 
300  horsepower.  The  water  used  mav  be  considered  as  being  fur- 
nished parti}'  by  the  natural  flow  of  "Des  Plaines  River  and  partly 
by  diversion  from  Lake  INIichigan  through  the  drainage  canal.  As 
already  pointed  out,  the  extreme  low-water  flow  of  the  Des  Plaines 
above  Joliet  is  only  7  cubic  feet  per  second. 

3.    WELLAND  CANAL. 

The  diversion  from  Lake  Erie  through  the  "Welland  Canal  for 
power  purposes  appears  to  be  approximately  3,400  cubic  feet  per 
second.  This  is  a  primary  use  of  the  water,  as  it  is  diverted  from 
the  Lake  Erie  level  of  the  canal  before  having  been  used  in  any  man- 
ner for  the  benefit  of  navigation.  In  fact  it  may  be  said  that  the 
diversion  is  slightly  detrimental  to  navigation  in  that  it  increases  the 
small  current  in  the  canal. 

On  plate  Xo.  6  is  a  map  of  the  Welland  Canal,  on  which  is  indi- 
cated the  power  plant  at  De  Cew  Falls,  and  showing  the  old  canal 
from  Thorold  to  Port  Dalhousie,  along  which  are  located  all  the 
other  power  plants.  ^    ,     ,it  , 

A  description  of  power  development  from  the  waters  of  the  \>  el- 
land  Canal  falls  naturally  into  two  parts.  The  one  treats  of  the 
diversion  of  the  De  Cew  Falls  plant  of  the  Hamilton  Cataraet  Power, 
Light  &  Traction  Co.  This  is  a  large  modern  plant,  with  a  capacity 
of  over  50,000  horsepower.  Its  head  is  by  far  the  greatest  of  any 
plant  now  using  the  Avaters  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  other  part  treats 
of  the  remaining  plants.  These  are  many  in  number,  but  of  small 
individual  importance,  developing  10  to  2,000  hor.sepowcr  each  under 
heads  of  from  8  to  23  feet.     Most  of  th«'  installations  are  old  and  \\\- 


196      DIVERSION   or   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND   NlACiARA  RIVER. 

efficient   and  many  run  only  intermittently.     Their  total  capacity 
does  n.ot  amount  to  15,000  horsepower. 

Dr  Cew  Falls  plant.— The  De  Cew  Falls  plant  is  owned  by  the 
Hamilton  Cataract  Power.  Light  &  Traction  Co.  (Ltd.) ,  which  is  con- 
trolled through  stock  oAvnership  by  the  Dominion  Power  c^  Transmis- 
sion Co.  (Ltd.).  The  latter  company  controls  all  the  electric  service 
companies  in  the  vicinity  of  Hamilton. 

The  water  used  bv  this  company  leaves  Lake  Erie  at  Port  Col- 
borne  and  flows  down  the  Welland  Canal  to  Allanburg,  a  distance 
of  about  16  miles.  Here  it  enters  the  "old"  Welland  Canal  and 
shortly  thereafter  leaves  that  through  the  "  Government  measuring 
weir."*'  Thence  it  passes  through  gates  into  a  chain  of  shallow  ponds 
about  4  miles  long,  extending  to  the  top  of  the  Niagara  escarpment, 
in  the  vicinity  of  De  Cew  Falls,  which  is  on  a  small  branch  of  Twelve- 
mile  Creek.  \\t  this  point  is  a  small  fore  bay  with  a  spillway  and 
rackhouse.  From  the  rackhouse  the  water  is  carried  down  the  slope 
of  the  escarpment  in  seven  long  steel  penstocks,  which  are  laid  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  covered  with  Avooden  housings.  The 
oldest  one  is  7^  feet  in  diameter  and  the  others  are  G  feet  each. 

The  jDower  house  at  the  foot  of  the  escarpment  contains  two  groups 
of  machinery.  The  older  group  consists  of  four  horizontal-shaft 
units,  all  supplied  by  the  7f  foot  penstock.  Two  of  these  have  tur- 
bines of  Italian  make,  each  driving  a  2,000-kilowatt  Westinghouse 
o-enerator.  The  third  has  a  Voith  turbine,  and  its  generator  is  i-ated 
at  1.000  kiloAvatts.  The  fourth  unit  is  smaller,  being  a  turbine- 
driven  exciter.  The  newer  group  consists  of  six  units,  each  supplied 
bv  one  of  the  6-foot  penstocks.  Each  consists  of  a  Voith  turbine, 
rated  at  8.000  horsepower,  and  a  6,000-kilovolt-ampere  generator, 
built  by  the  Canadian  General  Electric  Co.  Each  turbine  has  a 
double  runner  on  a  horizontal  shaft  in  a  single  scroll  case  and  double 
draft  tubes.  Each  unit  is  controlled  by  a  Voith  governor  operating 
wicket  gates.  Each  penstock  is  provided  Avith  a  synchi-onous  relief 
valve  actuated  by  the  governor  and  installed  on  a  short  by-pass  ex- 
tending from  the  penstock  at  the  scroll-case  connection  to  one  of  the 
draft  tubes.  A  similar  by-pass  to  the  other  draft  tube  is  pro- 
vided Avith  a  pressure-bursting  plate  relief.  The  current  is  generated 
at  2.400  volts,  3-phase,  66§  cycles  per  second,  a  very  unusual  fre- 
quencv. 

From  the  draft  tubes  the  Avater  flows  through  a  tail-bay  into 
TAvehemile  Creek.  Avhich  it  folloAvs  for  2^  miles  to  the  old  Welland 
Canal  level,  just  beloAv  Lock  No.  8,  at  St.  Catherines. 

Most  of  the  poAver  is  sold  in  Hamilton  and  its  neighborhood.  It 
is  transmitted  bv  three  transmission  lines  Avith  st^el  tOAvers.  The 
transmission  voltaire  is  50,000  volts,  and  the  distance  is  about  35 
miles,  in  Hamilton  is  a  large  steam  station,  Avhich  helps  carry  the 
l)eak  loads.  At  present  the  daytime  load  of  this  plant  is  about  50,000 
horsepoAver.  At  night  it  is  approximately  15,000  horsepoAver,  and 
on  Sundavs  it  is  someAvhat  less. 

The  gross  head  on  this  plant  is  variously  given  at  260,  263,  264. 
and  26S  feet.  The  most  authoritative  statement  is  probably  that  of 
AVater  Powers  of  Canada,  published  in  1011  by  the  Canadian  con- 
servation commission.  On  page  DO  is  the  statement  that  this  plant 
is  oi)erated  "  under  a  static  head  of  263  feet,  and  under  full  load 
each  penstock  has  an  operating  head  of  256  feet."    Presimiably  this 


DIVERSIOX    OF   WATEi;    FROM    CRKAT    I.AKKS   ANH    NIACAItA    KIVKP..      197 

means  the  net  head  on  the  turhinc  Kiorii  tc-ls  of  faiily  .siinihir 
machines  of  the  Ily(h-aulic  I'owtT  Co.  at  Nia;rara  Fall;-  it  woiihl 
appear  that  the  combined  elliciency  of  the  tiirlunc  ami  L't'nerators  at 
fnll  load  is  probably  al)out  N'2  per  cent.  The  powei-  jjiodiiccd  would 
then  be  28.8  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  ])er  secon<l.  .\ii  output  of 
50,000  horsepower  would  thus  i-efpiire  a  diversiou  of  2, loo  cubic  feet 
per  second. 

This  company  possesses  rive  leases,  wiiii-h  to^^'ther  entitle  it  to  a 
continuous  use  of  1,1()0  cubic  feet  per  second.  ()ut  <d'  this  (juantity 
it  must  furnish  the  city  of  St.  Catherines  its  water  supply,  estiiuntcd 
at  25  cubic  feet  per  second.    The  leases  are  as  follows: 

Ontario  Government:  Rent  por nnnum. 

Dec.  31,  ](K»2.  TOO  culiu-  feet  per  scc(Mu1 .vjl.tKMl 

Mnr.  m.  lOOG,  :^00  cubic-  feet  per  second m.  (MUl 

Robert  Cooper  lease,  Dec.  15,  1909,  100  cubic  feet  pm'  second 41.3 

Town.send  grnnt.  date  unknown,  10  cubic  feet  per  second None. 

City  of  St.  Catberines'  lense,  date  unknown.  .'lO  cubic  f(>ct  per  second "i'M* 

It  appears  that  the  company  diverts  at  U'a-t  1>1'>  iiil>ic  feet  ja-r 
second  more  than  is  covered  by  the  leases. 

Construction  of  the  plant  was  be.inin  in  1808  and  completed  about 
1908.  This  is  some  time  before  May  13.  1010.  the  date  on  which  the 
boundary  waters  treaty  was  proclaimed.  It  appears  from  official 
reports  and  letters,  however,  that  the  plant  was  not  operating''  at  full 
capacity  in  1910  or  earlier,  and  that  a  sultstantial  increase  in  the 
diversion  has  been  made  since  that  date. 

WeJland  River  phirifs. — Of  the  water  that  enters  the  Wellaiid  (  anal 
from  Lake  Erie  a  certain  amount  is  sjjilled  into  the  Welland  Kiver. 
part  at  Welland,  and  the  rest  at  Port  Robinson.  Part  of  this  water 
is  or  has  been  used  for  power  develojmient.  The  1911  report  of  the 
commission  of  conservation  lists  one  development  of  2.')  horsepower 
at  Port  Robinson,  and  two  developments  at  Welland,  one  of  GO  horse- 
power and  the  other  of  100  horsepower.  In  19 IS  the  amount  sjulled 
at  these  two  places  was  estimated  l)y  the  Canadian  enefineers  to  be 
440  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Plants  along  old  canal. — About  a  mile  al)ove  ThoroM.  in  tlie  side 
of  a  short  level  of  the  present  canal  between  the  <:uard  jrates  and  Lodc 
25.  is  a  submero-ed  outlet  throufrh  Avhich  a  re<rulated  ilow  is  permitted 
to  escape  into  the  old  canal.  The  lower  level  of  this  sluice  is  shown  in 
photofrraph  No.  23.  From  this  point  to  Port  Dalhousie  alonfr  the  old 
canal  there  are  25  locks,  with  a  total  fall  of  about  320  feet.  Power 
installations  exist  at  nearly  every  lock,  and  there  are  several  on  a 
raceway  at  Merritton,  which  is  known  as  the  '"  hydraulic  raceway." 
In  1905  there  were  34  leases  of  Avater  rijihts  alon<j:  tliis  canal  stdl  m 
existence.  Most  of  these  Avcre  very  old.  and  had  stipulated  rentals 
based  on  a  formerly  existintr  flow  of  water  far  less  than  that  then  use.l. 
In  several  cases  either  the  rent  Avas  not  l)ein<r  i^aid  or  else  some  other 
condition  of  the  lease  was  not  beincr  complied  with.  The  old  canal 
was  practically  not  used  at  all  for  navifration,  and  was  bemef  main- 
tained by  the  'Province  for  the  benefit  of  the  water-power  mterests, 
at  a  costexceedino;  $20,000  per  annum,  while  the  revenue  from  rentals 
to  power  users  was  less  than  $9,000  per  annum.  In  1911  there  were 
24  developments  alonfr  this  reach  liste<l  by  the  conservatism  com- 
mission. .  ,11  I  f  11 

In  1918  a  hasty  reconnoissance  showed  a  lar^^e  number  of  small 
water  powers.    Some  were  operating  regularly,  some  were  apparently 


198      DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

abandoned,  while  others  appeared  to  have  suffered  destruction  of  the 
phmt  by  fire.  There  seemed  to  be  18  deveh)pments.  used  by  13  con- 
cerns. The  Canadian  authorities  Avere  evidently  without  authentic 
record  of  the  present  owners  of  the  leases  or  of  details  of  the  develop- 
ments. They  estimated  the  total  flow  throufrh  the  sluiceway  above 
Thoi-old  at  800  cubic  feet  per  second.  Below  Lock  3  this  flow  is  aug- 
mented by  the  2.100  cubic  feet  per  second  or  thereabout  which  comes 
down  Twelvemile  Creek  from  the  DeCew  Falls  plant.  The  entire 
flow  of  2,900  cubic  feet  per  second  is  available  for  power  development 
at  Lock  2  at  St.  Catharines  and  at  Lock  1  at  Port  Dalhousie.  The 
total  installed  poAver  is  perhaps  12.000  horsepower.  Inasmuch  as 
29,000  horsepoAver  or  more  could  be  dcA^eloped  continuously  Avith  tliis 
diA-ersion.  it  Avould  seem  that  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
diversion  Avas  Avasted. 

To  <iather  data  for  a  detailed  report  on  all  of  these  installations 
Avould  have  been  a  sIoav  and  expensiA'e  procedure.  In  Adew  of  the 
relatiAely  small  A-olume  of  the  diversion  involved  it  was  considered 
that  such  a  report  would  not  liaA'e  a  A'-alue  commensurate  Avith  the 
labor  and  expense  of  compilino^  it. 

Photograph  No.  25  shoAvs  the  point  of  discharo:e  of  Tweh-emile 
Creek  into  the  old  Welland  Canal.  No.  24  shoAvs  Lock  3  of  the  old 
Welland.  No.  60  is  of  mills  developing  poAver  near  Lock  3.  No.  61 
is  of  mills  near  Lock  2. 

Table  No.  14. — EstiDiatcd  diversions  of  the  WeiUiiid  ('(iii'il.   i)i   eiihir  feci  per 

fteeond. 

Into  tlic  Wellaiui  River 440 

Down  the  old  canal 800 

To  the  DeCew  Falls  plant 2,12.5 

Total  availahle  for  power 3.365 

For  navigation  only 1.100 

Total 4,465 

The  estimated  di\'ersions  of  the  Welland  Canal  are  giA'en  in  table 
No.  14.  Of  this  about  40  cubic  feet  per  second  comes  by  way  of  the 
Port  Maitland  feeder  from  the  Grand  RiA^er,  a  tributary  of  Lake 
Erie.  The  remaining  4,425  comes  directly  from  Lake  Erie.  Four 
hundred  and  forty  cubic  feet  per  second  enters  the  Niagara  River 
aboA'e  the  falls  by  Avay  of  the  Welland  KiAcr  (ChippaAva  Creek). 
The  remaining  4,025  enters  Lake  Ontario  at  Port  Dalhousie. 

4.    XEAV    YORK    STATE    BARGE    CANAL. 

Tlie  present  diA-ersion  through  the  NeAv  York  State  Barge  Canal 
of  .Niagara  PiA'er  waters  for  power  ])urposes  is  approximately  500 
cubic  feet  per  second,  this  diA-ei'sion  being  covered  l)y  i)ermits  from 
the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  Ncav  York  State  sujierintendent  of 
]>ublic  Avorks.  In  addition.  j^oAver  is  developed  at  Ijockport  from 
Avater  Ity-passed  aroinid  the  locks  to  feed  the  loAver  level  from  Lock- 
poi't  to  I^yons.  This  qiumtity  varies  consideral)ly  and  may  reach  a 
maximum  of  approximately  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second. 

A  inap  shoAving  the  barge  canal  routes  is  giA-en  on  plate  No.  8.  On 
plate  No.  6  the  location  of  the  route  from  Niagara  KiA-er  to  Lockport 
is  shown  on  a  larger  .scale.    A  series  of  ph<^togra])hs.  Nos.  29  to  46,  in- 


DIVERSION  OF  WATKi;   ii:().\i  (.r.i.Ai    i.AKi.s  AM>  MA(.Ai;.\   i;i\i.i:.     n,9 

elusive,   with   di'si  ri|)tivo  notes  hciicatli,  is  jriveii   l»y   \v:iy   of   illus- 
trating- distinctive  I'eatiires  ol"  the  caiiiih 

In  Section  A  ol'  this  report  thci'c  has  already  Im-cm  iriven  a  des<Tip- 
tion  of  the  New  Yorlc  State  Barge  Canal,  and  an  ex[)lunati()n  that  its 
highest  level  is  at  the  western  end,  being  at  the  same  eh'vution  as  the 
Niagara  Kiver  at  Tonawanda  and  receiving  a  supply  of  water  from 
Niagara  Kiver  at  that  point.  Ahoiit  aOO  cuhic  feet  |)er  second  is 
diverted  into  Eighteenmiie  Creek  at  Locki)ort,  and  on  down  the 
creek.  12  miles  to  Lake  Ontario  at  Ojcott.  Whatever  |)ait  of  t\w  re- 
mainder of  tlie  total  diversion  from  Niagara  Kiver  is  not  lost  by 
evaporation  or  seepage,  or  l)y  being  spilled  oxer  wasteways  along  the 
route,  is  eventually  discharged  down  the  Oswego  Kivei-  into  Lake 
Ontario. 

Power  developments  at  Lockport.  X.  Y. — At  Lock])ort  there  are 
three  conduits  or  channels  through  which  water  may  l)e  !>y-i)asstMl 
around  the  flight  of  locks,  from  the  upper  level  to  the  lower  level  of 
the  barge  canal.  One  is  the  waterway  of  the  small  hydroelectric 
plant  situated  between  the  old  and  new  flights  of  locks.  This  plant 
belongs  to  the  State  and  furnishes  electric  energy  for  lighting  and 
operating  the  locks.  Another  is  a  tunnel  on  the  north  side  of  the 
canal,  roughly  8  feet  wide.  12  feet  high,  and  1,600  feet  long,  extending 
from  a  point  just  above  the  old  locks  to  a  gatehouse  on  the  brink  of 
the  high  bank.  From  there  two  penstocks  convey  the  water  down  to 
the  wheels  in  the  pulp  mill  of  tiie  LTnited  Box  Board  &  Paper  Co. 
The  tunnel  and  appurtenances  belong  to  the  Hydraulic  Kace  Co. 
The  third  passage  is  a  tunnel  about  15  feet  squai-e  and  TOO  feet  long, 
which  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  barge  canal,  abreast  of  the  new 
locks,  and  leads  from  a  point  just  above  the  new  locks  to  a  small  high 
level  basin  Avithin  concrete  retaining  walls.  It  belongs  to  the  State 
and  forms  part  of  the  State's  by-pass  for  discharging  water  froni 
upper  level  to  lower  level  of  the  barge  canal.  Gates  in  the  l)asin 
control  the  flow  through  the  two  outlets,  one  of  which  is  the  remain- 
ing portion  of  the  State's  by-pass  and  consists  of  a  structural  steel 
flume  of  large  diameter,  about  250  feet  long,  extending  clown  to  and 
out  over  the  lower  level.  The  other  outlet  from  the  small  basin  is  a 
surface  canal  about  20  feet  wide.  6  feet  deep,  and  2.800  feet  long, 
which  follows  the  side  of  the  steep  bank.  This  canal  is  the  property 
of  the  Llydraulic  Kace  Co.  The  drop  from  upi)er  to  lower  miter  sill 
of  the  new  locks  is  49.16  feet.  -,  ,  •     , 

The  State  hydroelectric  plant  has  an  installation  of  two  U-mdi 
w^ater  wheels  operating  under  an  effective  head  of  41.7  feet  It  is 
estimated  that  the  maximum  possible  rate  of  consumption  of  water 
is  about  50  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  each  unit  is  capable  of  carry- 
ino-  the  entire  load,  and  a  unit  will  be  operated  only  when  necessary 
to^'provide  power  for  locking  operations  or  for  lighting,  it  is  evident 
that  the  averaf^e  dailv  consumption,  even  for  maximum  trafhc  con- 
ditions on  the  canal,  will  be  less  than  20  cubic  feet  iier  second. 

The  north  tunnel  of  the  Hvdraiilic  Kace  (  o.  supplies  two  double 
water  wheels  in  the  pul])  mill  of  the  T'nited  Box  BoanK^  I  aper  (  o. 
In  1917  the  flow  through  this  tunnel  was  measured  and  found  to  l)e 
407  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  that  time  the  water  level  m  the  barge 
canal  from  Tonawanda  to  Lockport  was  held  up  by  a  dam  at  lona- 
w^anda  with  a  crest  elevation  of  570  feet,  barge  canal  datum.  Ihe 
removal  of  this  dam  in  1918  brought  the  level  at  Tonawanda  down  to 


200      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  A^T>  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

that  of  the  Xia^iara  River,  which  varies  with  the  stafre  of  Lake  Erie 
at  Buffalo.  The  mean  stajre  of  Lake  Erie  for  the  years  1800  to 
1910.  inchisive.  was  572.58  United  States  standard  datum.  The  cor- 
respon(lin<r  sta«re  at  Tonawanda  is  56G.01  United  States  datum,  or 
567.1-1.  bar<re  canal  datum.  As  water  practically  always  flowed  over 
and  Tonawanda  dam.  a  lowerin<r  of  a  little  more  than  2.86  feet  at  the 
mean  sta<re  «riven  is  therefore  indicated.  At  the  low  stafre  at  565.5, 
barofe  canal  datum,  at  Tonawanda.  at  which  the  limitin<r  depth  of 
tlie  canal  is  12  feet,  the  lowerinfr  of  the  level  is  -4^  feet.  It  is  stated 
that  this  lowerin<r  has  unwatered  the  upper  portions  of  the  north 
tunnel,  and  thereby  reduced  its  dischar<ring  capacity.  At  50  per 
cent  efficiency,  which  seems  a  reasonable  estimate  for  the  installation, 
the  ])ower  produced  from  200  cubic  feet  per  second  of  water  acting 
under  50  feet  of  head  is  570  horsepower.  The  dischartre  from  the 
water  Avheels  which  are  fed  through  the  north  tunnel  may  be  turned 
into  the  lower  level  of  the  canal  or  into  a  flume  discharfrinf^  into  a 
basin  of  Eiofhteenmile  Creek  at  a  lower  level  and  north  of  the 
canal.  The  Hydraulic  Race  Co.  has  under  advisement  plans  for 
deepenintr  and  wideninfj  the  upstream  half  of  the  tunnel,  abandon- 
inor  the  downstream  half,  and  constructinjr  at  the  middle  point  a  new 
power  station  with  an  installation  of  two  1.500-horsepower  units. 
There  are  six  users  of  power  on  the  south  side  of  the  barge  canal 
who  draw  Avater  from  the  surface  canal  of  the  Hydraulic  Race  Co., 
and  discharge  it  into  the  lower  level  of  the  canal.  One  of  these 
users  owns  another  installation  not  now  in  use.  but  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  put  into  service.  Assuming  over-all  efficiencies  for  the 
seven  plants  under  consideration,  and  assuming  also  that  in  each  case 
the  maximum  amount  of  power  that  can  be  produced  is  the  installed 
power  or  the  leased  or  granted  power  where  the  installed  amount  is 
not  known,  or  the  measured  amount  where  it  has  been  measured,  it 
has  been  computed  that  the  maximum  possible  present  use  of  water 
by  the  seven  plants  is  778  cubic  feet  per  second  and  the  maximum 
possible  present  development  of  horsepower  is  3.078.  The  name 
of  each  user  is  given  in  Table  No.  15,  together  Avith  the  assumed 
maximum  developable  power,  assumed  over-all  efficiency,  and  com- 
l^uted  maximum  possible  use  of  water. 

Table  No.  15. — Power  developments  on  south  headrace  at  Lockport,  N.  T. 


No. 

Name  of  user. 

Assumed 
maximum 
horse- 
power. 

Assumed 
percentage 
efficiency. 

Estimated 
use  of  water 
(cubic  feet 
per  second). 

Remarks. 

1 

Lockport  Light  Heat  &  Power  Co 

Total 

/         1,500 
\             500 

SO 
65 

331 
136 

JLease. 

2,000 

75 

650 

467 

19 

144 

? 

Grigg  Bros.  Co 

70 
80 

Do. 

3 

Thompson  Milling  Co 

Grant  and  lease. 

Total 

2,725 
21 
135 
100 
97 

630 

s 

48 
45 
42 

A 

.-lO 
50 
40 
40 

Lease. 

Western  Block  Co           

Rated. 

n 

do 

Measured. 

7 

Niagara  Eme^y  Mills  (Inc.) 

Grant. 

Total 

3,07H 

773 

DR'ERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   ORF.AT   T,.\Ki:s   .\N1»    .\i.\(iAi:A    illVKi;.      201 


It  must  be  understood  tluit  tlie  :d)ovc  fiiveii  cHiciciK-U's  :ind  (|u:in- 
tities  of  water  are  r()U<j:li  estimates  helicvcd  to  l>e  sulliiieiil  ly  in  ae- 
cord  Avith  the  facts  for  tlie  invest  juration  in  liaml.  'I'lic  use  uf  water 
by  most  of  these  phuits  is  intermittent  and  b('h)\v  capacity. 

The  entire  use  of  water  l)y  the  llydraurK-  Race  Co.  at  piesent 
possible  is  approximately  200  cubic  feet  i)er  s»>cond  through  the  north 
tunnel  and  773  cubic  feet  per  second  throufrh  the  south  race,  a  total 
of  973  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Wafer  power  along  Eif/hfeenmile  Creek. — Of  the  barf.'e  (-anal  spill- 
ways on  the  lon<r  level  from  Lockport  to  the  CJenessee  Kiver  the  one 
hayin<r  the  greatest  lenp;th  of  waste  weir  crest  is  at  T^ockport  over 
Eio;hteenmile  Creek,  a  little  less  than  half  a  mile  below  the  locks. 
There  are  three  waste  jzates.  each  3^  feet  sqiiiU'e,  with  an  estimated 
discharge  capacity  of  600  cubic  feet  per  second  at  full  canal.  Kiglit- 
eenmile  Creek,  which  is  a  very  small  stream,  passes  under  the  barge 
canal  at  the  spillway  in  a  culvert  and  flows  nearly  due  north  about 
12  miles  into  Lake  Ontario  18  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  Niagara 
Elver.  Leaving  the  culvert  the  creek  follows  a  narrow^  gorge  for 
about  li  miles  and  falls  something  like  140  feet  in  this  distance. 
Thence  for  6i  miles  to  the  town  of  Xewfane  it  winds  through  rather 
flat  country  with  a  fall  of  40  feet  or  thereabouts.  From  Xewfane  to 
the  lake.  4' miles,  it  flow^s  between  banks  40  to  50  feet  high  and  falls 
approximately  70  feet.  At  present  there  are  six  water-])ower  <level- 
opments  along  the  1^-mile  reach  just  north  of  the  canal  and  two  at 
Newfane.  There  are"  also  three  unused  sites,  all  of  which  have  been 
used  formerly,  and  one  site  with  5-foot  head,  which  apparently  never 
was  developed.  The  12  sites,  developed  and  undeveloped,  are  listed 
in  Table  No.  16. 

Table  No.  16. — Power  sites  on  Eighteenmile  Creek. 


No. 

Name  of  owner. 

Head 
(feet). 

Installed 
horse- 
power 

Esti- 
mated 
prac- 
ticable 
horse- 
power 
installa- 
tion. 

Assumed 
percent- 
age effi- 
ciency. 

Esti- 
mated 
water 
required 
(cubic 
feet 
per 
second). 

Remarks. 

- — 

United  Box  Board  &  Paper 
Co.  (L.  and  T.  Houston 
mill). 

United  Box  Board  &  Paper 
Co. 

30.4 

14.0 

44.4 

12.1 
9.7 

20.5 
31.4 
34.2 

5.0 
9.5 

13.7 

8.9 
47.0 

1,400 

80 
50 

500 
750 

Undeveloped. 

1 

»600 

Developed. 

2 

.\llegod  head  con- 

550 
280 

475 

820 

1,200 

80 
65 

65 
65 
70 

.500 
390 

320 
355 
440 

trolled. 
New  machinery. 

Average      horse- 

4 

power  used,  200. 

Electric    Smelting    &    Alu- 
minum Co. 

V 

No  development. 

8 

Lockport  Felt  Co.  (Horton 
Mills  Site). 

Newfane  Lumber  &  Manu- 
facturing Co. 

400 

75 

m 

Old     development 

9 

529 
240 

;      abandonc*!  years 
ago. 
I*)            570     Including  gri.-it  mill 

10 

50 
80 

475 
500 

of  rre<i  Collins  & 
Son. 
Lea.'icd  to  Newfano 

ii 

Lockport  Felt  Co 

Western  New  York  Water  Co- 

1 

2,150 

Electric  Co. 
Undeveloped. 

12 

1  Assumed,  not  reported. 


202      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  :XIAGARA  RIVER. 

Through  the  flat  lands  the  creek  has  a  maximum  cUscharoe  capacity 
of  about  500  cubic  feet  per  second.  Tlie  natural  low-water  tiow  is 
negliirible,  but  the  flood  flows  are  sufficient  when  added  to  a  supph' 
of  500  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  barge  canal  to  cause  the  creek 
to  overflow  its  banks  through  the  flat  lands  and  damage  farms  and 
property.  The  State  of  New  York  has  appropriated  $2,500  for  a 
survey  of  this  portion  of  the  creek,  intending  to  increase  the  dis- 
charge capacity  by  straightening  and  widening.  The  water-power 
sites  listed  in  the  foregoing  tal)lc  follow  one  another  in  succession 
down  the  creek,  each  involving  the  use  of  tlie  same  water  but  under 
a  new  head. 

Medina  water  poxcer. — At  Medina,  IT  miles  east  of  Lockport  along 
the  barge  canal,  is  a  spillway  having  a  waste  weir  150  feet  long.  This 
is  second  in  length  of  the  13  spillways  of  the  long  level.  There  are 
also  six  waste  gates,  each  3  feet  square,  having  an  estimated  total 
discharge  capacity  of  1.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  spillway  is 
along  the  south  side  of  the  aqueduct  which  carries  the  canal  over 
Oak  Orchard  Creek.  Several  miles  south  of  the  canal  there  is  an  ex- 
tensive swamp  area  forming  the  headwaters  of  the  creek.  A  supph' 
of  water  from  the  upstream  portion  of  Tonawanda  Creek  is  brought 
into  Oak  Orchard  Creek  above  Medina  througli  a  feeder  canal  several 
miles  long.  The  combined  supply  formerly  was  fed  into  the  old 
Erie  Canal  through  a  short  feeder  at  Medina,  but  now  passes  down 
Oak  Orchard  Creek.  It  is  a  very  small  quantity  of  water  in  dry 
times.  Under  the  aqueduct  the  Avater  surface  elevation  of  the  creek 
is  approximately  482.  or  32  feet  below  the  spillway  crest  elevation 
of  514.  From  there  the  creek  flows  in  a  northeasterly  direction  19^ 
miles  to  Lake  Ontario  through  a  gorge  whose  banks  are  20  to  90  feet 
high. 

The  natural  descent  of  the  stream  is  rather  rapid  at  flrst,  and 
becomes  more  gradual  toward  the  lake.  The  32-foot  drop  from  canal 
level  to  creek  at  the  aqueduct  is  developed  on  the  south  side  of  the 
canal  by  S.  A.  Cook  &  Co.,  who  use  the  water  intermittently  to  fur- 
nish power  for  a  plant  at  the  site.  From  the  aqueduct  to  Lake 
Ontario  the  "Western  New  York  Utilities  Co.  owns  most  of  the  water 
rights.  This  company  has  two  dams  and  power  houses,  and  is  now 
constructing  a  third  dam  and  power  house.  The  most  upstream  dam. 
No.  1,  is  just  north  of  the  aqueduct.  The  head  is  30  feet,  and  the 
installation  one  450  horsepower  wheel.  At  65  per  cent  efficiency  the 
estimated  water  consumption  is  200  cubic  feet  per  second.  One  mile 
below  Dam  No.  1  is  Dam  No.  2.  There  is  a  storage  reservoir  of 
about  150  acres  l)ehind  Dam  No.  2,  and  the  full  head  is  05  feet.  The 
installation  is  tlnve  000-horscpower  units,  a  total  of  2.700  horsepower. 
At  80  per  cent  efficiency  the  water  consumption  would  be  460  cubic 
feet  per  second.  Fourteen  miles  downstream  from  Dam  No.  2  at 
Waterport.  44  miles  upstream  from  the  lake.  Dam  No.  3  is  now 
being  constructed.  The  head  is  to  be  85  feet,  and  a  pond  of  approxi- 
mately 600  acres  will  be  formed,  extending  upstream  more  than  4 
miles."  The  fidl  development  contemplates  three  units.  (>ach  of  2.800- 
horsepower  capacity.  At  80  per  cent  efficiency  and  full  load  the  three 
proposed  units  will  require  1.080  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  total 
head  to  be  developed  l)y  the  Western  New  York  Utilities  Co.  is  the 
sum  of  the  three  heads  given  above,  or  180  feet.  Between  Dam  No.  2 
and  the  head  of  the  pond  to  be  formed  behind  Dam  No.  3  is  a  fall  of 


DIVERSIOX   or   WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES  AND  NIAGARA   ItlVER.     203 

about  60  feet  in  nearly  10  miles.    Development  of  the  power  in  this 
reach  is  remotely  contemplated. 

Other  loater  poioers. — At  various  other  spillways  of  tiie  barge 
canal,  or  rather  of  its  predecessor,  the  Erie  Canal,  power  has  l)een 
developed  in  a  small  way,  jiartly  from  the  spill  and  partly  fi-om 
the  natural  flow  of  the  small  streams  which  pass  under  the  canal 
prism  in  culverts  at  these  spillways.  It  is  understood  that  inany 
of  these  plants  have  been  abandoned,  and  all  of  them  seem  likely 
to  be. 

The  barge  canal  crosses  the  (ienesee  Kiver  at  grade  in  the  city  of 
Eochester.  It  is  intended  that  the  canal  shall  abstract  from  the 
river  on  the  east  side  a  quantity  of  Avater  e<|ual  to  that  contributed 
on  the  west  side,  neither  adding  to  nor  subtracting  from  the  river 
flow.  Below  this  crossing  thei-e  are  four  falls  in  the  (Jenesce  Kiver, 
providing  a  total  head  of  about  250  feet.  This  is  all  developed,  but 
much  of  it  not  very  efficiently.  The  total  installation  of  power- 
developing  machinery  is  54,850  horsepower. 

Be^'ond  the  Genesee  River  none  of  the  Avater  diverted  from  Niagara 
RiA'er  is  used  in  power  development,  except  for  lio:hting  and  operat- 
ing locks,  until  the  OsAvego  itiver  is  reached.  Here  Avhatever  rem- 
nant of  the  original  diA'ersion  may  remain  is  utilized  in  the  develop- 
ments on  that  stream. 

The  small  State  hydroelectric  poAver  stations  alon^  the  portion  of 
the  Erie  branch  of  the  barge  canal  falling  Avithin  tlie  ba.^in  of  the 
Great  Lakes  are  located  at  Locks  Xos.  34,  33,  29,  28B,  28A,  27.  24.  23, 
21,  and  20.  PoAver  is  transmitted  from  No.  34  to  No.  35,  from  No.  33 
to  No.  32,  from  No.  29  to  No.  30,  and  from  No.  21  to  No.  22.  This 
poAver  is  used  only  for  operating  and  lighting  locks.  In  almost 
ever^-  case  the  installation  consists  of  tAVo  generating  units,  each  hav- 
ing a  50-kilowatt  250-volt  direct-current  generator.  The  maximum 
quantity  of  Avater  required  at  any  lock  probably  does  not  exceed 
100  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that' requirement  is  intermittent. 

Table  No.  17  sIioavs  the  existing  poAver  installations  on  the  OsAvego 
EiAcr. 

Table  No.  17. — Poicer  instaUations  on  the  Oswego  Hirer. 


Phoenix . 
!r"nlton . . 
Minetto . 
Oswego. . 


Total. 


Place. 


Total 
head. 


Feet. 
10.2 
14,  S 
IS.O 
44.6 


Power 
installation. 


117.6  1 


Horsepower. 
3,000 
i.'.,ono 
a.-wo 

4,000 
■Jl,300 


These  cover  the  entire  developable  head.  It  has  been  estimated 
by  a  State  legislative  committee  that  these  heads  may  be  developed 
to  yield  63,800  horsepower.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  berause  of 
the  construction  and  operation  of  the  barge  canal  the  Oswego  River 
receiA-es  about  50  cubic  feet  of  Avater  per  second  which  was  naturally 
tributary  to  the  Hudson  River,  and  about  35  cubic  feet  per  second 
naturallv  tributary  to  the  Susquehanna  River. 


204      DIVEKSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA   RIVER. 

The  flow  from  Seneca  Lake  is  developed  at  Waterloo  under  a 
head  of  14.5  feet,  producing  1.000  horsepower,  and  again  at  Seneca 
Falls  under  a  head  of  49  feet,  i^roducing  3,700  horsepower. 

Leases  and  perniitfi. — P^xcept  in  the  case  of  Lockport,  it  appears 
that  no  lease  has  ever  been  made  or  permit  granted  authorizing  the 
use  by  individuals  or  corporations  of  waters  of  the  western  part  of 
the  Erie  Canal  or  barge  canal,  from  Niagara  River  on  down  along 
the  60-mile  level,  for  power  purposes.  Certain  other  users  claim 
rights  on  the  grounds  that,  having  for  many  years  used  water  which 
wasted  from  the  canal,  and  having  invested  capital  for  the  pur- 
pose, they  are  now  entitled  to  a  continuance  of  this  waste,  which 
the  State'  must  furnish  them.  The  State  has  not  conceded  any  such 
rights,  and  some  time  ago  warned  the  users  that  such  waste  was  not 
likely  to  occur  from  the  new  barge  canal.  In  the  case  of  Lockport 
a  lea^se  was  made  January  25,  1826,  to  Eichard  Kennedy  and  Julius 
H.  Hatch,  in  consideration  of  an  annual  payment  of  $200  for — 

All  the  surplus  waters  which  without  injury  to  navigation,  or  security  of 
the  canal,  may  be  spared  from  the  canal,  at  the  head  of  the  locks,  in  the  village 
of  Lockport,  to  be  taken  and  drawn  from  the  canal  at  such  place  and  in  such 
manner,  and  to  be  discharged  into  the  lower  level,  at  such  places  and  in  such 
manner  as  the  said  canal  commissioners  shall  from  time  to  time  deem  most 
advisable  for  the  security  of  the  canal,  and  for  the  convenience  of  the  naviga- 
tion thereof. 

In  1856  the  Lockport  Hydraulic  Co.  was  incorporated  for  a  50-year 
period,  and  became  the  assignee  of  a  part  of  the  rights  of  this  lease, 
which  were,  in  turn,  transferred  in  Xovember,  1907,  to  the  Hydraulic 
Eace  Co.,  which  was  incorporated  to  succeed  the  Lockport  Hydraulic 
Co.,  and  which  now  owns  the  rights  jointly  with  others  who  leased 
original  rights  prior  to  the  formation  of  the  Lockport  Hydraulic 
Co.  After  the  lease  had  been  in  existence  and  the  rent  paid  for  82 
years  the  canal  board,  on  December  31,  1908,  canceled  the  lease  in. 
the  name  of  the  Hydraulic  Eace  Co.,  intending  that  water  power  at 
the  locks  should  be  used  or  leased  on  different  terms  and  under 
different  conditions  after  the  reconstruction  of  the  canal  and  locks. 
Thereafter  the  State  comptroller  refused  for  six  successive  years 
to  accept  the  annual  rent  offered.  In  January,  1915,  the  courts 
sustained  the  validity  of  the  lease  and  granted  a  writ  of  mandamus 
compelling  the  comptroller  to  accept  the  rents.  Under  date  of  Sep- 
tember 1,  1896,  the  city  of  Lockport  obtained  a  permit  to  construct 
a  channel  for  the  purpose  of  taking  surplus  water  from  the  canal, 
but  this  was  canceled  February  2,  1897. 

On  August  16,  1907,  the  Secretary  of  ^^'ar  granted  to  the  Lockport 
Hydraulic  Co.  a  revocable  permit — 

To  divert  water  of  the  Niagara  River  and  its  tributaries  fi'om  the  Erie  Canal 
at  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  above  the  locks,  for  power  purposes,  not  exceeding  500  cubic 
feet  per  .second. 

It  was  to  be  distinctly  understood  thai  the  water  so  diverted  should 
be  returned  to  the  canal  l)elow  the  locks,  and  that  this  i)ermit  should 
inure  to  the  benefit  of  all  persons  and  corporations  then  using  said 
water  for  power  purpo.ses,  whether  lessees  of  the  applicant  or  having 
the  right  to  be  furnished  by  it  with  water,  and  including  the  persons 
or  corptjrations  then  diverting  water  from  the  Erie  Canal  at  Eight- 
eenmile  Creek.  Middleport,  Medina,  Eagle  Harbor,  Albion,  Holley, 
and  other  jilaces.     It  was  stipulated  that  no  right  was  to  be  under- 


DIVERSION    OF    WATKII    FUOM    OltKAT    F.AKKS   AXI>    NIACAIIA    IMVKi;.      'id') 

stood  as  conferred  without  the  consent  of  the  St:ite  oi'  New  York, 
and  that  the  permit  was  subject  to  any  and  all  re<rulati()ns  an<l  con- 
ditions to  be  imposed  by  the  State.'  It  was  utiderstood  thai  tlie 
Lockport  Hydraulic  Co. 'was  divertin<r  1,()()0  cubic  feet  i)er  secon.l 
at  the  time,  500  cubic  feet  per  second  of  which  was  rcMjuired  for  navi- 
gation purposes  beh)w  the  locks,  and  noo  cubic  feet  per  se<-ond  of 
which  was  bein<r  used  by  persons  and  corporations  located  as  stated 
above.  The  pnri)ose  of  "the  jLTrnnt.  as  in  the  case  of  the  permits  issued 
on  the  same  day  to  the  Nia<;ara  Falls  l\)wer  Co.  and  the  Niag- 
ara Falls  Hydraulic  Power  ifc  Manufacturing  Co.,  presinnably  was 
to  prevent  the  grantees  from  sustaining  loss  and  not  to  provide  for 
any  future  development  not  then  actually  commenced.  Two  (|ues- 
tions  have  since  arisen.  The  first  was  whether  or  not  the  permit 
which  was  made  out  to  the  Lockport  Hydratilic  Co.  couM  be  as- 
signed to  the  successor,  the  Hydraulic  Kace  Co. 

The  sec(md  was  in  regard  to  the  construction  of  the  permit  in  case' 
more  than  500  cubic  feet  per  second  of  watei-  should  be  diverted  for 
navigation  uses  in  the  canal.  It  had  been  estimated  by  barge-canal 
engineers  that  the  new  canal  would  recpiire  1,2:57  cubic  feet  per 
second.  The  oj^inion  was  expressed  that  the  500  cul)ic  feet  per  secoml 
granted  by  the  Secretary  of  SVar  v.as  to  be  diverted  only  in  such  part 
as  was  necessary  to  make  the  entire  diversion  around  the  locks  1,0(J0 
cubic  feet  per  second.  Thus  in  case  1.000  or  more  cubic  feet  i)er 
second  were  diverted  for  navigation  purposes  there  would  be  none  of 
the  Federal  500  cubic  feet  per  second  diverted,  and  although  the 
Hydraulic  Race  Co.  would  not  suffer,  being  so  situated  between  upper 
and  lower  canal  levels  as  to  develop  power  from  water  by-i)assed 
either  for  power  or  navigation  needs,  yet  the  users  of  water  power 
on  Eighteenmile  Creek  and  at  other  places  along  the  lower  level 
would  be  cut  off,  and  the  purpose  of  the  permit  would,  to  that  extent, 
be  frustrated.  Both  these  questions  were  passed  upon  by  the  Chief 
of  Engineers  in  March,  1911,  and  his  opinion,  concurred  in  by  the 
Secretary  of  War  and  the  Judge  Advocate  General,  was  that  the 
grant  did  pertain  to  the  Hydraulic  Race  Co.,  and  .that  it  should  be 
construed  by  conferring  the  right  to  divert  500  cubic  feet  i)er  sec(»nd 
independent  of  the  amount  required  for  navigation  purposes.  The 
permit  by  the  Secretary  of  War  has  been  extended  from  time  to  time, 
the  last  permit  being  dated  July  1,  1918. 

The  State  of  New  York  granted  to  the  Lockport  and  Xewfane 
Mill  Owners  Association,  on  November  25,  1913,  a  revocable  permit 
to  divert  from  the  Niagara  River  through  the  barge  canal  to  Lock- 
port  and  into  Eighteenmile  Creek  the  500  cubic  feet  per  second  of 
water  covered  by  the  Federal  permit,  the  association  to  pay  $7,500 
per  year  to  the  State  for  the  privilege  of  using  the  canal  as  a  race- 
way. The  permit  provides  for  pro  rata  deductuMis  from  the  pay- 
ment for  any  period  of  time  over  one  day  that  the  State  fails  to  de- 
liver the  water.  Provision  is  also  made  that  the  association  shall 
pay  the  cost  of  maintaining  an  inspector  of  the  Avorks  involved  when 
the  superintendent  of  public  works  so  directs,  and  also  all  damages 
arisino-  from  the  diversion  of  this  Avater.  Practically  all  the  manu- 
factur'ers  located  along  Eighteenmile  Creek  are  members  of  this  as- 
sociation, and  the  Hvdraulic  Race  Co.  is  a  member.  The  proportion 
of  the  $7  500  paid  bV  each  member  is  the  ratio  of  the  head  of  that 


206      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  EROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

member's  plant  to  the  total  developable  head.  The  water  users  at 
^Medina  and  other  points  beyond  Lockport,  not  being  members  of 
the  Lockport  and  Xewfane  ^lill  Owners  Association  (Inc.),  derive 
no  benelit   from  this  permit. 

Durin<x  the  period  from  1910  to  1918  the  State  was  enj^aged  in 
altering  and  improving-  the  western  end  of  the  Erie  Canal  to  make 
it  a  part  of  the  new  barge  canal  system.  This  work  included  remov- 
ing one  of  the  old  flights  of  five  locks  at  Lockport  and  building  a, 
new  flight  of  two  larger  locks  on  the  same  site,  deepening  and  widen- 
ing the  canal  prism,  and  constructing  new  bridges,  walls,  aqueducts, 
and  other  structures.  In  order  to  carry  on  this  work  to  advantage 
it  Avas  necessary  to  restrict  the  use  of  the  canal  for  several  years. 
At  times  traffic  Avas  completely  suspended  and  portions  of  the  lower 
level  were  dry.  The  water  power  users  at  Lockport,  Meclina,  and 
elscAvhere  were  seriously  affected  by  the  reconstruction.  Bjj^  means 
of  a  temporary  dam  constructed  across  the  canal  near  Exchange 
Street,  Lockport,  at  the  expense  of  the  Lockport  and  Newfane  Mill 
Owners  Association,  and  maintained  b}'-  them  during  the  closed  sea- 
son of  navigation,  it  was  possible  for  water-power  users  at  Lockport 
and  on  Eighteenmile  Creek  to  operate  considerablj^  more  during  sev- 
eral seasons  than  they  otherwise  would  have  been  able,  while  con- 
struction work  progressed  on  the  lower  level. 

Records  kept  by  the  Fiber  Corporation  show  that  in  1917  the  floAV 
down  Eighteenmile  Creek  was  500  cubic  feet  per  second  on  137  days, 
nothing  on  20  days,  and  averaged  270  cubic  feet  per  second  on  the 
remaining  days.  Supposedly  the  manufacturers  along  the  creek 
liave  .since  been  able  to  get  the  full  500  cubic  feet  per  second  per- 
mitted whenever  they  cared  to  use  it.  At  times  of  storms  or  spring 
run-off,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  this  quantity  so  that  tlie  total  dis- 
charge down  the  creek  shall  not  exceed  500  cubic  feet  per  second, 
as  otherwise  tlie  low  lying  farm  lands  may  be  damaged  by  flood. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  some  users  of  water  power  at  Lockport 
that  a  more  efficient  use  of  water  diverted  from  Niagara  River  for 
power  purposes  .can  be  made  b}^  routing  them  via  barge  canal  to 
Lockport.  and  Eighteenmile  Creek  to  Olcott,  than  at  Niagara  Falls. 
The  total  fall  in  water  surface  from  Tonawanda  to  Lake  Ontario  is 
4  feet  greater  than  it  is  from  Grass  Island,  at  the  intake  of  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  to  Lake  Ontario;  but  1.5  feet  of  this  dif- 
ference is  lost  getting  the  water  to  Lockport,  leaving  a  net  gain  of 
only  2.5  feet.  This  difference  is  soon  lost  in  getting  tlie  water  from 
one  plant  to  the  next  down  Eighteenmile  Creek.  Any  practicable 
future  development  along  the  creek  would  involve  similar  losses 
which  would  total  up  to  a  sum  sufficiently  large  to  make  the  net 
available  head  considerably  less  than  at  i^iagara  Falls.  The  total 
developable  head  at  Lockport  and  Eicrhteenmile  Creek  is  stated  to 
])e  286.5  feet,  and  this  appears  to  be  a  liberal  estimate.  The  members 
of  the  Lockport  and  Newfane  Mill  Owners  Association  seem  anxious 
to  develop  this  head  efficiently  if  assured  of  a  reasonably  constant 
supply  of  water.  At  Niagara  Falls  a  head  of  304  feet  is  readily 
developable.  The  total  head  at  present  developed  and  used  is  212 
feet  at  Niagara  Falls,  and  less  than  175  at  Lockport  and  Eighteen- 
mile  Creek.  It  has  been  stated  that  difficulty  with  ice  caused  more 
power  interruptions  at  Niagara  Falls  than  at  Lockport.    Even  if  so, 


DIVERSION    OF   WATKi;    FROM   GREAT   LAKKS   AND    NIAGARA    RIVER.      207 

the  argument  does  not  ciurv  much  weight  because  on  the  average 
for  a  number  of  years  the  power  h)ss  fi'oni  ice  troul)les  is  small  at 
Niagara  Falls. 

5.  BLACK  KOCK   CANAL. 

Xo  water  diverted  down  the  Black  Rock  Canal  is  noAv  used  for 
power  purposes.  In  the  early  davs  of  the  canal  there  were  two 
grist  mills  near  the  present  Black  I^ock  Lock,  which  operated  under 
a  head  of  about  5  feet.  These  Avere  abandoned  many  years  ago.  Un- 
til 1918  the  water  used  from  the  Ei-ic  Canal  for  i)ower  at  Lock))ort. 
N.  Y.,  and  on  down  the  GO-mile  level  Avas  diverted  from  Lake  Erie 
through  the  Black  Kock  Canal  into  the  Erie  Canal  at  Buffalo. 

6.   CANADIAN  AND  UNrrED  STATES  POWER  PLANTS  AT  NE^OARA  EAEES. 

The  present  diversions  of  Niagara  River  water  for  power  devel- 
opment at  Niagara  Falls  are  on  the  United  States  side,  about  17.600 
cubic  feet  per  second,  and  on  the  Canadian  side  probablv  al)out 
33,300.  This  gives  a  total  for  both  sides  of  50,900  cubic  feet  per 
second.  This  water  is  diverted  from  the  river  not  more  than  ^ 
miles  above  the  Falls  and  returned  to  the  river  within  less  than  a 
mile  of  the  foot  of  the  Falls. 

Developments  are  now  in  progress  on  both  sides  of  the  river. 
That  on  the  United  States  side  is  at  the  hydraulic  plant  of  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  It  will  make  possible  the  use  of  the  fidl 
19.500  cubic  feet  per  second  allotted  this  company,  and  leave  con- 
siderable reserve  capacity  in  addition.  On  the  Canadian  side  there 
are  two  developments  under  Avay.  One  is  an  extension  of  the  plant 
of  the  Ontario  PoAver  Co.,  noAv  owned  by  the  Hydro-Electric  PoAver 
Commission  of  Ontario,  Avhich  it  is  estimated  will  increase  the  Avater 
consumption  of  that  plant  approximately  2.100  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  other  is  an  entirely  neAv  development  of  the  entire  head  of  the 
Falls  and  rapids,  designed  to  divert  10,000  cubic  feet  of  Avater  per 
second. 

Reference  is  here  made  to  the  description  of  Niagara  River  in 
Section  A  of  this  report,  to  Plates  Nos.  13  and  14.  and  to  the  photo- 
graphs of  Falls  and  rajnds  accompanying  Ai)pendix  C. 

Limitntions  on  the  use  of  water. — The  period  from  1890  to  1906 
Avas  a  time  of  great  waterpoAver  dcA-elopment  at  Niagara  Falls. 
Within  that  period  all  the  present  poAverhouses  Avere  begun.  A  num- 
ber of  other  development  schemes  Avere  advanced  and  several  com- 
panies were  chartered.  The  sum  of  the  diA^ersions  proposed  by  these 
companies  amounted  to  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  Avhole  floAv 
of  the  riA^er.  It  Avas  felt  that  such  unregulated  appropriation  of  the 
Waaler  of  the  Falls  might  well  cause  irremedial  damage  to  their  scenic 
beauty  and  a  Avidespread  agitation  arose  to  prevent  such  an  occur- 
rence. At  the  request  of  Congress  the  International  WaterAvays 
Commission  made  an  investigation  and  recommended  that  the  diA'er- 
sions  be  limited  by  legislation  or  treaty. 

On  June  29,  1906,  the  Burton  Act  Avas  passed.  This  provided  for 
the  issuance  by  the  Secretary  of  War  of  permits  of  the  folloAving 
four  classes : 

First.  Permits  to  divert  Avater  from  the  Niagara  River  on  the 
American  side  to  present  users  to  an  aggregate  not  exceeding  15,600 


208      DIVERSION    OF    WATER   FRO.M    (;REAT   LAKES   AND   [NIAGARA    RIVER. 

cubic  feet  per  second,  or  8.600  cubic  feet  per  second  to  one  com- 
pany. 

Second.  Kevocable  ])erniits  to  divert  additional  Avater  from  the 
Xiairara  Kiver  on  the  American  side  to  sucli  amount,  if  any.  as  sliall 
not  injure  the  river  as  a  navi<^able  stream  or  as  a  boumhirv  stream, 
and  shall  not  injure  the  scenic  orandeur  of  Niagara  Falls,  and  not 
until  the  15.G00  cubic  feet  allotted  has  been  used  for  six  months. 

Third.  Permits  to  transmit  electrical  power  from  Canada  into 
the  United  States  to  the  aggregate  amount  of  160.000  horsepower. 

Fourth.  Revocable  permits  for  the  transmission  of  additional 
electrical  power  from  Canada  into  the  United  States,  but  in  no  case, 
totrether  with  the  160.000  horsepower  mentioned  above  and  the 
amount  <^enerated  and  used  in  Canada,  to  exceed  a  total  of  350.000 
horsepower. 

In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  Secretary  of  War 
granted  permits  of  the  first  and  tliird  types  mentioned  above,  as 
follows : 

Cubic  feet 
XMversiou  of  water  from  Niagura  River  :  per  second. 

Aug.  16,  1907.  To  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co S,  600 

Aug.   IG,  1907.  To  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic   Power  &   Manu- 
facturing Co.   (later  the  Hydraulic  Pt)wer  Co.) G.  oOO 

Aug.  IG.  1907.  To  the  Lockport  Hydraulic  Co.  (later  the  Hydraulic 

Race    Co.) 500 

Total 15.600 

Importation  of  electric  energy  from  Canada :  norsepower. 

Aug.  16,  1907.  To  the  Ontario  Power  Co 60,000 

Aug.  IG.  3907.  To  the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co 52,500 

Aug.  17.  1907.  To  the  Electrical  Development  Co.    (now  Toronto 

Power    Co.) 46,000 

Total 158,500 

A  reservation  of  1,500  horsepower  tc  be  imported  was  made  for 
the  International  Railway  Co..  but  no  permit  was  ever  granted,  be- 
cause the  company  was  unable  to  obtain  the  necessary'  Canadian 
license. 

The  quantities  of  water  stipulated  Avere  such  as  the  respective  com- 
panies considered  necessary  for  operating  to  full  capacity  the  plants 
then  completed  or  actually  under  construction. 

The  Burton  Act  would  have  expired  by  limitation  on  June  29, 
1909,  but  it  was  extended  to  June  29,  1911,  by  joint  resolution  of 
Congress,  approved  March  3,  1909.  On  June  29,  1911.  the  act  ex- 
pired by  limitation,  but  it  was  extended  by  joint  resolution  on  August 
22.  1911;  expired  again  INIarch  1.  1912;  was  extended  again  April  5, 
1912:  and  expii-ed  finally  March  4.  1913. 

Section  4  of  tlie  Burton  Act  requested  the  President  to  negotiate 
a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  on  this  sul)ject.  This  was  done,  and  the 
treaty  was  ratified  May  5,  1910.  By  its  provisions  this  treaty  was 
to  remain  in  force  for  five  years  from  date  of  ratification,  and  there- 
after until  terminated  by  12  months'  written  notice  from  either 
party.    Xo  such  notice  has  been  given. 

Article  5  of  the  treatv  makes  the  following  stipulations  respecting 
the  waters  of  Niagara  River: 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM    CJRKAT   LAKES   AND    NIAGARA   RIVER.      209 

AUTICLK    V. 

The  liij,ii  cuntrucliii^i  liarlies  a^rn-c  tlial  it  is  exiJi-dlt'iit  to  limit  Hie  (iiver.sioii 
of  waters  Itoiu  tlie  Niagara  River  so  tliat  tin-  level  of  Lake  Erie  and  tiie  How 
of  the  stream  shall  not  be  api)reeial)Iy  an'ected.  It  is  the  desire  of  both  parties 
to  acconiitlish  this  object  with  the  least  possible  injury  to  iiivestiiieiits  which 
have  already  been  made  in  the  construction  of  power  plants  on  the  United  States 
side  of  the  river  under  j^rants  of  authority  from  the  State  of  New  York,  and  on 
the  Caiuidian  side  of  the  river  under  licenses  authorized  by  the  Doniini(M»  of 
Canada  and  the  Province  of  Ontario. 

So  long  as  this  treaty  shall  remain  in  force  no  diversion  of  the  Niagara  Kiver 
above  the  Falls  from  the  natural  course  and  stream  thereof  shall  be  [)ermitted 
except  for  the  purposes  and  to  the  extent  hereinafter  provided. 

The  Ignited  States  may  authorize  and  permit  the  diversion  within  the  State 
of  New  York  of  the  waters  of  the  said  river  above  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  for 
power  i)urposes,  not  exceeding  in  the  aggregate  a  daily  diversion  at  the  rate  of 
20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second. 

The  United  Kingdom,  by  the  I  »oiiiiiii(.ii  of  Canada,  or  the  Province  of  Ontario, 
may  authorize  and  permit  the  diversion  within  the  Province  of  Ontario  of  the 
waters  of  said  river  above  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  for  power  purposes,  not  exceed- 
ing in  the  aggregate  a  daily  diversion  at  the  rate  of  80,(»(»  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second. 

The  prohibitions  of  this  articli-  shall  not  apply  to  the  diversions  of  water  for 
sanitary  or  domestic  purposes  oi-  foi'  the  service  of  canals  f(tr  the  purposes  of 
navigation. 

The  treaty  also  created  an  International  Joint  Commission,  com- 
posed of  three  commissioners  from  each  country,  for  the  settlement 
of  minor  difficulties  concerning  boundary  waters  and  kindred  mat- 
ters and  to  investigate  and  report  upon  such  questions  regarding 
boundary  waters  as  might  from  time  to  time  be  referred  to  it. 

During  the  operation  of  the  Burton  Act  the  permits  of  the  various 
companies  were  interpreted  to  limit  the  maximum  diversion  at  any 
moment.  When  the  Burton  Act  expired  on  March  4,  1913,  the  com- 
l^anies  ran  as  they  pleased,  and  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  old  per- 
mits, until  it  Avas  decided  that  the  Secretary  of  War  had  authority 
to  limit  the  American  diversions  under  sections  10  and  12  of  the 
river  and  harbor  act  of  March  3,  1899.  The  companies  were  in- 
formed by  the  Chief  of  Engineers  on  July  19,  1913,  that — 

For  the  present  no  objection  is  being  made  by  the  War  Department  of  existing 
diversions  so  long  as  tlie  daily  average  does  not  exceed  that  of  tlie  permits  and 
diversion  limits  which  existed  last  year  under  the  Burton  Act. 

The  companies  continued  their  operations  on  the  basis  of  this  in- 
formation until  May  28,  1914,  when  they  were  notified  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  that  the  maximum  limitations  of  diversions  were  inter- 
preted as  relating  not  to  the  daily  average  quantity  diverted,  but  to 
the  quantity  diverted  at  anj^  moment.  This  status  continued  up  to 
December,  1915. 

In  the  winter  of  1915-16  the  growing  demand  for  electric  power 
in  Buffalo  caused  a  serious  shoriage  of  power  there  during  the  even- 
ing hours.  The  Buffalo  General  Electric  Co.  was  buihling  a  new 
steam  plant  to  relieve  the  situation,  but  it  could  not  begin  sui)plying 
power  from  this  station  for  some  months.  Xo  formal  permit  for 
additional  diversion  Avas  granted,  but  because  of  the  emergency  the 
Secretary  of  War  decided  to  raise  no  objection  to  an  excess  diversion 
by  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  not  to  exceed  1,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  between  the  hours  of  4  p.  m.  and  7  p.  m.  during  the  months 
of  December.  1915.  and  January  and  February,  191G. 

27880—21 14 


210      DIVEKSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

During  the  following  spring  the  i)ower  shortage  in  Buffalo  became 
worse  and  on  Mav  25,  IDIG.  the  Secretary  of  War  permitted  the 
diversion  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  to  be  increased  sufficiently 
to  meet  the  demands  of  existing  customers  of  the  Buffalo  General 
Fdectric  Co.,  which  could  not  otherwise  be  supplied.  It  was  pro- 
videil  that  such  power  siiould  only  be  furnished  when  it  was  indis- 
pensably necessary,  and  should  not  exceed  lii.OOO  horsepower  in 
addition  to  that  generated  under  the  old  permit.  This  diversion  was 
to  be  permitted  only  until  December  31.  191(j.  The  privilege  was 
made  use  of  from  Jidy  26.  1916,  to  December  31,  1916. 

On  Januarj^  19.  1917.  a  joint  resolution  of  Congress  was  approved, 
authorizing  the  Secretary  of  War  to  issue  revocable  permits  for  the 
additional  diversion  of  water.  Permits  were  issued  to  the  Hy- 
(h-aulic  Power  Co.  for  8. 785  cubic  feet  per  second  and  to  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Co.  for  10.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  These  increases 
of  the  diversion  were  made  because  of  the  shortage  of  power  in  the 
Niagara  frontier  district,  and  the  great  importance  of  the  nmnitions 
industries  dependent  upon  Niagara  power.  They  expired  on  June 
30,  1917,  Ijut  were  extended  one  year  by  another  joint  resolution. 
On  July  1,  1918,  the  Secretary  of  War  issued  new  permits  under 
authority  of  a  joint  resolution  of  June  29,  1918.  These  gave  9,500 
cubic  feet  per  second  to  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  and  10.000  cubi(; 
feet  per  second  to  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  until  July  1,  1919. 
Under  these  permits,  and  the  additional  one  allotting  500  cubic  feet 
per  second  to  the  Hydraulic  Race  Co.  of  Lockport.  the  whole  2i>.000 
cubic  feet  per  second  authorized  bv  the  treaty  is  made  available, 
and  the  companies  are  able  to  utilize  the  full  capacity  of  their 
plants. 

When  the  first  permits  were  granted  in  1906  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co..  with  its  tenant,  the  International  Paper  Co..  was  already 
using  nearly  the  full  8.600  cubic  feet  per  second  granted,  and  con- 
tinued to  use  about  this  amount  until  1916,  when  it  was  increased 
by  temporary  permits.  For  the  last  two  years  the  diversion  by  this 
company  has  usually  been  lietween  9.000  and  10.000  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

In  1906  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  and  its  tenants  was  diverting 
only  about  2,500  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  the  installation  of  new 
units  proceeded  this  amount  was  gradually  increased  until  by  the 
end  of  1911  nearly  the  full  6.500  of  their  permit  was  being  used. 
The  diversion  continued  to  exceed  6.000  until  the  temporary  permits 
of  January.  1917.  alloAved  it  to  attain  its  present  value  of  nearly 
9.000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Supervision  of  the  importation  of  electrical  energy  from  Canada 
terminated  with  the  final  expiration  of  the  Burton  Act. 

In  Canada  there  has  been  no  legislation  limiting  the  diversion  on 
that  side. 

Canadian  Niagara  Pouter  Co. — This  company  is  controlled  by  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co..  which  owns  all  the  bonds  and  all  but  a 
few  shares  of  the  stock.  The  cajiital  stock  is  $3,000,000,  of  which 
S2.939.600  is  outstanding.  The  bonded  debt  is  6.480.000,  covered  by 
1hi-ee  issues  of  6  i)er  cent  debentuie  bonds.  The  diversion  from  Ni- 
agara River  by  this  company  is  estimated  to  be  9.600  cubic  feet  per 
second. 


DIVKKSIOX    OF   WATER    FROM    CRKAT    LAKKS   AND   N1A(;AKA    IJIVKH.      211 

Tlie  ooinpanv  operates  under  a  lease  from  the  Queen  Victoria 
Nia<;ara  Falls  l*ark  Commissioners,  dated  Maj;  1,  1890.  having  a  life 
of  50  3'ears  and  renewable  foi'  three  further  periods  of  20  years  each, 
Avith  the  provision  that  the  lieutenant  governor  in  council  may  re- 
quire a  fourth  renewal  for  a  term  of  20  years.  Tlie  company  is 
bound  by  the  lease  to  pay  an  annual  rental  of  $15,000  for  <reneratinf^ 
any  power  up  to  10.000  horsepower.  $1  per  horsepower  for  all  power 
between  10,000  and  20,000  horsepower,  75  cents  per  horsepower  for 
all  power  between  20,000  and  30,000  horsepower,  and  50  cents  per 
horsepower  for  all  power  above  30,000  horsepower.  Thus,  for  an 
output  of  100,000  horsepower,  Avhich  is  approximately  the  quantity 
noAv  generated,  the  annual  rental  is  67^  cents  per  hor.;epower  per 
annum.    The  rentals  may  be  adjusted  at  each  renewal  of  the  lease. 

The  plant  of  the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.  was  the  first  hydro- 
electric development  on  the  Canadian  side  at  Niagara  P'alls.  As 
early  as  1S89  the  American  capitalists  interested  in  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Co.  made  unsuccessful  overtures  to  the  Commissioners 
of  Queen  Victoria  Niagara  Falls  Park.  Later,  Fnglish  capitalists 
secured  for  $10,000  an  option  to  develop  poAver  in  the  i)ark,  and  re- 
newed the  option  for  a  second  year  for  $10,000.  The  option  finally 
expired  March  1,  1892.  English  and  American  capitalists  then  com- 
bined and  secured  from  the  park  commissioners  on  April  7,  1892, 
the  exclusive  right  to  utilize  the  waters  of  the  Niagara  River  for 
power  development  within  the  limits  of  the  park.  During  the  same 
month  the  Ontario  Legislature  confirmed  this  agreement  and  incor- 
porated the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.  At  a  later  date  the  legis- 
lature passed  an  act  conferring  on  the  park  commissioners  authority 
to  negotiate  with  the  company  for  the  surrender  of  the  exclusive 
privileges  granted :  and  on  July  15,  1899,  the  com])any  abandoned 
the  exclusive  rights  in  return  for  certain  concessions.  Still  further 
restrictions  were  placed  upon  the  company's  operations  on  June  19, 
1901,  when  it  obtained  an  extension  of  the  time  limit  within  which 
to  construct  its  works. 

Under  its  statutory  rights  the  company  is  not  limited  in  its  \)vo- 
duction  of  jiower,  nor  as  to  the  amount  of  water  which  it  may  with- 
draw from  the  river.  Its  plans,  however,  are  subject  to  the  ai)i)ro- 
val  of  the  park  commissioners,  and  those  already  a|)proved  call  for 
an  installation  of  11  units  of  11,000  horsepower,  nominal  cajiacity, 
each  operating  under  a  head  of  approximately  141  feet.  On  the 
basis  of  the  nominal  power  of  such  an  installation,  and  under  the 
further  assumption  that  one  unit  would  ahvays  be  held  as  a  spare, 
it  was  computed  in  the  year  1906,  or  thereabouts,  that  the  ]">rol)able 
consumption  of  water  would  be  9,500  cubic  feet  ))er  second. 

Construction  of  the  plant  was  commenced  in  1901.  The  fii'st  })ower 
was  produced  in  January,  1905,  and  the  tenth  unit,  the  last  to  be 
installed,  was  placed  in  service  in  1916. 

The  location  and  general  layout  of  this  plant  is  shown  on  the  map 
on  Plate  No.  13. 

In  general  the  main  features  of  this  plant  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  There  is  a  short 
fore  bay  leading  to  a  power  house  600  feet  long  by  110  feet  wide. 
Under  the  power  house  and  running  nearly  its  entire  length,  is  a 
narrow,  deep  wheel  pit.    From  the  bottom  of  this  pit,  at  one  end,  a 


212      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

tailnu-e  tunnel  about  2.200  feet  long  leads  to  the  Maid-of-tlie-Mist 
pool  beyond  tlie  FalLs. 

The  water  for  this  plant  is  diverted  at  the  Canadian  shore  of  the 
rapids,  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  upstream  from  the  Horseshoe  Falls, 
through  an  opening  about  370  feet  wide  and  15  feet  deep.  This 
opening  has  recently  been  fitted  with  a  set  of  submerged  arches  to 
keep  out  ice.  The  fore  bay  has  a  length  of  270  feet  and  a  depth  of 
14  or  15  feet.  From  the  entrance  described  above  it  narrows  to  a 
width  of  2S2  feet,  at  which  point  it  is  crossed  b}-  a  highway  and  elec- 
tric railwa}'  bridge.  It  then  widens  to  a  width  of  526  feet  along  the 
face  of  the  power  house.  A  row  of  submerged  arches  in  tiie  wail  of 
the  power  house  admits  the  water  to  a  small  inclosed  fore  bay  within 
the  building.  Here  it  passes  through  racks  and  enters  the  10  pen- 
stocks. F>om  the  northwest  corner  of  the  outer  fore  bay  an  ice  run 
leads  to  the  river. 

The  hydraulic  machinery  is  under  tiie  power  house  in  a  wheel  pit 
564  feet  long  and  18  feet  wide,  with  a  mean  depth  of  160  feet.  The 
penstocks  are  of  steel.  10.2  feet  in  diameter.  They  enter  the  pit 
almost  horizontally,  and  descend  vertically  down  the  pit  to  the  tur- 
bine deck,  where  they  make  a  right  angled  turn  and  enter  the  tur- 
bines 116  feet  below  the  fore  bay  level. 

The  10  turbines  are  of  three  different  types.  The  five  constituting 
the  original  installation  are  inward-flow  wheels  with  double  runners. 
The  two  runners  are  on  a  common  vertical  shaft  and  discharge  into 
a  cast-iron  draft  chest  between  them  from  which  the  two  draft  tubes 
lead.  The  runners  are  of  bronze  and  are  5  feet  4  inches  in  diameter. 
The  consumption  of  water  is  regulated  by  cylinder  gates.  Each  tur- 
bine has  two  draft  tubes  5  feet  3  inches  in  diameter  and  about  50 
feet  long.    These  units  are  rated  at  10.000  horsepower  each. 

Two  other  units  are  of  similar  design  but  are  rated  at  12,500  horse- 
power, and  are  each  provided  Avith  three  draft  tubes.  The  remaining 
three  units,  also  rated  at  12.500  horsepower,  are  of  more  modern  de- 
sign, Avith  single  runners  and  single  draft  tubes.  These  last  five  tur- 
bines have  scroll  cases  and  cylinder  gates. 

The  tailrace  formed  by  the  bottom  of  the  wheel  pit  is  18  feet 
wide  and  about  32  feet  deep  at  the  north  end.  from  wiiich  the  Ijottom 
slants  up  on  a  3  per  cent  grade  to  the  south.  The  draft  tubes  enter 
its  sides  at  an  angle  of  45°  a  few  feet  above  the  bottom.  At  the 
north  end  is  a  gate  for  use  when  only  a  few  units  are  operating  to 
prevent  the  draft  tubes  becoming  unsealed. 

From  the  north  end  of  the  tail  race  the  water  is  carried  away  by  a 
tail-race  tunnel  2,164  feet  long.  Its  cross-section  is  of  the  horseshoe 
type.  25  feet  high  and  18  feet  10  inches  greatest  width.  It  is  lined 
with  concrete  with  a  facing  of  brick.  The  tunnel  has  a  descending 
grade  of  7  feet  per  1.000.  except  near  the  portal  where  ot  falls  11.2 
feet  in  103  feet  ])y  a  reverse  vertical  curve  with  a  radius  of  248  feet. 
The  greater  part  of  this  portion  is  lined  with  granite  blocks.  The 
mean  velocity  through  this  tunnel  is  about  24  feet  per  second.  The 
jjortal  is  at  the  water  surface  in  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  a  few  hun- 
<lred  feet  from  the  Canadian  end  of  the  Iloiseshoe  Fall. 

'J'he  generators  are  of  the  vertical  shaft  type  with  internal  revolv- 
ing fields.  They  are  connected  with  the  turbine  by  hollow  steel  shafts 
3  feet  4  inches  inside  diameter,  excei)t  at  the  bearings,  where  the 


DIVERSION    OF   WATKR   FROM   GRKAT    LAKES   AXD   NIAGARA    RIVER.      213 

sliafts  are  solid  iiiul  oi"  8nialler  diaiiieter.  The  first  five  «,'enerators 
are  rated  at  lO.OOO  horsepower  each,  and  the  other  live  at  \'2S>(n)  horse- 
lK)\ver  each.    They  operate  at  '25  cycles  per  second. 

Alcoves,  or  chanihers,  in  the  rock  beside  the  wheel  pit  at  the  ele- 
vation of  the  turbines  contain  the  ei<rht  exciters,  rated  at  207  horse- 
power eacli.  A  similar  chamber  contains  a  punipino-  system  for  sui)- 
plyin<r  coolin<r  water  to  the  transformers. 

The  oil  switches  and  other  auxiliaries  are  operated  electrically 
from  a  switchboard  in  the  power  house.  The  power  house  is  con- 
nected by  an  underirround  conduit  line  to  a  larr^e  transformer  house 
about  2,000  feet  south  of  the  power  house.  This  contains  IT)  trans- 
formers rated  at  1.G75  horsei)ower  each,  and  (>  rated  at  ^.SHO  horse- 
power each.  These  can  be  connected  to  jrive  either  22,000,  38,000. 
38,500,  or  57,300  volts.  The  output  of  the  transformer  station  is  used 
chiefly  for  transmission  to  Buffalo  at  22,000  volts  over  a  pole  line  16 
miles  lono;,  including  a  river  crossing  of  2,193  feet  span  between  Fort 
Erie.  Ontario,  and  Buffalo.  Another  underground  conduit  line 
crosses  the  Upper  Steel  Arch  Bridge  to  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y..  and 
connects  with  the  Niagara  plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co. 

This  plant  and  stations  1  and  2  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Tower  Co. 
are  operated  as  a  unit,  and  machines  in  the  different  plants  may  be 
run  in  parallel.  The  Canadian  plant  is  now^  generating  about  100,000 
horsepower,  of  w^hich  a  little  less  than  one-half  is  imported  into  the 
United  States  either  bv  the  transmission  line  to  Buffalo  or  by  the 
12,000-volt  line  across  the  bridge  at  Niagara  Falls.  A  large  part  of 
the  power  which  does  not  come  to  the  United  States  is  sold  to  the 
Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario. 

The  gross  head  on  this  plant  is  about  173  feet  at  mean  stage.  As 
the  plant  is  now^  operated  about  43  feet  of  this  is  lost  in  the  tunnel. 
From  the  best  data  available  it  appears  that  this  plant  is  now  pro- 
ducing about  100,000  horsepower  from  about  0,000  cubic  feet  of 
water'~per  second.  That  would  indicate  the  production  of  10.4  horse- 
power^^er  cubic  foot  per  second,  or  an  over-all  efliciency  of  53  per 

cent.  .  .  1  , 

Considerable  trouble  with  ice  is  experienced  nearly  every  winter, 
and  the  company  maintains  an  electric  tug  in  the  forebay  to  keep  the 

ice  broken  up.  .  .  i     tt  -x  j  a^.  i. 

The  importation  of  power  from  this  plant  into  the  United  States 
beo-an  on  August  1,  1905.  The  average  amount  imported  that  year 
wa^s  about  4,000  horsepower.  The  next  year  it  was  12,000.  From 
then  it  increased  graduallv,  reacliing  61,000  horsepower  m  1913, 
and  about  62.000  in  1915.  In  1916  the  exportation  was  restricted  by 
Canada  so  that  the  average  in  1917  had  fallen  to  37.000  horsepower. 
In  November,  1918,  it  was  about  40.000  horsepower. 

Ontario  Poiner  <7o.— The  diversion  of  water  from  Niagara  Kiver 
by  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  is  estimated  to  be  11,200  cubic  feet  per 
second  Extensions  to  the  plant  now  well  under  way  will  increase 
the  diversion  to  a  quantity  estimated  to  be  13,300  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond This  company  is  controlled  bv  the  Hydro-Electric  Power  Com- 
mission of  Ontario,  which  owns  90  per  cent  of  the  stock.  The 
authorized  capital  stock  is  $15,000,000,  but  the  outstanding  stock  is 
only  $10,000,000.  The  outstanding  bonded  debt  is  $12,678,000  as 
against  $15,000,000  authorized. 


214      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA   RIVER. 

This  company  came  into  existence  in  1887  under  the  name  of 
*•  Canadian  Power  Co.,"  having  been  incorporated  by  the  Ontario 
Lciiishiture.  It.s  name  was  changed  to  Ontario  Power  Co.  in  1899. 
'J'he  privileges  granted  it  included — 

Full  power  to  c-ou.struct,  etiuip,  maintain,  and  operate  a  canal  and  hydraulic 
tunnel  from  some  point  in  the  ^^■e^and  Hivcr  at  or  near  its  conjunction  with  the 
Niapira  liivcr  to  a  point  or  points  on  tlie  west  bank  of  the  Xia.uara  River  about 
or  south  of  the  Whirlpool,  and  from  a  point  or  points  in  the  Xiaj^ara  Kiver  at 
or  innnediately  south  of  the  head  of  the  rapids  near  the  Welland  River  to  a  i)oint 
or  i)oints  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Niagara  River  about  or  south  of  ('lark  Hill. 

None  of  the  works  authorized  were  to  be  constructed  and  none  of 
the  powers  given  exercised  within  the  limits  of  Queen  Victoria 
Niagara  Falls  Park,  except  with  the  consent  of  the  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor in  council  and  the  park  commissioners.  It  should  be  pointed  out 
that  the  park  then  extended  upstream  only  to  include  the  Dutferin 
Islands. 

On  April  11,  1900,  the  first  agreement  with  the  park  commissioners 
was  made,  providing  for  a  double  development,  the  water  being 
diverted  from  Welland  River  through  a  canal  to  a  power  hotise  in 
the  park,  where  it  would  be  used  under  40  feet  of  head,  and  con- 
ducted from  that  point  partly  in  an  open  canal  and  partly  under- 
ground to  a  power  house  in  the  gorge  below  the  Falls.  By  a  second 
agreement,  elated  June  28,  1902,  the  rights  of  the  first  agreement  were 
for  the  most  part  stirrenclered,  and  provision  was  made  for  conduct- 
ing water  from  Welland  and  Niagara  Rivers  underground.  This 
last  agreement  specified  the  general  terms  of  the  license,  which  was 
granted  April  1,  1900,  and  which  provides  for  a  yearly  rental  of 
$30,000,  with  $1  per  horsepower  per  annum  additional  for  any  power 
generated  above  20,000  horsepower  and  up  to  30,000  horsepower,  75 
cents  per  horsepower  per  annum  for  power  from  30,000  to  40,000,  and 
50  cents  per  annum  for  each  horsepower  above  40,000.  The  leivse 
covers  a  term  of  50  years,  with  option  of  three  renewals  of  20  j'ears 
each,  and  provision  to  compel  a  further  20-year  period  of  operation 
by  the  company.    The  rent  may  be  adjusted  at  each  renewal. 

On  August  7,  1902,  and  subsequently  the  same  year  upon  submittal 
of  plans,  approval  was  given  to  constrtict  a  plant  having  three  under- 
ground conduits  each  18  feet  in  diameter,  conducting  water  from 
Niagara  River  at  the  Dufferin  Islands  to  a  power  house  in  the  gorge 
below  the  Falls. 

On  August  1,  1017.  the  Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission  of  On- 
tario took  pos.session  of  the  plant  upon  purchase  of  90.000  shares  of 
the  capital  stock  at  $80  a  share  (par  value  $100)  and  upon  agree- 
ment to  assume  the  l)ond  liability  of  this  and  certain  subsidiary  com- 
panies, the  total  of  Avhich  was  stated  in  the  press  to  be  $14,669,000. 
Payment  for  the  stock  was  made  in  4  per  cent,  40  year,  bonds  of  the 
Hydro-Electric  Commission,  guaranteed  by  the  Province  of  Ontario. 

In  the  agreements  the  amount  of  water  which  the  company  may 
divert  is  not  specified,  nor  the  amount  of  power  which  ma}-  be  gene- 
rated. The  i)lans  are  said  to  call  for  22  units  of  10,000  hor.sepower 
each,  operating  under  a  total  head  of  180  feet.  The  reports  of  the 
park  commissions,  and  other  printed  statements  set  the  approval 
])lans  at  180.000  ho)'sei)Ower,  60.000  from  each  of  the  three  conduits. 
In  1906  or  earlier  the  ultimate  diversion  of  water  required  was  va- 
riously computed  to  be  11,700  cubic  feet  per  second  and  12,000  cubic 
feet  per  second. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER.     215 

The  intake  of  this  phmt  is  situated  at  the  Diifferin  Ishmds  about 
5,000  feet  above  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  and  the  power  house  is  in  the 
Gor^e  about  1,000  feet  below  them.  The  essential  feature  of  the  in- 
take is  a  submer<rotl  Aveir  or  diverter  extendinjj  into  tlie  river  at  the 
crest  of  the  first  cascade.  This  is  a  curved  concrete  dam  about  700 
feet  lono;.  with  its  crest  at  elevation  553.  correspondino;  to  the  ex- 
treme low  sta<re  of  the  river  at  this  point.  The  water  enters  the 
outer  fore  bay  between  the  shore  and  the  outer  end  of  this  weir.  This 
openino-  is  protected  by  an  ice  diverter  consistinjLi:  of  a  submerged 
curtain  wall  making  an  angle  of  45^  with  the  original  current  in  the 
river.  The  bottom  of  this  curtain  Avail  is  about  5  feet  beloAv  low 
water  and  6  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  intake.  It  is  596  feet  long, 
and  is  supported  on  concrete  piers  Avhich  leave  betAveen  them  25  open- 
ings each  G  feet  high  and  20  feet  Avide.  Gates  are  provided  for  clos- 
ing these  openings  and  draining  the  fore  bay. 

The  outer  fore  bay  is  about  800  feet  long  and  its  Avidth  tapers 
from  600  to  320  feet,  its  center  line  folloAving  a  curA'c  through  an 
angle  of  about  80°.  xVt  its  inner  end  is  the  rack  house,  ])arallel  Avitli 
the  shore.  This  is  320  feet  long,  and  is  protected  by  a  similar  curtain 
Avail  4  feet  beloAv  Ioav  water  and  provided  Avith  16  openings  each  14 
feet  high  and  18^  feet  long.  These  openings  are  guarded  by  racks. 
To  insure  a  current  along  this  curtain  Avail  to  carry  aAvay  ice,  the 
end  of  the  Aveir  next  to  the  rack  house  has  its  first  50  feet  cut  down 
4  feet  and  its  next  50  feet  cut  down  2  feet  beloAv  the  rest  of  the 
crest. 

The  inner  fore  bay  lies  betAveen  the  rack  house  and  the  gatehouse. 
It  is  250  feet  long  and  tapers  in  Avidth  from  320  to  120  feet,  its  center 
line  curving  through  about  90°.  At  its  lower  end  is  the  gatehouse 
vhich  is  proAdded  Avith  the  head  Avorks  for  three  18-foot  pipes.  The 
pipe  or  conduit  entrances  are  closed  by  large  Stoney  gates  18  feet 
square.    The  entrance  is  guarded  by  coarse  racks  and  a  small  ice  run. 

The  first  conduit  Avas  of  steel.  It  was  circular.  18  feet  in  diameter, 
one-half  inch  thick,  and  6.180  feet  long  from  the  gatehouse  to  the 
first  penstock.  It  had  a  fail  of  28  feet  and  Avas  designed  to  carry 
about  4,000  cubic  feet  of  Avater  ])er  second.  It  was  incased  in  con- 
crete at  the  time  the  second  conduit  Avas  laid.  The  conduit  Avas  laid 
in  open  cut  through  the  park  and  covered  with  a  fcAv  feet  of  earth. 
The  second  pipe  is  ])arallel  to  the  first.  It  is  of  reinforced  concrete 
of  a  peculiar  oblate  cross  section  equivalent  in  erea  to  an  18-foot 
circle,  and  18  inches  thick.  The  third  18-foot  pipe  provided  in  the 
original  design  has  never  been  installed,  but  a  13\-foot  wood  staA'e 
pipe  of  Oregon  fir,  4  inches  thick,  has  been  built  in  its  place  recently 
as  a  temporary  measure. 

From  the  loAver  end  of  the  steel  pipe  seA^en  steel  penstocks  9  feet  in 
diameter  descend  vertically  through  shafts  in  the  rock.  They  are 
controlled  by  large,  horizontal  gate  vah'es  in  a  gallery  under  the  con- 
duit. These  penstocks  descend  A'ertically  to  the  IcA^el  of  the  base- 
ment of  the  power  house,  make  a  right-angled  turn  on  a  radius  of 
18  feet,  and  extend  horizontally  into  the  power  house.  Two  smaller 
penstocks,  each  30  inches  in  diameter,  reach  from  the  conduit  to  the 
power  house  in  a  straight  line  through  an  inclined  tunnel,  which  also 
carries  the  cable  ducts  connecting  the  power  house  and  the  trans- 
former house.  At  the  end  of  the  conduit  is  a  small  open  surge  basin 
or  spillway  provided  Avith  a  Avaste  tunnel. 


216      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

In  similar  manner  seven  lar<re  pen>tocks  and  two  small  ones  lead 
from  the  second  conduit  to  the  power  house.  There  is  also  a  gate 
valve  and  connection  bj'  which  penstock  Xo.  7  can  be  fed  from  the 
second  conduit  instead  of  the  first.  Penstocks  Xo.  18  and  Xo.  14  and 
the  two  small  penstocks  are  controlled  by  "Johnson  valves"  instead 
of  gate  valves.  Xo.  18  and  Xo.  14  can  also  be  connected  to  the  new 
wood-stave  conduit.  The  end  of  the  second  conduit  leads  to  a 
"Johnson  differential  surge  tank"  with  waste  tunnel.  For  the 
wood-stave  conduit  a  steel  surge  tank  50  feet  in  diameter  and  80  feet 
high  has  been  erected  in  the  park. 

The  power  house  is  a  concrete  building  in  the  (jorge.  It  is  77  feet 
wide  and  about  650  feet  long.  As  originally  designed  it  Avas  to  have 
18  units  of  10,000  horsepower  each  and  4  exciters.  It  now  has  16 
units,  the  last  two  of  which  are  in  process  of  installation.  The  first 
three  are  rated  at  10.000  horsepoAver  each,  the  next  four  at  12,000 
horsepower  each,  and  the  next  seven  at  14.000  horsepower  each. 
They  are  all  of  the  same  general  type,  though  made  by  different 
manufacturers  and  having  different  details.  Each  unit  consists  of 
two  Francis  turbines  and  a  generator  mounted  on  a  common  horizon- 
tal shaft.  The  turbines  are  supplied  with  water  by  ascending 
branches  from  the  penstocks  below  them.  They  have  scroll  cases 
and  wicket  gates  and  discharge  through  a  common  draft  tube  be- 
tween them  into  tailraces  under  the  power  house.  The  draft  tubes 
are  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  tailraces  at  their  outer  end  are 
vaulted  passages  5^  feet  high  and  20  feet  wide.  They  discharge  over 
a  weir  into  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  Pool.  At  full  load  the  elevation  of 
the  tail-Avater  sibove  the  weirs  is  about  853.  The  generators,  which 
are  of  the  internal-revolving  field  type,  are  at  the  river  ends  of  the 
horizontal  shafts.  They  operate  at  187^  revolutions  per  minute  and 
produce  three-phase  alternating  current  at  25  cycles.  12.000  volts. 

The  two  small  machines,  fed  from  the  first  conduit  and  originally 
installed  as  exciters,  are  now  used  to  generate  direct  current  for  run- 
ning elevators  and  for  other  station  service.  Excitation  is  provided 
by  a  rather  unusual  system.  The  tAvo  small  penstocks  from  the  sec- 
ond pipe  supply  Avater  to  two  small  horizontal-shaft  turbines,  each 
of  1,600  horsepower.  Each  turbine  is  direct  connected  to  a  small 
alternator,  an  induction  motor,  and  an  exciter  for  the  alternator. 
The  alternators  supply  current  to  14  small  motor-generator  sets,  one 
beside  each  large  generator.  These  supply  the  direct  current  to  ex- 
cite the  fields  of  tlieir  respective  generators.  Each  direct -current 
generator  of  the  motor-generator  sets  is  connected  up  permanently  to 
the  field  of  its  corresponding  main  gen'crator.  and  its  voltage  is  main- 
tained automatically  by  a  Tirrell  regulator  in  the  oi)crating  room, 
Avliich  is  shunted  across  the  field  of  the  small  machine.  The  regu- 
lator connections  provide  regulation  of  the  power  factor  of  the  main 
generator  also.  The  induction  motor  on  each  service  unit  can  be 
connected  to  low-A'oltage  secondary  mains  leading  from  transformers 
on  the  main  line.  It  Avas  intended  oi-iginally  that  the  motor  should 
be  in  circuit  customarily,  thus  "  floating  on  the  line."'  to  be  ready  to 
pick  up  the  service  unit  load  in  case  the  turbine  failed,  and  also  to 
steady  the  turbine,  and  thus  imj)rove  the  s])eed  control.  In  practice 
it  has  been  found  more  satisfactory  to  switch  the  motors  off  from  the 
line.     Thus  their  rotors  merelv  rotate  idlv  on  the  shafts. 


Dn^RSlON    OF   WATRR   YROM   GRKAT    LAKF.S   AXI)   XIACAKA   RIVER.      217 

The  station  is  operated  from  a  switchboard  in  the  transformer . 
house.  This  is  a  hir<^e  biiiklino;  on  top  of  the  bhiff.  It  is  about 
550  feet  behind  the  powerhouse  and  255  feet  above  it.  It  contains 
a  lar<ie  instaHation  of  transformers  and  is  the  startin*:;  ])()int  of  the 
transmission  lines.  The  transmission  is  at  various  \'olta<re  from 
12.000  to  110,000.  The  most  important  lines  are  those  of  the  Ilydro- 
Electric  l*ower  Commission,  and  the  Xia<2:ara,  Lockpoit  c^  Ontario 
Power  Co.  The  first  runs  i)i-imarily  to  Hamilton  and  Toronto  but 
distributes  much  power  in  neiiihborin<r  parts  of  Ontario,  runnino-  as 
far  west  as  Windsor.  For  the  second  line  the  Ontario  Power  Co. 
takes  the  pov.er  about  5  miles  down  the  river  and  across  the  lower 
gorge  below  the  Devils  Hole.  Here  it  is  is  delivered  to  the  Niagara, 
Lockport  &  Ontario  Power  Co.  in  a  building  on  the  American  side. 
The  latter  company  transmits  it  to  Lockport,  Kochester,  Syracuse, 
and  other  points.  These  two  customers  each  take  about  one-third 
of  the  output  of  the  plant.  The  remainder  is  distributed  to  near-by 
consumers  on  both  sides  of  the  river. 

This  plant  is  now  producing  about  103,000  horsei)ower.  of  which 
about  50,000  horsepower  is  imported  into  the  United  States.  The 
gross  head  on  this  plant  from  the  river  at  the  intake  to  the  Maid-of- 
the-Mist  Pool  is  about  215  feet.  From  the  best  data  available  it 
appears  that  11,200  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  are  used  to  gen- 
erate 108.000  horsepower.  This  is  an  output  of  14.()  horse])ower  per 
cubic  foot  per  second  and  an  over-all  efficiency  of  GO  per  cent.  This 
is  the  most  efficient  of  the  Canadian  plants  at  Niagara  Falls,  and  it 
develops  more  power  than  any  other  hydroelectric  station  at  the 
Falls.    It  began  to  produce  in  November,  1905. 

To  afford  relief  during  the  great  shortage  of  power  catised  by  the 
development  of  the  mtmitions  industries  in  the  Niagara  district  the 
company  is  now  installing  two  temporary  units.  These  machines 
Avere  btiilt  for  the  plant  of  the  Alinninum  Co.  of  America  on  the 
Yadkin  River.  They  are  very  similar  to  the  other  units  in  this  sta- 
tion and  are  expected  to  develop  about  15,000  horsepower  each.  The 
output  of  the  machines  on  conduit  No.  2  will  be  increased  by  the 
paralleling  of  that  conduit  with  the  new  one,  and  the  total  increase 
in  the  capacity  of  the  plant  will  probably  be  between  40,000  and 
50,000  horsepower.  This  will  increase  the  total  use  of  Avater  to  at 
least  13,300  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  exportation  of  poAver  by  this  company  into  the  Ignited  States 
began  in  1905,  being  less  than  1,000  horsepoAver.  It  increased  rap- 
idly from  year  to  year  to  a  maximum  of  about  52,000  horsepoAver 
in  1917,  since  Avhich  time  it  has  been  held  doAvn  by  the  Hydro- 
electric Commission  to  50,000  ho£sepoAver  or  a  little  less. 

In  1910  or  1911  the  Ontario  PoAver  Co.  entered  into  a  contract 
Avith  the  Hvdroelectric  PoAver  Commission  of  Ontario  to  sui)ply  it 
not  less  than  8,000  horsepoAver,  and  as  much  more  as  reqtiired  tip 
to  100,000  horsepower,  at  $9.40  per  horsepoAver  per  anntnn  for 
power  at  12,000  A^olts  until  25,000  horsepoAver  is  taken,  and  for  $9 
per  horsepoAver  per  annum  for  all  additional  poAver.  These  prices 
are  increased  $1  each  for  poAver  supplied  at  G0,000  volts.  The 
prices  cover  24-hour  continuous  service,  the  poAver  to  be  delivered 
to  the  commission's  lines  in  Niagara  Falls,  Ontario.  The  agreement 
is  for  a  term  of  10  years  Avith  provision  for  three  extensions  of  10 
vears  each. 


218      DIVERSION    OK    WATER   FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER. 

The  Xiii^ara.  Locki)ort  c*c  Ontario  PoAver  Co..  formerly  a  sub- 
sidiary of  the  Ontario  Power  Co..  made  a  contract  with  the  Ontario 
Power  Co..  (hited  July  1(5.  lOO-t.  by  which  the  hitter  agreed  to  supply 
the  former  at  the  international  boundary  line  (iO.OOO  horsepower, 
with  the  option  that  the  amount  mi^ht  be  increased  to  isO.OOO  horse- 
power. At  the  time  of  the  sale  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co  .  Aujiust  1, 
ini7.  this  contract  Avas  altered  to  cover  a  maximum  amount  of  50,000 
horsepower,  and  the  date  of  expiration  was  changed  from  201()  to 
1950. 

The  general  location  of  this  plant  is  shown  on  phite  Xo.  13. 

Toronto  Poirer  Co. — The  power  plant  now  generally  spoken  of  as 
that  of  the  Toronto  Power  Co.  Avas  constructed  by  the  Electi-ical  De- 
velopment Co.  of  Ontario  (Ltd.).  It  diverts  a})proximately  12.100 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  from  Niagara  Pivei"  on  the  Canadian 
side  above  Horseshoe  Falls. 

The  Electrical  Deveh)pment  Co.  of  Ontario  (Ltd.)  owns  the  hvdro- 
electric  power  plant,  franchises,  etc.  all  of  which  are  leased  to  the 
Toronto  Power  Co..  which  agrees  to  pay  as  rental  tlie  annual  interest 
and  sinking  fund  on  the  b(mds,  and,  if  net  earnings  from  the  leased 
property  ])ermit,  dividends  on  the  preferred  stock.  The  outstand- 
ing capital  stock  of  the  Electrical  Develo[)ment  Co.  is  $H.O()0.100 
common,  of  which  the  Toronto  Powei-  Co.  owns  $2,983,900:  and 
$2,990,900  preferred,  of  which  the  Toronto  Power  Co.  owns  $2,990,600. 
The  preferred  stock  is  entitled  to  6  per  cent  noncumulative  divi- 
dends until  January  1,  1910.  and  6  per  cent  cumulative  dividends 
thereafter.  The  outstanding  bonds  amount  to  $9.GG9.500,  of  which 
the  Toronto  Power  Co.  owns  $5,014,000.  The  Electrical  Develop- 
ment Co.  owns  or  controls  several  subsidiary  companies. 

The  Toronto  PoAver  Co.  capital  stock  authorized  is  $().000.000  and 
issued  is  $3,000,000.  The  Toronto  Railway  Co.  oAvns  $2,000,000  of 
this  direct,  and  the  remaining  $1,000,000  through  a  subsidiary  com- 
pany. There  is  a  ''bonded  debt."  covering  $4,100,200  of  5  per  cent 
bonds,  guaranteed  by  the  Toronto  Railway  Co.,  issued  to  cover  tiie 
]:)referred  stock  of  the  Electrical  Development  (^o.  held  by  the 
Toronto  Power  Co.,  and  which  is  mortgaged  to  cover  this  issue. 
There  is  also  an  issue  of  4]  per  cent  "  debenture,  stock "'  amounting 
to  $1,218,400,  guaranteed  V)y  the  Toronto  Railway  Co..  and  secured 
by  mortgage  on  $2,000,000  of  Electrical  Develo])ment  Co.  bonds,  and 
four-fifths  or  more  of  Electrical  Development  Co.  common  stock. 
In  addition  there  is  an  issue  of  4i  per  cent  "consolidated  guaranteed 
deljenture  stock  "  to  the  amount  of  $15,140,500,  guaranteed  by  the 
Toronto  Railway  Co.,  overljnng  the  remaining  $3,014,000  of  Elec- 
trical Development  Co.'s  bonds  and  a  few  other  securities. 

The  general  location  of  the  ])ower  plant  is  shown  on  plate  Xo.  13. 
The  scheme  of  development  involves  a  diverting  dam  or  weir  in 
the  rapids,  a  power  house  parallel  to  and  along  the  shore,  a  long, 
deep,  narrow  Avheel  pit  running  longitudinally  under  the  power 
house,  and  a  tail  race  tunnel  extending  from  the  pit  to  a  point  be- 
neath the  Horseshoe  Falls. 

On  January  29.  1903,  the  commissioners  of  Queen  Victoria  Niagara 
Falls  Park  granted  a  syndicate  an  irrevocable  license  to  construct 
a  hydroelectric  plant  in  the  park  accordinjr  to  stipulated  plans,  and 
to  develop  thereby  125.000  horsepower.     This  grant  Avas  confirmed 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER    FROM    CRKAT    LAK  FS   AND   XIACiARA   ItlVFR.      219 

by  order  in  council  the  follo\vin«i-  day.  The  syndicate  was  consoli- 
dated into  the  Electrical  I)eveloi)nient  Co.  of  Ontai-io  (Ltd.)  on 
February  18,  1903,  by  royal  letters  patent,  and  on  March  '2i,  11K)H, 
the  rifjhts  of  the  syndicate  were  assi<j:ned  to  the  coni|)any.  Tliis 
assio:nnient  was  confirmed  by  the  Ontario  Legislature. 

The  terms  of  the  lease  are  identical  with  those  of  the  lease  to 
the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.,  which  have  been  stated  previously. 
The  date  of  the  license  is  February  1,  1903. 

The  plans  of  the  company,  wliich  were  approved,  called  foi-  11 
units  of  12,500  nominal  horsqjower  each,  one  unit  being  regarded  as 
a  spare.  The  quantity  of  water  to  be  diverted  Avas  not  specified, 
but  was  variously  estimated  in  1906  or  earlier  to  be  10,800  cubic 
feet  per  second,  and  11,200  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  intake  and  power  house  are  on  the  Canadian  bank  of  the  river 
about  3,000  feet  above  the  Canadian  end  of  Horseshoe  Falls,  and 
nearly  midway  between  the  intakes  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  and  the 
Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.  The  intake  is  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.,  while  the  power  house  arrangement 
is,  to  an  extent,  like  that  of  the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co. 

A  submerged  weir  or  diverter  similar  to  that  of  the  Ontario 
Power  Co.'s  intake  extends  into  the  rapids,  curving  upstream  and 
having  its  upper  end  open.  The  crest  is  at  elevation  527,  except  at 
the  inner  end,  which  is  dropped  to  elevation  524  to  insure  a  good 
current  across  the  curtain  Avail.  The  length  of  the  weir  is  about  700 
feet.  At  the  shore  end  of  the  weir  is  a  curtain  wall  parallel  to  the 
shore  and  the  power  house,  about  480  feet  long,  pierced  by  23  arches, 
each  14^  feet  wide  and  20i  feet  high,  with  their  crests  5  feet  below 
mean  stage.  Inside  this  wall  is  a  long,  narroAv  fore  bay  Avith  an  ice 
run  at  its  loAver  end.  The  landAvard  side  of  this  fore  bay  is  a  similar 
curtain  wall,  which  also  forms  the  outer  Avail  of  the  poAver  house. 
Beyond  it  is  an  inclosed  inner  fore  bay  Avith  another  ice  run.  The 
racks  are  placed  in  this  fore  bay.  This  arrangement  solves  the  ice 
problem  almost  perfectly,  and  this  plant  has  less  trouble  Avith  ice 
than  any  of  the  others. 

Behind  the  racks  the  water  enters  the  11  steel  penstocks,  each  ap- 
proximately 11  feet  in  diameter.  The  upper  end  of  each  penstock 
can  be  closed  by  a  gate.  The  ])enstocks  descend  into  the  Avheelpit. 
first  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  and  then  A^ertically.  The  pit  is  416 
feet  long  and  22  feet  Avide  and  is  lined  Avith  brick.  The  finished 
bottom  of  the  pit  is  about  145  feet  below  the  water  surface  in  the 
fore  bay.  The  bottom  of  the  pit  does  not  form  the  tailrace  as  in  the 
other  plants  of  the  "  pit "  type!  Instead  there  are  two  tailrace  tun- 
nels, one  520  and  the  other  580  feet  long,  parallel  to  the  pit,  one  on 
each  side  at  the  bottom. 

There  are  11  turbines  in  steel  drums  in  the  pit.  Each  has  a  single 
draft  tube,  and  they  discharge  alternately  left  and  right  into  the 
tailrace  tunnels.  These  draft  tubes  are  9  feet  in  diameter  and  70  or 
SO  feet  long,  Avith  Iavo  right-angled  elboAvs  and  one  obtuse  elbow. 
They  discharge  upward  into  the  bottoms  of  the  tunnels.  The  A-e- 
locity  through  them  is  about  17  or  18  feet  per  second.  The  loss  of 
head^  due  to  friction  is  greater  than  the  "  draft-tube  effect,"  hence 
the  tubes  are  under  pressure  throughout  their  length  and  add 
nothing  to  the  effective  head.  The  first  four  turbines  haA^e  cylinder 
gates  and  a  capacity  of  13,000  horsepoAver  each. 


220      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  orenerators  are  in  the  power  house,  a  \arge  ornamental  huihl- 
in<r  of  Italian  ronais'^ance  architecture.  They  are  connected  to  the 
turl)ines  l)v  hollow  steel  shafts  IIT)  feet  long.  Four  of  them  are  rated 
at  S.OOO  kilowatts  and  seven  at  10,000  kilowatts  each.  They  produce 
alternating  current  at  12.000  volts,  25  cycles.  They  are  of  the  inter- 
nal revolving  field  tyi)e.  and  each  one  has  its  own  exciter  mounted 
on  top  of  the  large  machine.  There  are  two  small  turbine-driven 
exciter  units  in  a  '-hamher  at  the  northwest  end  of  the  pit.  but  they 
are  seldom  used. 

The  two  tailrace  tunnels  unite  a  little  ways  from  the  pit  to  form 
the  main  tunnel.  This  is  of  horseshoe  section.  28^  feet  Avide  and  26 
feet  high.  It  is  1.935  feet  long,  and  has  a  descending  grade  of  5^  feet 
per  thousand.  The  last  300  feet  of  cfmcrete  lining  at  the  portal 
is  made  in  rings  G  feet  long,  calculated  to  break  off  as  the  fall  re- 
cedes. The  outfall  or  portal  is  behind  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  where 
its  invert  is  at  about  elevation  300.  some  12  feet  or  more  above  the 
usual  water  level  in  the  pool  below  at  this  point. 

The  station  is  operated  from  a  switchboard  on  a  balcony  in  the 
power  house.  Cables  laid  in  conduits  carry  the  power  to  the  trans- 
former house.  1.500  feet  southwest  of  the  power  house.  Here  much 
of  the  power  is  transformed  to  60.000  volts  for  transmission  to 
Toronto  over  the  lines  of  the  Toronto  &  Xiagara  Power  Co.  About 
one-sixth  of  the  total  power  developed  is  imported  into  the  United 
States  over  the  lines  of  the  Canadian  Xiagara  Power  Co. 

The  gross  head  of  this  installation  from  the  intake  in  the  Canadian 
rapids  to  the  pool  beneath  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  about  183  feet. 
From  the  best  data  available  it  appears  that  the  plant  is  now  divert- 
ing about  12.400  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  Avhich  it  generates  about 
125,000  horsepower.  This  shows  10.1  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per 
second,  and  an  over-all  efficiency  of  49  per  cent. 

The  plant  began  producing  power  in  1906.  and  in  1907  power  from 
it  was  first  transmitted  into  the  United  States.  In  that  year  the 
exportation  probably  did  not  exceed  300  horsepower.  It  increased 
up  to  8.000  or  9,000  horsepower  in  1912,  and  then  decreased,  amount- 
ing to  little  or  nothing  in  1914  and  1915.  In  1916  and  191T  it  was 
nearly  20.000  horsepower,  but  decreased  in  the  latter  part  of  1917  to 
about  15,000  horsepower.  In  1914  the  eleventh  unit  was  installed. 
It  was  originally  intended  to  be  a  spare,  but  the  great  demand  for 
power,  particularly  during  the  war.  led  to  its  continuous  use.  It  is 
understood  that  this  continuous  use  was  objected  to  by  the  Hydro- 
electric Commission  of  Ontario,  except  on  condition  that  all  the 
power  produced  because  of  it  should  be  utilized  in  Canada  and  that 
certain  differences  between  this  company  and  the  commission  are  now 
befoi-e  the  C)ntario  government  for  adjustment. 

Intei'iudional  Railiray  Co. — A  small  power  plant  on  the  Canadian 
shore  between  the  crest  of  Horseshoe  Falls  and  the  power  house  of 
the  Canadian  Xiagara  Power  Co.  diverts  from  the  Xiagara  River  for 
power  development  a  quantity  of  water  estimated  at  125  cubic  feet 
per  .second. 

The  jjower  rights  for  this  plant  were  obtained  on  December  4,  1891, 
in  an  agreement  between  a  syndicate  of  Canadian  capitalists  and  the 
commissioners  of  Queen  Victoria  Xiagara  Falls  Park  in  connection 
with  a  pi-oject  to  l)uild  and  operate  an  electric  railway  l)etween 
Queenston   and   Chippewa.     This  agreement   was  confirmed,   and   a 


DI^^5RSI0X    OF   WAT1:R   from    (iRKAT   l.AKi:.S   AND   XlA(iARA   RIVER.      221 

company,  under  title  of  the  Niagiira  Falls  Park  &  River  Kaihvav 
Co.,  was  incorporated  by  act  of  the  Le<rislature  of  Ontario.  ( )n  May 
3,  1894,  a  further  a<rreement,  suhse<iuently  conlirnied.  was  made  to 
coyer  the  specific  properties  and  construction  I'iohts  involved. 

The  lease  covers  a  period  of  40  years  from  September  1,  1<S92.  and 
under  certain  conditions  may  be"  extended  20  years.  The  annual 
rental  of  $10,000  covers  also' the  railway  ri<>;hts  throu<;h  the  park. 
The  amount  of  power  to  be  generated  or 'the  quantitv  of  water  to  be 
diverted  are  not  specified,  but  under  the  charter  of  the  company 
none  of  the  power  nuiy  be  sold  and  none  may  be  used  except  in  operat- 
ing- and  lighting  the  raihvay.  In  1906  i't  was  estimated  that  the 
ultimate  consumption  of  water  would  be  l.r)00  cubic  feet  per  second 
and  that  the  consumption  at  that  time  was  (300  cubic  feet  per  second. 
In  1900  the  Buffalo  Railway  Co.,  of  New  York  State,  obtained 
Canadian  incorporati(m,  and  in  April,  1901,  its  Canadian  rights  were 
confirmed  and  extended.  It  purchased  the  properties,  rights,  etc., 
of  the  Niagara  Falls  Park  &  River  Railway  Co.,  paying  $733,000 
for  the  equity  and  assuming  the  bonded  indebtedness  of  $6()0,()()0.  It 
was  reported  in  1906  that  at  the  time  of  the  purchase  the  poAver  plant 
represented  a  cash  outlay  of  $141,000,  and  that  $125,000  additional 
for  equipment  had  been  expended  up  to  190(5. 

In  1902  the  name  of  the  Buffalo  Railway  Co.  was  changed  to  In- 
ternational Railway  Co.  This  company  in  October,  1903.  applied  to 
the  park  commissioners  for  ai)proval  of  plans  to  transmit  i)ower  from 
tliis  plant  to  the  American  side  to  operate  the  extensive  railway  sys- 
tem in  the  State  of  New  York.  The  request  was  not  granted.  The 
International  Railway  Co.  operates  the  electric  railways  in  Buffalo, 
Tonawanda,  and  Niagara  Falls.  N.  Y.,  and  elsewhere  in  Erie  and 
Niagara  Counties  in  New  York  State,  as  well  as  in  Welland  County, 
Ontario.  It  is  in  turn  controlled  by  the  United  Gas  &  Electric 
Corporation,  which  controls  a  large  number  of  public  service  cor- 
porations operating  in  13  or  more  States. 

The  intake  and  ])ower  house  of  this  plant  are  about  500  feet  above 
the  Canadian  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  The  intake  is  simply  a 
channel  leading  directly  from  the  rapids.  It  is  about  260  feet  long, 
from  62  to  130  feet  wide,  and  about  5|  feet  deep.  Its  entrance  is 
guarded  by  piers  and  coarse  racks.  The  j^lant  contains  tAvo  small 
vertical  turbines  which  operate  under  a  head  of  about  64  feet.  These 
discharge  into  a  tunnel  Avhich  spills  its  water  into  the  gorge  tlirough 
a  portal  in  the  side  of  the  clifT  ui)stream  from  the  Ontario  power 
house  at  about  elevation  420.  One  of  the  turl)ines  is  connected  l)y 
bevel  gears  and  belts  to  six  small  direct-current  generators  rated  at 
270  horsepower  each.  The  other  turbine  is  direct  connected  to  a  ver- 
tical direct-current  generator  rated  at  2,000  horsepower.  These  ma- 
chines are  operated  in  parallel  at  650  volts. 

The  average  load  of  this  plant  is  about  570  horsej^ower,  of  which 
about  175  horsepower  is  imported  into  the  Ignited  States.  The  water 
consumed  would  seem,  fiom  the  ])est  data  available,  to  be  a])out  125 
cubic  feet  per  second.  This  corresponds  to  an  over-all  efficiency  of 
45  per  cent  and  a  j)ower  production  of  4.()  horsepower  i)ei'  cubic  foot 
per  second.  The  tunnel  spills  its  Avater  far  above  the  IMaid-of-the- 
Mist  Pool.  The  gross  head  measured  to  the  surface  of  this  pool  is 
165  feet,  and  the  over-all  efficiency  on  this  basis  is  only  25  per  cent. 
The  location  of  the  power  house  is  shown  on  Plate  No.  13. 


222      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Wafer  work^  of  X'uigam  Fails,  Ontario. — The  city  of  Xiairara 
Falls.  Ontario,  derives  its  supply  of  water  for  domestic  use  and  tire 
protection  from  the  intake  of  the  International  Railway  Co.'s  power 
house.  From  the  north  corner  of  this  intake  a  conduit  about  500 
feet  long  leads  the  water  under  the  park  to  a  small  pumpino;  station 
near  the  crest  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  Here  part  of  the  water  is 
pumped  into  the  city  mains,  the  remainder  furnishing  the  power  to 
do  the  pumping.  This  latter  portion  is  then  discharged  through  a 
tunnel  Avith  an  outfall  near  that  of  the  International  Kailway  Co. 
The  elevation  of  the  outfall  is  about  477  feet.  The  amount  of  water 
used  is  not  known,  but  it  certainly  does  not  exceed  50  cubic  feet  per 
second.  The  water  wheels  are  reported  to  be  of  500  horsepower  total 
capacity.    The  head  used  by  the  pumping  machinery  is  about  "25  feet. 

As  this  diversion  is  made  solely  for  sanitary  and  domestic  purposes 
it  is  not  to  be  included  as  part  of  the  3G.00()  cubic  feet  per  second 
permitted  to  be  diverted  for  power  development  on  the  Canadian  side 
of  the  river,  but  rather  as  one  of  the  diversions  which  are  covered 
by  the  last  sentence  of  Article  V  of  the  treaty. 

The  location  of  the  pumping  station  is  shown  on  plate  No.  18. 

Xf'ir  pJant  of  Ontario  Ihjd ro-Eh'ctrlc  Poirfr  Conunlssion. — The 
HA'dro-Flectric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario  is  now  building  a 
new  power  development  on  the  C^madian  side.  The  following  de- 
scription of  this  project  is  based  largely  on  an  article  in  the  Engi- 
neering Xews  Record  for  October  31,  1918.  and  partly  on  other  in- 
formation. 

The  contemplated  diversion  is  10.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
water  is  to  ])e  taken  from  the  upper  river  at  the  mouth  of  the  AVelland 
River  (Chippawa  Creek)  and  flow  up  the  AVoUand  River  nearly  to 
the  village  of  Montrose.  This  section  of  the  river  is  to  Ije  dredged  to 
a  depth  of  25  to  30  feet  Avith  a  mean  width  of  about  200  feet.  The 
length  of  this  section  is  about  3.6  miles.  Leaving  the  river  the 
water  passes  through  a  canal  nearly  9  miles  long  to  a  fore  bay  at 
the  edge  of  the  Gorge  a  mile  above  Queenston.  Location  of  the 
route  is  shown  on  Plate  No.  6.  The  wetted  section  of  this  canal  is 
48  feet  wide  and  30  to  35  feet  deep.  It  is  mostly  in  rock  with  chan- 
neled sides  and  concrete  lining.  The  cuts  on  this  canal  are  very 
heavy.  The  maximum  de])th  of  rock  cut  is  85  feet  and  of  earth 
more  than  100.  while  the  greatest  total  cut  is  140  feet,  of  which  about 
75  is  rock.  The  canal  crosses  the  deep  ravine  west  of  the  Whirlpool 
on  an  artificial  fill. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  rock  surface  in  this  region  dips  to  the 
west  and  this  canal  has  a  less  proportion  of  rock  excavation  than 
one  on  the  American  side  would  have.  A  few  miles  farther  west 
the  New  Welland  Canal  is  being  excavated  almost  entirely  in  earth. 
On  the  otlier  hand  an  American  canal  would  cut  across  tiie  angle  of 
the  river  and  its  length  from  intake  to  fore  bay  Avould  be  only  about 
one-third  that  of  the  Canadian  route. 

The  fore  bay  at  the  top  of  the  cliff  is  approximately  300  by  1,000 
feet.  From  it  the  water  passes  through  six  penstocks  to  the  power 
house  in  the  Gorge.  Here  there  are  to  be  six  vertical  units  rated  at 
52,500  horsepower  each,  a  total  of  315,000  horsepower.  The  '"net" 
head  is  304  feet,  and  300.000  horsepower  is  expected  to  be  ol)tained 
from  10.000  cubic  feet  ])er  second,  or  30  horsepower  per  cubic  foot 
per  second.    The  estimated  cost  is  only  $25,000,000.  or  $83  per  horse- 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER    FROM    (IRKAT   LAKKS   AND    XIAOARA    RIVER.     223 

power.  It  is  liinted  lliat  this  is  only  the  tiist  of  a  series  of  such 
developments  (•ontemi)hite(l,  Avitli  ;in  ultimate  dixersion  of  .'>(j,0()() 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

In  the  lio:ht  of  the  studies  described  in  Section  F  of  this  report  it 
must  be  said  that  these  estimates  seem  altogether  too  optimistic. 
A  rough  computation  of  the  poAver  output  and  cost  on  a  basis  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  projects  discussed  in  Section  F  give  a  power 
output  of  294,000  horsepower,  or  29.4  horsei)ower  per  cubic  foot  per 
second,  and  a  total  cost  of  $42,000,000,  or  $143  per  horsepower.  This 
high  cost  as  compared  with  tlie  .Vmerican  projects  is  due  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  great  length  of  canal  re(|uired  by  this  scheme. 

AVhile  the  canal  is  being  built  large  enough  foi*  a  diversion  of 
10.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  it  is  understood  that  the  Hydroelectric 
Commission  maintains  that  the  present  diversions  on  the  Canadian 
side  amount  to  30.000  cubic  feet  per  second  and  intends  to  install  at 
present  onlj^  sufficient  machinery  to  utilize  the  6.000  cubic  feet  per 
second  thus  estimated  to  remain  under  the  treaty. 

It  appears  that  the  present  Canadian  diversions  really  amount  to 
about  33,325  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that  Avhen  the  Ontario  Power 
Co."s  new  units  are  put  in  service  the  amount  will  be  more  than 
35.400.  This  would  leave  less  than  GOO  cubic  feet  per  second  available 
for  the  new  plant.  Apparently,  therefore,  the  commission  must  shut 
down  part  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  plant  when  ready  to  start 
operating  the  new  plant  or  else  secure  an  extension  of  the  treaty 
limit. 

Xlagnra  Falls  Power  Co. — The  two  power  houses  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  plant  of  this  company  take  water  from  a  short  canal  on  the 
American  side  above  Coat  Island  and  discharge  it  through  a  long 
tailrace  tunnel  into  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool.  The  21  units  of  this 
plant  have  a  rated  capacity  of  5.000  horsepower  each.  The  permit 
from  the  Secretary  of  War  authorizes  the  diversion  of  10.000  cubic 
feet  of  water  per  second.  About  750  cubic  feet  of  this  is  leased  to 
the  International  Paper  Co.,  but  is  not  now  being  used  by  them.  The 
Niagara  Falls  plant  is  now  using  about  9.450  cubic  feet  per  second, 
Avith  whicli  it  produces  about  100.000  horsepower.  This  is  a  pro- 
duction of  10.6  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per  second  and  represents 
on  the  gross  head  of  219  feet  an  overall  efficiency  of  43  per  cent. 

A  detailed  history  and  description  of  the  works  of  this  company 
will  be  found  in  Section  F  of  this  report. 

Hydraulic  Power  Co. — This  company  has  been  consolidated  with 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  and  the  plant  is  now  known  as  the 
"  hydraulic  plant "  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  The  two  power 
houses  are  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  about  half  a  mile  below 
the  American  Falls.  They  get  their  sujjply  of  water  through  a  canal 
from  Port  Day  about  a  mile  above  the  Falls.  Tlie  ixn-niit  ;uithorizes 
the  diversion  of  9.500  cubic  feet  per  second.  Of  this  the  Pettebone- 
Cataract  Paper  Co.  gets  271  cubic  feet  per  second.  Station  2  has  9 
units,  with  a  total  rated  capacity  of  21.200  horsepower,  and  station  3 
has  13  units,  of  a  total  rated  capacity  of  130,000  horsepower  This 
plant  is  now  producing  about  145,000  horsepower  from  7.840  cubic  feet 
per  second.  This  is  a  production  of  18.5  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per 
second  and  corresponds  to  an  overall  efficiency  of  75  per  cent  under 
the  gross  head  of  219  feet.  Three  ncAv  units  with  a  total  capacity  of 
more  than  100,000  horsepower  are  now  being  installed. 


2'24       niVKKSION    of   water   from    great  lakes   and   NIAGARA    RIVER. 

A  ilotailed  history  ami  description  of  this  phiiit  will  be  found  in 
Section  F  of  this  report. 

The  Pettehone-Catanict  Paint'  To.— The  Pettebone-Cataract  Paper 
Co.  diverts  a  small  amount  of  water  from  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.'s 
canal  for  the  manufacture  of  Hour  and  paper.  Its  plant  is  described 
in  Section  F  of  this  report.  The  company  now  uses  about  '111  cubic 
feet  per  second,  from  which  it  obtains  perhai>s  "i.OOO  horsepinver.  or 
7.4  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per  se  ond.  As  the  jrross  head  of  this 
plant  is  about  O:^  feet,  the  over-all  etliciency  is  TO  per  cent,  but  the 
tail  water  is  rejected  high  up  the  bank,  wasting  a  head  of  approxi- 
mately 1'25  feet. 

The  Internatlo)inl  Paper  Co.  formerly  diverted  about  720  cubic 
feet  per  second  from  the  canal  of  the  Xia<rara  P'alls  Power  Co.  for 
operatinir  its  larofe  paper  mill.  This  plant  is  briefly  described  in 
Section  F  of  this  report.  The  turbines  have  been  removed  and  no 
Avater  is  now  used  by  this  company,  but  it  is  understood  that  they 
retain  their  old  ri<rhts  and  intend  to  install  ucav  wheels. 

Cataract  Hotel  plant. — There  was  formerly  a  small  power  jdant 
in  the  basement  of  the  Cataract  Hotel,  in  Nia^jara  Falls,  X.  Y.  This 
took  water  from  the  American  Rapids  near  the  head  of  Goat  Island 
by  means  of  a  Aving  dam  and  canal  and  discharged  it  through  a  tail- 
race  tunnel  into  the  same  rapids  near  the  (ioat  Island  bridge.  The 
hotel  hail  certain  water  rights  from  the  State  of  Xew  York.  AVhen 
the  State  formed  the  present  park  the  conmiissioners  caused  the 
greater  part  of  the  canal  to  be  replaced  by  a  brick-lined  underground 
conduit  7  or  8  feet  in  diameter.  The  wing  dam  and  upper  part  of 
the  canal  Avere  retained,  and  still  remain  in  the  park. 

The  gross  head  of  this  plant  is  about  24  feet.  Its  one  small  turbine 
was  operated  intermittently  until  the  fall  of  1913  to  run  the  hotel 
laundry.  The  amount  of  the  diversion  is  unknown,  but  it  Avas  prob- 
ably m'uch  less  than  100  cubic  feet  per  second.  X^o  i)ermit  for  this 
diA'ersion  was  ever  granted  bA*  the  Secretary  of  war. 

In  the  fall  of  1913  the  present  oAvner  of  the  hotel.  Mr.  John  Y. 
MacDonald.  remoA'ed  the  old  machinery  and  purchased  a  modern 
hydroelectric  unit,  rated  at  400  horsepower,  AAhich  he  proposed  to 
install  in  its  place.  Owing  to  the  refusal  of  the  X>av  York  State 
authorities  to  alloAv  the  replacement  of  the  old  headgate  of  the  con- 
duit by  ncAv  ones,  this  development  has  never  been  completed,  and  no 
water  "is  now  beinir  diverted.  The  plant  could  probably  use  between 
200  and  300  cubic  feet  i^er  second.  Mr.  MacDonald  is  the  promoter 
of  the  P^mpire  PoAver  Corporation.  Avhich  desires  to  develop  a  large 
power  plant  on  the  site  of  the  C^itaract  Hotel,  as  de.scribcd  in  Section 
F  of  this  report. 

Comparhon  of  plants. — The  plants  described  above  differ  in  gross 
head  from  24  to  313  feet.  Some  make  efficient  use  of  the  water  di- 
verted under  the  head  which  they  have  and  others  do  not.  Table 
Xo.  IS  assembles  the  diversions."  outputs,  and  efficiencies  of  these 
plants  .so  that  they  may  readily  i)e  compared.  It  should  be  noted 
that  the  horsejiower  per  cubic  "foot  per  seconil  is  the  figure  Avhich 
shoAvs  the  relative  success  of  the  different  plants  in  obtaining  power 
from  their  diversions,  while  the  over-all  efficiency  shows  Avhether  or 
not  the  installation  is  up  to  date.  Where  this  latter  figure  is  less 
than  so  per  cent  the  output  of  the  plant  is  not  as  great  as  it  should 
be  for  the  given  gross  head. 


DmSRSION   OF  WATER  FROM   OREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER.     225 
Table  No.  IS. — Diversion  data  on  Niagara  Falls  power  plants. 


Plant. 


Canadian  Niagara  I'ower  Co 

Ontaiio  Towcv  Co 

Toronto  I'ower  Co 

International  Ilv.  Co 

Hydro- Klcctric  Power  Commission  i 

Niapa'a  V al l.s  Power  Co 

Hydraulic  Power  Co 

International  Paper  Co 

Pettobonc-Cat  arac  t  Paper  Co 

Cataract  Hotel 


Diversion. 


Cubic  feet 

per  second. 

9,600 

11,200 

12,400 

125 

1  10, 000 

9, 4,-)0 

7,840 


in 


Power 
output. 


Ilorse- 

j)mrer. 
100,000 
1B3,000 
125,000 
570 
1  294, 0(X) 
100,000 
145,000 


Gross 
head. 


ITo''sepower 

per  cubit!  feet 

per  second. 


2,000 


Feet. 
173 

215 

is:j 
'.(1 

1  MS 

219 

219 

219 

93 

24 


10.4 
14.fi 
10,1 
4.0 
129,4 
10.  G 
18.5 


7.4 


Overall 

ellicion- 

cy. 


.CI. 

.53 
GO 
49 
45 

>83 
4.3 

«75 


3  70 


'  Now  under  construction.  ,,    ^         .  ,  „ 

2  The  Tl  vdraulic  Power  Co.  has  3  types  of  machines  with  widely  diflerent  overall  elTiciencies,  as  follows: 

Station  2, "57  per  cent;  direct  current  units  in  station  3,  77  per  cent;  alternating  current  units  in  station  3 

81  per  cent. 
«  Gross  head  taken  at  mouth  of  outfall. 

This  table  shows  that  of  the  five  existing  large  plants,  that  of  the 
Hj^draulic  Power  Co.  is  by  far  the  most  efficient,  while  the  Ontario 
Power  Co.  is  next,  and  the  other  three  are  about  equally  poor.  Any 
future  development  ought  to  be  planned  for  an  over-all  efficiency  of 
more  than  80  per  cent,  and  ought  to  give  over  20  horsepower  per 
cubic  foot  per  second  if  it  discharges  into  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool, 
or  over  29  if  it  discharges  into  the  Lower  Eapids. 

Total  diversions.-— The  actual  total  diversion  of  water  by  the  power 
plants  at  Niagara  Falls  is  shown  by  the  above  table  to  be  17,561 
cubic  feet  per  second  on  the  Americaii  side,  and  33,325  cubic  feet  per 
second  on  the  Canadian  side,  a  grand  total  of  50,886  cubic  feet  per 
second.  This  produces  635,570  horsepower,  or  12.5  horsepower  per 
cubic  foot  per  second. 

7.    ST.   LAWRENCE   RIVER   NAVIGATION   CANALS. 

The  amount  of  power  developed  upon  the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver  navi- 
gation canals  is  very  small  and  the  diversions  for  the  purpose  corre- 
spondingly small.  'Because  of  their  slight  importance  no  attempt 
has  been  made  to  determine  them  with  accuracy.  It  should  l)e  noted, 
however,  that  the  potential  power  in  the  river  at  each  of  these  canals 
is  large,  and  its  development  in  the  course  of  time  seems  almost  cer- 
tain, p  ,1      •  1 

For  each  of  the  canals  considered  in  the  following  paragraphs  a 
general  description  and  a  statement  of  its  navigation  features  is  to  be 
found  in  Section  A  of  this  report.  The  canals  are  shown  on  plates 
Nos.  9  and  10,  the  power  sites  being  indicated. 

Galop  Canal— It  is  believed  that  an  average  di\^rsion  of  400  to 
800  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  is  made  at  the  Galop  Canal  for 
power  development.  The  major  portion  of  this  quantity  is  conveyed 
down  the  old  canal  to  a  point  southeast  of  the  village  of  Cardinal, 
where  it  is  used  under  a  6-foot  head  by  the  Edwardsluirg  Starch 
AVorks  in  its  manufacturing  process.  This  installation  is  reported  to 
be  200  horsepower.  At  50  per  cent  over-all  efficiency  this  development 
would  require  a  flow  of  590  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  plant  is  old 
and  it  might  be  even  less  efficient.  On  October  6,  1914,  the  flow  to 
27880—21 1.5 


226      DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 


this  plant  was  carefully  measured  and  found  to  be  480  cubic  feet  per 
second.  The  discharge  from  the  mill  enters  the  river  through  a  gap 
in  the  old  canal  wall. 

At  Iroquois  there  are  two  small  power  plants  with  a  14-foot  head. 
That  belonging  to  M.  F.  Beach  is  listed  at  40  hoi*sepower,  while  the 
other,  which  is  the  water-works,  pumping  and  electric-light  plant  of 
the  town  of  Iroquois,  is  listed  at  90  horsepower.  The  plant  belong- 
ing to  Mr.  Beach  contains  modern  vertical-shaft  generating  units 
whose  efficiency  might  be  75  per  cent.  In  this  case  the  maximum 
quantity  of  water  required  is  34  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  plant 
is  operated  only  intermittently  to  run  a  gristmill  and  light  part  of 
the  town  of  Iroquois.  The  town  plant  is  old  and  its  efficiency  might 
be  50  per  cent  or  less.  At  50  per  cent  efficiency  it  would  require  a 
maximum  of  115  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  It  is  not  operated 
continuously.  On  October  6,  1914,  the  flow  through  the  "  Cardinal 
Cut"  was  accurately  measured  and  found  to  be  260  cubic  feet  per 
second.    This  volume  of  flow  covered  the  demand  at  that  time  for 

Eower  development  at  these  two  plants,  the  waste  over  the  Aveir  at 
tock  25.  any  possible  lockage  at  Lock  25,  and  seepage  and  evapora- 
tion. These  two  plants  at  Iroquois  are  located  northwest  of  Lock  25, 
the  chamber  of  old  Lock  No.  25  forming  part  of  the  common  tail- 
race. 

Morrishurg  Canal. — At  the  lower  end  of  the  Morrisburg  Canal 
there  are  three  small  water-power  plants  owned  by  the  city  of  Mor- 
risburg. The  head  on  each  is  approximately  11  feet.  One  has  an 
800  kilo  volt- ampere  generator,  requiring  1,000  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second  for  full  load;  another  is  a  300-horsepower  city  lighting 
plant  requiring  300  cubic  feet  per  second;  and  the  third  is  the  city 
water  works,  requiring  55  cubic  feet  per  second  for  power.  The  total 
consumption  of  the  three  plants,  namely,  1,355  cubic  feet  per  second, 
is  not  continuous.  On  October  10,  1914,  the  flow  in  the  canal  was 
measured  and  found  to  be  950  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  repre- 
sented the  entire  use  of  water  just  at  that  time  for  both  naAdgation 
and  power  purposes.  It  is  believed  that  the  average  use  for  power 
development  runs  from  800  to  1,400  cubic  feet  per  second. 

In  wintertime  accumulations  of  ice  downstream  sometimes  cause 
a  backwater  rise  which  occasionally  reaches  a  height  of  12  feet. 

Cornv^dll  Canal. — The  flow  in  the  Cornwall  Canal  has  never  been 
measured  so  far  as  is  known.  There  is  a  development  at  Mille  Roche, 
5  miles  below  the  head  of  the  canal,  and  there  are  5  developments  at 
Cornwall,  as  shown  in  Table  No.  19. 

Table  No.  19. — Wafer-pother  developments  on  ComioaU  Canal. 


Location. 

Nor- 
mal 
head. 

Horse- 
power 
devel- 
oped. 

Water 
used. 

Name  of  power  user. 

Mille  Roches 

Lock  IS 

Feel. 

28 

7J 

7} 

20 

20 

20 

2,000 
800 

50 
2,900 

80 

50 

Cubic  feet 

per  second. 
sno 

J  50 

10 

1,800 

.50 

30 

St.  Lawrence  Power  ("o. 
Toronto  Paper  Manufacturing  Co. 

Do 

Cornwall  Citv  Pumpinp  Plant. 

Lock  17 

Ciumila  Cotton  Co. 

Do 

Cornwall  Klectric  Lifiht  i  Kv.   Co.;    Stormont   Electric 

Do 

Light  (V  I'ower  Co. 
Hodge  Flour  Mill. 

Total 

',,  KSO 

2,H.10 

DIVEltSlON   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER.     227 

A  total  diversion  of  nearly  3,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second 
for  jJONver  purposes  is  indicated,  but  the  full  amount  is  not  used 
continuously.  It  is  understood  that  in  wintertime  the  plants  at 
Cornwall  are  botliered  considerably  by  backwater  caused  by  accumu- 
lations of  frazil  ice  in  the  comparatively  quiet  waters  of  Lake  St. 
Francis.  I'his  backwater  sometimes  rises  to  a  height  of  15  to  30 
feet  above  normal  le\'el. 

Other  canals. — Considerable  power  is  developed  along  the  Sou- 
langes  Canal  and  the  Lachine  Canal.  The  old  Beauharnois  Canal 
is  used  solely  for  power  development.  These  canals,  as  already  ex- 
plained in  Section  A.  are  along  that  portion  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
which  is  entirely  Canadian,  •ui<l  hence  is  considered  to  be  outside 
the  territory  involved  in  this  investigation.  The  largest  single  de- 
velopment is  that  of  the  Cedars  Eapids  Manufacturing  &  Power  Co., 
on  the  north  side  of  the  river  at  Cedars  Eapids.  This  plant  utilizes 
a  30-foot  head,  developing  approximately  130,000  horsepower,  of 
which  more  than  GO.OOO  horsepower  is  transmitted  into  the  United 
States  over  a  110,000-volt  line  for  consumption  by  the  Aluminum  Co. 
of  America  at  Massina,  N.  Y.  The  designed  contemplate  an  ultimate 
use  of  5(),000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  generating  150,000 
horsepow^er. 

8.    MASSENA  CANAL. 

The  St.  Lawrence  River  Power  Co.,  which  is  controlled  by  the 
Aluminum  Co.  of  America,  diverts  about  30,000  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  at  the  head  of  the  Long 
Sault  Rapids  in  the  State  of  New  York,  returning  this  water  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  at  the  mouth  of  Grasse  River,  10^  miles  downstream 
from  the  point  of  diversion. 

The  St.  Lawrence  River  Power  Co.  was  incorporated  July  19, 
1902,  as  successor  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Power  Co.,  which  was  sold 
under  foreclosure.  It  has  authorized  an  outstanding  $3,500,000 
common  stock  and  authorized  $3,500,000  preferred  stock,  $3,000,000 
of  which  is  outstanding.  All  outstanding  stock  is  owned  by  the 
St.  Lawrence  Securities  Co.,  which  was  formed  by  the  Aluminum  Co. 
of  America  in  190G,  and  is  owned  by  it.  The  St.  Lawrence  River 
PoAver  Co.  has  no  bonded  debt. 

The  canal  and  other  main  works  of  this  company  are  shown  on 
Plate  No.  10. 

The  head  of  the  Massena  Canal  is  in  the  South  Sault  Channel, 
about  1  mile  below^  Talcotts  Point,  which  is  at  the  head  of  the  South 
Sault  Rapids.  In  this  reach  of  the  river  the  power  company  has 
dredged  a  channel  150  feet  wide  and  14  or  more  feet  deep,  leading 
toward  the  head  of  the  canal. 

The  canal  extends  in  a  southeasterly  direction  from  its  entrance. 
16,200  feet  to  the  Grasse  River  at  Massena,  N.  Y.  It  has  a  bottom 
width  of  188  feet,  depth  of  25  feet,  and  side  slopes  of  1  on  1^.  The 
effective  wetted  cross-section  is  about  5,500  S(piare  feet.  It  passes 
through  tAvo  ridges,  each  over  2,000  feet  long,  requiring  maximum 
cuts  of  80  and  90  feet,  respectively.  The  excavation  was  almost 
wholly  in  earth.  The  canal  was  designed  to  be  navigable.  Of  the 
three  bridges  which  cross  it  one  has  GO  feet  of  headroom  and  the  other 
two  have  lift  draw  spans. 


228      DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  power  liouse  staiuls  at  the  end  of  tlie  canal,  its  foundation 
forming:  a  dam  across  the  canal,  and  its  face,  on  the  tailrace  side, 
extending  along  the  north  shore  of  Grasse  River.  The  old  and  new 
power  houses  form  one  continuous  structure.  In  the  new  power  house 
there  are  five  vertical  shaft  units.  Each  shaft  carries  two  turbine 
runners,  mounted  one  above  the  other  in  an  open  concrete  stall. 
There  is  a  separate  draft  tube  for  each  runner,  the  two  tubes  uniting 
in  a  common  tailrace  under  the  river  wall  of  the  power  house.  Four 
of  these  units  drive  direct-current  generators,  and  one  drives  an 
alternator,  each  generator  being  direct  connected  on  the  upper  end 
of  the  shaft.  Both  the  turbines  and  the  generators  are  of  AUis- 
Chalmers  manufacture,  and  each  unit  is  said  to  have  a  nominal  rat- 
ing of  G,000  liorsepowor.  The  old  power  house  contains  eight  hori- 
zontal shaft  units  of  5.000  horsepower  each.  These  units  consist  in 
each  case  of  six  separate  turbine  runners  of  1,000  horsepower  each 
on  the  same  horizontal  shaft  in  a  concrete  stall,  and  a  single  generator 
on  the  end  of  the  shaft  in  the  generator  room.  Four  of  the  turbines 
are  Dayton  Globe  Iron  Works  machines,  two  of  which  drive  Bullock 
direct-current  generators,  while  the  other  two  drive  Westinghouse 
direct-current  generators.  The  other  four  turbines  are  I.  P.  Morris 
machines,  two  driving  General  Electric  direct-current  generators,  and 
two  dri^dng  Westinghouse  alternating-current  generators. 

The  tailrace  of  the  plant  is  formed  by  the  Grasse  River,  which 
runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  and.  in  this  localit3^  within 
3^  miles  of  it.  It  is  7  miles  along  Grasse  River  from  the  power  house 
to  the  St.  Lawrence.  Originally,  this  reach  of  the  Grasse  River  was 
250  to  300  feet  wide  and  very  shallow.  Dredging  performed  in 
1914  to  1918  produced  a  channel  200  to  600  feet  wide  and  14  or  more 
feet  deep  throughout  the  7  miles,  the  current  in  which  is  less  than 
3|  miles  per  hour. 

The  discharge  into  the  upper  end  of  the  South  Sault  Rapids  was 
nomially  about  50,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  or.  roughly,  one-fifth 
of  the  entire  flow  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  fall  from  the  head  of 
the  Massena  Canal  to  the  mouth  of  Grasse  River  was  approximately 
43  feet.  Until  recently  Avhen  operating  to  capacity  the  power  com- 
pany lost  about  7  feet  of  head  in  the  Grasse  River  and  2J  feet  in  the 
canal,  leaving  a  head  of  33^  feet  on  the  plant,  under  which  about 
80,000  horsepower  was  produced  with  a  use  of  30,000  cubic  feet  of 
water  per  second.  In  winter  time  there  was  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
with  floating  ice.  anchor  ice,  and  frazil,  and  the  power  house  could 
be  operated  at  only  a  fraction  of  its  summer  capacity,  the  head  at 
the  power  house  often  being  reduced  to  25  feet,  the  flow  of  water  to 
5,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  i:)ower  output  to  10.000  horse- 
power. 

In  an  endeavor  to  remedy  ice  difficulties,  and  as  a  temporary  ex- 
pedient to  provide  more  power  for  the  maiuifacture  of  munitions  of 
war.  the  company  constructed  ice-diverting  Avorks  of  special  design 
at  Talcotts  Point  in  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1918.  and  a  sub- 
merged rock  dam  across  the  South  Sault  Channel  just  downstream 
from  the  canal  entrance.  As  a  result'  of  these  works  and  the  mild 
winter  of  1918-19  the  difficulties  with  ice  were  greatly  minimized, 
and  the  plant  was  able  to  maintain  an  output  of  45,000  to  55.000  horse- 
power.   Furthermore,  because  of  the  increased  head  of  about  3  feet 


OIVEKSION    OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AXI)   NIAGARA   RIVER.      229 

at  the  head  of  the  canal,  the  consefiiient  increased  carryin':-  cai)acity 
of  the  canal,  and  the  increased  discharoino-  capacity  of  (Jrasse  Kiver 
due  to  dred<rino;,  the  head  at  the  power  house  has  been  increased  8 
or  9  feet.  The  fall  in  the  canal  has  been  reduced  to  approximately  1 
foot  and  the  fall  in  Grasse  Eiver  to  about  '2r\  feet.  An  output  of 
60,000  horsepower  is  now  produced  Avith  a  consumption  of  only  17,000 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  Under  these  conditions  the  fall  in 
Grasse  Eiver  w'as  about  2  feet  and  the  head  at  the  power  house  about 
43  feet.  Nearly  all  the  power  is  used  in  the  near-by  work  of  the 
Aluminum  Co.  of  America.  A  very  small  amount  is  used  for  liLdiLin<^ 
and  pumping  at  Massena. 

The  St.  Lawrence  Power  Co.,  which  originated  the  development  of 
this  plant,  was  incorporated  in  New  York  State  in  181)G.  Construc- 
tion work  was  undertaken  soon  after,  and  had  ])ro^ressed  to  a  point 
in  1902  w^here  35,000  horsepower  was  available.  Owing  to  its  rela- 
tively inaccessible  location  no  market  for  the  power  was  develoi)ed 
and  the  project  became  a  financial  failure.  Foreclosure  proceedings 
were  undertaken  on  behalf  of  the  bondholders,  and  on  July  3.  1902, 
the  property  and  franchises  were  sold  to  Mark  T.  Cox.  one  of  the 
incorporators  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  I*OAver  Co..  for  $500,000. 
It  was  reported  that  up  to  that  time  the  development  had  cost  more 
than  $10,000,000,  the  funds  being  supplied  by  English  capitalists. 

9.    LITTLE  RIVER  AT  WADDIKGTOX.   N.   Y. 

Ogden  Island,  formerly  known  as  Crapseys  Island,  forms  the 
southerly  shore  of  the  Eapide  Plat.  These  rapids  and  the  Morrisburg 
Canal  following  their  northerly  shore,  have  been  described  in  Sec- 
tion A  of  this  report.  The  channel  between  Ogden  Island,  which  is 
United  States  territory,  and  the  American  main  shoi-e  is  known  as 
Little  River.  It  is  approximately  3i  miles  long.  600  to  1.500  feet 
wide,  and  generally  shallow,  the  midstream  depth  varying  from  (>  to 
35  feet.  On  the  mainland,  a  little  below  mid  length  of  Little  River, 
is  situated  the  town  of  Waddington,  N.  Y..  18  miles  doAvnstream  from 
Ogdensburg,  N.  Y. 

At  Waddington  there  is  a  dam  950  feet  long  across  Little  River 
which  was  originally  built  more  than  100  years  ago.  It  is  reported  to 
have  been  constructed  of  stone  originally,  but  the  ])resent  structure 
appears  to  be  largely  of  wooden  cribs  filled  Avith  boAvlders.  a  part  of 
the  length  being  dry  rubble  wall.  It  is  very  dilapidated  and  leakv. 
The  head  of  water  on  the  dam  is  ap])roximately  10  feet. 

At  the  downstream  side  of  the  dam.  near  midstream,  is  a  small 
power  house  owned  by  the  New  York  &  Ontario  Power  Co.  It  con- 
tains a  39-inch  Victor  turbine,  whose  maximum  discharge  at  full 
gate  is  about  110  cubic  feet  per  second.  It  drives  a  generator  Avhich 
furnishes  power  for  lighting  the  village  of  AVaddington  from  sunset 
to  1  o'clock  a.  m.  daily.  Its  power  may  also  be  used  for  pumping 
water  for  fire  protection  and  street  flushing. 

A  power  canal  15  to  20  feet  wide  leads  from  the  south  end  of  the 
dam  downstream  along  the  bank  of  the  river  for  aliout  950  feet.  It 
serves  four  small  plants.  Beginning  near  the  dam  there  is  a  small 
sawmill  owned  liy  the  New  York  &  Ontario  Power  Co.  and  oj:)erated 
by  Dimn  &  Rutherford,  of  Waddington.  It  has  an  old-style,  wooden 
scroll,  central  discharge  wheel  which  is  verj^  wasteful  of  water,  using 


230      DRTERSIOX  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

200  to  300  cubic  feet  per  second  when  operating,  but  which  is  run 
onh'  part  of  the  year.  Below  the  sawmill  is  a  blacksmith  shop  in 
which  small  tools  are  driven  by  a  wooden,  central  discharge  wheel 
using  not  more  than  50  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  Below  the 
blacksmith  shop  is  a  plant  for  separating  cream  from  milk.  It  uses 
a  wheel  similar  to  that  at  the  blacksmith  shop  and  requires  not  more 
than  50  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  fourth  plant  is  below  the  separa- 
tor and  is  a  planing  mill  which  is  not  in  use  more  than  one  month  a 
year.  It  lias  a  wooden  scroll,  central  discharge  wheel  requiring  not 
more  than  100  cubic  feet  per  second.  To  recapitulate,  the  approxi- 
mate amount  of  water  used  in  all  water-power  plants  on  Little  River 
is  eiven  in  Table  No.  20. 


Table  No.  20. — Little  River  water  power — approximate  present  use  of  water  i 

cubic  feet  per  second. 


n 


Electric  lighting  and  pumping  station 110 

Sawmill 300 

Blacksmith  shop 50 

Separating  plant 50 

Planing  mill 100 

Total • 610 

This  quantity  is  about  the  same  as  that  used  in  1899. 

About  900  feet  upstream  from  the  dam  and  parallel  with  it,  there 
is  a  dike  built  partly  of  wooden  cribs  and  partly  solid  fill.  Toward 
the  island  end  there  are  two  openings  or  gaps  in  the  dike  spanned 
by  .small  wagon  bridges,  one  opening  being  42  feet  wide  and  the 
other  30  feet  wide.  On  June  15,  1914,  the  flow  of  water  through 
these  gaps  was  gauged  by  current  meter.  The  flow  through  the  north 
gap  was  1,850  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that  through  the  south  gap 
T50  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  drop  in  water  level  from  upstream  to 
downstream  side  of  the  dike  was  found  by  leveling  to  be  1.5  feet. 
The  leakage  through  the  dike  was  estimated  roughly  to  be  600  cubic 
feet  per  second.  Altogether  the  flow  through  Little  River  was  thus 
3,200  cubic  feet  per  second,  a  quantity  which  was  1.1  per  cent  of  the 
total  discharge  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  at  that  time. 

The  right  to  construct  the  dam  was  originally  granted  to  David 
A.  and  Thomas  L.  Ogden  bv  act  of  the  New  York  State  Legislature 
April  1,  1808  (chapter  121",  Laws  of  New  York,  1808).  This  act 
conferred  on  these  men  and  their  associates  for  a  term  of  75  years 
the  right  to  construct  a  dam  and  lock  at  Waddington,  and  to  use 
the  Avater  impounded  by  the  dam  for  the  generation  of  power  for 
anv  commercial  purpose.  On  April  17,  1826,  an  act  was  passed 
(chapter  280,  Laws  of  New  York,  1826),  setting  forth  the  following: 

David  A.  Ogden,  of  the  county  of  St.  Lawrence,  being  proprietor  of  both 
sides  of  the  branch  of  the  lUver  St.  Lawrence,  in  the  town  of  Madrid  (Wadding- 
ton), and  across  which  river  he  has  erected  a  dam  and  locks  in  pursuance  of 
an  act  passed  April  1,  1908,  shall,  and  he  is  horel)y  declared  to  be  vested  with 
all  the  rights  of  the  people  of  this  State  to  the  lands  situated  l)elow  the  said 
dam,  and  which  by  reason  thereof  has  been  rendered  susceptible  to  improve- 
ment and  extending  down  the  branch  of  the  said  river  from  the  said  dam  to 
the  navigable  waters  thereof,  to  have  and  to  hold  to  the  said  David  A.  Ogden, 
liis  lieirs  and  assigns  forever. 

These  two  acts  therefore  vested  in  David  A.  Ogden  and  his  suc- 
cessors in  perpetuity  all  riparian  rights  on  l:)oth  sides  of  Little  River, 
owners! lij)  of  the  bed  of  the  river  below  the  dam,  and  the  right  to 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     231 

utilize  the  natural  flow  of  the  stream  for  the  development  of 
hydraulic  power  for  any  purpose  whatsoever.  The  natural  flow  of 
Little  Kiver  is  reported  to  have  been  2G,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  New  York  &  Ontario  Power  Co.  now  holds  all  these  ri^^hts  and 
privileges.  This  company  was  incorporated  in  New  York  State 
April  18,  1906,  to  furnish  lijrht  and  power  to  municipalities  jind 
industries  in  northern  New  York.  It  has  an  authorized  capital 
.stock  of  $2,()()(),()00,  of  which  $225,000  is  outstandin«r.  Its  bonded 
indebtedness  is  $200,000,  the  authorized  bond  issue  being  $457,000. 
This  company  proposes  to  build  a  new  dam  about  1,000  feet  down- 
stream from  the  old  one,  remove  the  old  dam  and  dike,  dredge  the 
channel,  and  construct  remedial  works,  consisting  of  a  submerged 
rock  weir  across  the  liapide  Plat  at  the  head  of  the  Morrisburg 
Canal,  and  a  diversion  wall  from  the  foot  of  Ogden  Island  to 
Canada  Island.  With  a  use  of  about  30,000  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second  this  coni|)any  expects  to  develop  30,000  horsepower.  Ap- 
plication for  a  permit  has  been  made  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  and 
the  matter  has  been  referred  to  the  International  Joint  Commission. 
A  hearing  was  held  by  the  commission  October  1,  1918. 

About  1911  the  New  York  &  Ontario  Power  Co.  made  a  contract 
with  the  Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario  for  the 
delivery  of  15,000  horsepower  at  a  sliding  scale  of  rates  varying 
from  $13  per  horsepower  per  annum  for  the  first  2,000  horsepower 
down  to  $10.50  for  each  horsepower  per  annum  above  10,000.  The 
Hydro.  Commission  constructed  a  transmission  line  for  a  distance 
along  the  north  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  a  start  was 
made  on  construction  of  the  river  crossing  to  Ogden  Island,  just 
above  Morrisburg.  The  power  company  failed  to  build  its  plant, 
however,  and  to  fulfill  its  part  of  the  contract. 

The  location  of  this  project  is  shown  on  plate  No.  9. 

10.  LONG    SAULT    RAPIDS    PROJECT. 

The  Long  Sault  Rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  the  South 
Sault  Rapids  are  shown  on  Plate  No.  10.  In  the  South  Sault  Rapids 
from  Delany  Island  to  the  foot  of  Long  Sault  Island  there  is  a  tall 
of  32  feet,  and  from  this  point  to  the  foot  of  Bamhart  Island  the 
fall  is  about  12  feet,  giving  a  total  head  of  44  feet.  The  entire  fall 
from  Richards  Landing  to  mouth  of  Grasse  River  is  48  feet,  and  from 
the  head  of  the  Cornwall  Canal  to  the  mouth  of  Grasse  River  it 
is  45  feet. 

The  average  elevation  of  Lake  Ontario  for  the  59  years,  1800 
to  1918,  both  inclusive,  was  246.18  feet.  Under  present  conditions 
at  this  stage  of  the  lake  the  St.  Lawrence  River  discharges  241,000 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  Normally  about  48,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  of  this  went  down  the  South  Sault  Rapids.  At  Barnhart 
Island  the  division  appears  to  be,  roughly.  226,000  south  of  Barn- 
hart  Island,  12,000  between  Barnhart  and  Sheek  Islands,  and  3,000 
through  the  Cornwall  Canal  north  of  Sheek  Island. 

On  May  23,  1907.  the  Long  Sault  Development  Co.  was  incor- 
porated in  New  York  to  develop  the  power  of  the  Long  Sault  and 
South  Sault  Rapids  (chapter  355.  Laws  of  New  York,  1907).  ^  This 
company  was  owned  by  the  St.  Lawrence  Securities  Co.,  which  in 


232      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

turn  is  owned  bj^  the  Aluminum  Co.  of  America.  Its  authorized 
capital  stock  Avas  $1,000,000.  The  plans  of  this  companj^  involved 
a  develoi^ment  of  the'  Long  Sault  Rapids  which  reciuired  a  dam 
3.800  feet  long  across  these  rapids  between  Barnhart  and  Long  Sault 
Islands,  a  dam  1.450  feet  long  between  Barnhart  Island  and  the 
bank  of  the  Cornwall  Canal  at  Lock  20.  excavation  of  a  channel 
1.000  feet  wide  between  Barnhart  and  Sheek  Islands,  and  excava- 
tion of  a  channel  through  the  lower  end  of  Barnhart  Island  to  two 
power  houses  at  the  water's  edge.  The  head  at  these  power  houses 
was  to  be  about  40  feet.  The  plans  also  included  a  development  of 
the  South  Sault  Rapids  by  a  dam  and  power  house  at  the  east  end 
of  Long  Sault  Island,  where  a  head  of  35  feet  was  to  be  obtained. 
At  mean  stage,  and  80  per  cent  over-all  efficiency,  the  indicated  horse- 
power is  1.027.000.  At  a  low-river  stage  the  power  ])i'oduction  would 
fall  to  600,000  horsepower. 

The  company  proceeded  to  purchase  the  whole  of  Barnhart  Island, 
the  lower  half  of  Long  Sault  Island,  all  of  the  American  main  shore 
from  the  Massena  Canal  down  to  a  point  opposite  the  foot  of  Barn- 
hart Island,  and  much  other  land  on  the  islands  and  main  shores 
in  the  vicinity,  including  all  the  riparian  rights  deemed  necessary. 
It  also  undertook  extensive  engineering  investigations  related  to 
the  project. 

To  obtain  the  necessary  congressional  authority,  a  bill  was  intro- 
duced into  the  House  of  Representatives  in  February.  1907.  This 
was  later  withdrawn,  and  in  December,  11K)9.  another  bill  was  intro- 
duced. This  also  was  withdrawn.  Bills  were  introduced  also  in 
January,  1911,  and  1912.  but  failed  of  passage,  and  no  Federal  au- 
thority was  ever  granted  for  the  project. 

Meantime  the  authority  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  was  also 
sought,  but  without  success,  there  being  much  opposition  to  any  at- 
tempt to  develop  the  power  of  these  rapids  before  Cana<la  had  devel- 
oped a  market  capable  of  al)S()rbing  half  tlie  power  produced.  The 
navigation  interests  of  Canada  were  unalterably  o])posed  to  obstruct- 
ing the  rapids.  Much  stress  was  laid  on  the  danger  of  destructive 
ice  blockades  and  their  attendant  floods. 

The  matter  was  referred  to  the  International  Waterways  Commis- 
sion Avhich  held  public  hearings  by  the  full  commission  October  24, 
1907.  and  Xovenil)er  21.  1908,  at 'Toronto,  and  February  20,  1909, 
at  Buffalo:  and  by  the  Canadian  section  of  the  commissi(m  November 
t;,  1907,  at  Montreal,  and  Febiniary  8,  1910,  at  Toronto.  The  Cana- 
dian members,  however,  faik'd  to  report,  so  that  no  report  by  the 
commission  as  a  whole  was  possible  The  American  section  reported 
favorably  to  the  pr()i)osition  on  Miirch  11.  1910. 

In  May,  1911,  the  constitutionality  of  the  State  grant  was  chal- 
lenged, and  on  December  30,  1912,  the  attorney  general  of  the  State 
of  New  York  rendered  his  o])inion  that  the  act  granting  the  charter 
was  unconstitutionnl.  An  act  to  repeal  tlie  act  of  incorporation  was 
passed  May  8,  19i:'>  (chapter  452,  Laws  of  New  York.  1913).  This 
act  ai>propriated  $36,320  with  which  to  refund  the  company  the 
money  paid  by  it  into  the  State  treasury.  On  the  same  date  an()ther 
act  was  passed  empowering  the  State  board  of  claims  to  a<lju(licate 
upon  any  claims  that  might  be  presented  by  the  Ixmg  Sault  Develop- 
ment Co.  (chapter  453,  Laws  of  New  Yorkl^  1913). 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROIM    (IKKAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   KIVER.      233 

The  conipanv  claimed  it  had  exi)ended  one  and  three-quarter  mil- 
lion dollars  or  more  in  this  enterprise,  and  ar<(ued  that  it  should  be 
reimbursed  by  the  State. 

In  1013  the  court  of  appeals  upheld  the  State's  contentions.  No 
reimbursement  for  development  expenditures  was  allowed.  In  De- 
cember, 191G,  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  handed  down  a  deci- 
sion declaring  the  charter  of  the  Lono;  Sault  Development  Co.  uncon- 
stitutional and  otherwise  upholding  the  contentions  of  the  State  of 
New  York. 

1  ] .  EKIE  &  ONTARIO  SANITARY  CANAL. 

The  project  of  the  Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  Co.  involves  a 
diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  from  Lake  Erie, 
just  south  of  Buffalo,  with  which  it  is  proposed  to  develop  800,000 
horsepower.  The  project  as  a  whole  and  its  navigation  features  in 
particular  have  been  described  in  Section  A  of  this  report,  and  its 
sanitary  features  in  Section  B.  In  Section  F  will  be  found  a  trea^ 
ment  of  the  power  features  in  considerable  detail. 

W.  S.  Richmond. 


Appendix  B, 
FIELD  AND   OFFICE   OPERATIOXS. 


[Section  D  of  Mr.   Richmond's  Report.] 

At  the  beginning  of  this  investigation  operations  were  confined  to 
office  studies,  conferences,  and  correspondence  until  the  middle  of 
September,  when  authorities  had  been  secured  and  plans  perfected 
for  undertaking  the  field  work  which  was  essential  to  a  compre- 
hensive consideration  of  that  portion  of  the  investigation  pertain- 
ing to  Niagara  Falls  and  the  Niagara  River.  Following  the  assem- 
bling of  field  force  and  equipment  and  the  securing  of  civil  and  mili- 
tary permits  to  enter  private  property  and  the  carefully  guarded 
grounds  and  plants  along  both  sides  of  the  Niagara  River  actual  field 
work  was  commenced  September  20,  1917, 

Great  difficulties  were  met  with  in  securing  proper  assistance,  due 
to  war  conditions.  Eventually  most  of  the  technical  personnel  was 
drawn  from  the  staff  of  the  United  States  Lake  Survey.  In  all  18 
men  were  employed  upon  the  field  work,  although  the  greatest  num- 
ber engaged  at  any  one  time  was  15. 

The  extreme  and  long  continued  cold  weather  for  which  the  winter 
of  1917-18  was  noted  was  a  further  handicap  to  the  rapid  prosecu- 
tion of  the  work.  Temperatures  below  zero  prevailed  for  days  at  a 
time,  causing  great  hardship  to  the  working  force  and  delaying  much 
of  the  work,  particularly  the  rock  sounding.  This  job  was  com- 
pleted on  February  8,  1918,  and  this  day  marked  the  completion  of 
the  field  work  except  for  minor  items  of  reconnaissance. 

Survey  of  Horseshoe  Rapids. — The  most  difficult  portion  of  the 
field  work  was  the  survey  of  the  rapids  of  the  Niagara  River  just 
above  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  The  purpose  of  this  survey  was  to  pro- 
vide data  on  the  depth  of  water,  its  direction,  and  velocity  of  flow 
througliout  a  reach  of  rapids  extending  about  one-half  mile  upstream 
from  the  Horseshoe  Falls;  also  to  obtain  actual  elevations  above 
standard  datum  of  the  water  surface  at  various  points.  This  data 
was  essential,  first,  to  an  intelligent  study  of  the  preservation  of 
the  Horseshoe  Falls  from  destructive  erosion  and  the  matter  of  in- 
creasing its  beauty  by  a  better  distribution  of  water  along  its  crest; 
second,  in  estimating"^  the  total  quantity  of  water  which  may  safely 
be  diverted  from  the  Nigara  River  above  the  Falls. 

The  area  to  be  surveved  lav  between  the  crest  of  the  Falls  and  the 
First  Cascade.  Its  greatest "lengtli  was  4,000  feet,  and  its  greatest 
width  3.000  feet.  Within  this  area  the  depth  varies  greatly,  with  a 
maximum  of  more  than  10  feet.  The  velocity  of  the  current  ranges 
from  4  to  more  tlian  23  feet  per  second,  and  there  are  many  cas- 
cades, standing  waves,  and  areas  of  broken  water.  It  is  not  safe 
for  a  boat  to  approach  closer  than  within  1  mile  of  the  upstream 
limit  of  the  survey. 
234 


DH'TlRSIOlSr   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA    IMVER.      235 

To  measiiro  deptlis  and  current  velocities  under  these  very  ad- 
verse conditions  was  an  undertaking  of  no  small  dilliculty.  The 
metiiod  finally  adopted  was  a  development  of  that  used  by  tiie  United 
States  Lake  Survey  in  190G  and  1907  for  somewhat  similar  work 
under  much  more  favorable  conditions.  Briefly,  it  consisted  of  send- 
in<i:  I'od  floats  of  known  submerp;ed  leno^ths  through  tiie  rapids  and 
locatinof  their  positions  at  frequent  intervals  by  intersections  from 
two  or  more  transits  on  shore.  Plotting;  these  locations  <rives  the 
current  directions.  When  floats  do  not  touch  the  bottom  the  time 
elapsino;  between  locations  <^ives  a  measure  of  the  velocity.  When 
floats  do  draof  on  the  bottom  the  observer  estimates  the  angle  of 
inclination,  and  from  that  the  deptli  of  water  can  be  computed. 

During  the  month  of  October,  1917,  a  number  of  experimental 
floats  were  built  and  tried.  The  first  were  broken  in  pieces  on  passing 
over  the  cascade,  but  a  satisfactory  design  was  soon  worked  out.  For 
each  float  two  short  pieces  of  cedar  fence  post  were  fastened  near  the 
top  of  a  16-foot  spruce  2  by  4.  Above  these  a  light  frame  of  1  by  2 
inch  pieces  carried  a  flag  and  target  of  red  and  black  cloth.  At  the 
lower  end  of  the  2  by  4,  sufficient  ballast,  in  the  form  of  cast-iron 
sash  weights,  was  attached  so  that  the  whole  floated  in  a  vertical 
position  with  the  bottom  just  14  feet  below  the  water  surface,  and  the 
cedar  blocks  protruding  just  1  inch  out  of  water.  This  w^as  called  a 
"14-foot  float."  Floats  were  built  on  this  principle  in  submerged 
lengths  of  1,  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  and  14  feet,  except  that  in  the  smaller 
sizes  2  by  2  sticks  were  used  instead  of  2  by  4s.  The  1  foot  and  2  foot 
float  did  not  give  very  satisfactory  service.  Floats  of  the  4,  6,  10, 
12,  and  14  foot  lengths  are  illustrated  in  photograph  No.  62.    . 

The  work  of  running  and  locating  these  floats  was  done  in  the 
month  of  November,  1917.  The  entire  field  force  was  used,  being 
divided  into  six  parties  of  two  or  three  men  each.  Four  of  these  were 
transit  parties,  consisting  of  an  instrument  man,  a  recorder,  and,  in  one 
party,  a  signal  man.  The  stations  occupied  by  the  transit  parties  are 
shown  on  plate  No.  19,  marked  J,  W,  D,  and  H.  Four  transit  parties 
were  used  to  increase  the  number  of  successful  locations  and  check 
their  accuracy  and  also  to  obtain  more  estimates  of  angles  of  float 
inclination.  Often  a  float  would  be  invisible  from  one  or  more  sta- 
tions. When  a  float  was  passing  through  the  rapids  the  signalman 
dropped  a  large  flag  at  regular  intervals,  which  fact  was  immediately 
called  out  by  the  four  recorders  to  their  respective  transit  men  as  the 
signal  for  simultaneous  pointings  upon  the  float.  The  transitmen 
thereupon  read  intersection  angles,  and,  if  the  float  was  dragging  on 
the  bottom,  estimated  the  angle  the  float  made  with  the  vertical. 
These  observations  were  made  at  intervals  of  from  8  to  25  seconds, 
which  required  very  quick  work  by  both  observer  and  recorder.  Some 
intermediate  observations  of  float  striking  or  dragging  were  made 
and  recorded.  This  frequency  of  reading  was  necessary  because  some 
floats  made  the  whole  trip  from  below  the  cascade  to  the  crest  of  the 
falls  in  about  60  seconds. 

The  fifth  party  launched  the  floats  from  a  small  motor  boat  at 
points  below  Navy  Island.  The  last  party,  which  was  furnished  with 
an  automobile,  inspected  and  supervised  the  work,  transported  men, 
instruments,  and  materials  to  the  various  stations,  and  carried 
messages  from  one  party  to  another. 


236      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

This  work  was  considerably  delayed  by  rain.  snow,  and  fog.  but 
was  completed  during  the  month  of  November.  The  following  figures 
give  some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work :  Altogether  217  floats 
were  used.  These  contained  nearly  2,000  board  feet  of  lumber  and 
nearly  1^  tons  of  sash  weights.  The  launch  ran  more  than  200  miles 
and  the  automobile  about  300  miles. 

Photographs  Nos.  63  and  64  each  show  the  automobile  party  and 
one  transit  party. 

In  the  office  reduction  of  this  work  the  float  locations  were  carefully 
plotted  on  a  map  of  the  rapids  on  a  scale  of  1  =  5,000.  Lines  connect- 
ing the  successive  locations  of  the  same  float  gave  the  direction  of  the 
current  at  various  points.  These  directions  are  shown  on  plate  No. 
19.  The  recorders'  notes  showed  whether  or  not  the  floats  were  drag- 
ging on  the  bottom.  In  the  case  of  those  which  were  not  dragging 
the  distance  between  successive  positions  of  a  float  were  divided  by 
the  elapsed  time,  giving  the  current  velocity  in  feet  per  second. 
These  are  plotted  on  plate  No.  20.  From  floats  that  dragged  on  the 
bottom  the  depth  of  water  at  each  location  and  intermediate  point, 
was  computed  from  the  known  submerged  length  of  the  float  and  the 
angle  of  inclination  estimated  by  the  transitman.  The  depths  are 
shown  on  plate  No.  21. 

At  times  when  floats  were  not  being  run.  the  transitnien  read  inter- 
sections and  vertical  angles  to  projecting  rocks  and  other  points 
on  the  water  surface  of  the  rapids  wliich  could  be  identified  by  two 
or  more  parties.  From  these  the  elevation  of  the  water  surface  at 
these  points  was  computed  and  plotted,  and  a  rather  rough  contour 
nuip  of  the  water  surface  Avas  constructed  on  tracing  paper.  Super- 
imposing this  upon  the  sheet  of  depths  the  elevation  of  the  river 
bottom  was  computed  from  each  depth,  and  plotted  on  another  sheet. 
A  contour  map  of  the  river  bottom  was  thus  constructed,  showing 
5-foot  contours.    This  is  shown  on  plate  No.  22. 

This  survej'  of  the  rapids,  and  the  results  obtained  constitute  a 
very  satisfactory  s(jlution  of  the  difficult  problem  of  determining 
the  hydrographic  and  hydraulic  conditions  above  the  falls.  It  is 
unfortunate  that  there  were  certain  areas  through  wliich  no  floats 
could  be  made  to  pass.  Nevertheless,  the  survey  resulted  in  a  very 
great  increase  in  the  knowledge  of  Niagara  conditions. 

Survey  of  crest  line  of  Horseshoe  Falls. — The  survey  of  the  crest 
line  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  was  prosecuted  at  odd  moments  during 
December.  1917,  and  January,  1918,  whenever  an  instrument  and 
observer  were  available.  The  work  consisted  simply  of  intersecting 
various  ]joints  on  tlie  crest  from  stations  on  sliore.  An  ert'ort  wa** 
made  to  liave  the  resulting  line  ivi)resent  tho  ^^kV^;^  of  the  rock  cliff 
and  not  the  curving  surface  of  the  falling  water.  This  survey  is 
well  tied  into  tlie  geodetic  surveys  of  the  International  Waterway 
Commission  and  the  United  States  Lake  Survey,  and  through  these 
to  the  previous  crest  line  surveys  of  the  lake  survey  and  others.  It 
is  plotted  on  a  scale  of  1 :  2000  together  with  the  results  of  earlier  sur- 
veys on  plate  No.  18.  The  results  of  this  work  are  discussed  in  Ap- 
pendix C  of  this  report.  Table  No.  21  contains  descri])tions  of  the 
various  goedetic  points  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Falls  with  their  geodetic 
coordinates  redviced  to  a  common  datum. 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXI)   NIAGARA  RIVER.     237 

Tahle  No.  21. — TiUimiuUilion  .stations  used  in  surccif  of  crest  line  and  ni/)ids. 
[I'ositious  are  referred  to  U.  S.  Standard  datum.] 

^  jl/_ — This  station,  estal)lisb('(l  l).v  the  New  York  State  survey  in  ISOO,  is 
at  the  head  of  the  stairs  and  patli  clown  to  Terrapin  Kock  at  the  west  end  of 
Goat  Island,  heing  the  center  of  a  cross  on  the  top  of  an  8-inch  stone  post 
buried  10  inches  below  the  surface  and  surrounded  l)y  a  piece  of  tiling  wliich 
reaches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Latitude  48°  04'  50.03"  ;  longitude  79"  04'  24..j7". 

A  Tcrmpin. — This  station  was  established  in  1880  by  K.  S.  Woodward  for 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  is  probably  very  clo.se  to  the  point  of 
the  same  name  used  by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  in  1875.  It  is  a  cross 
on  a  brass  bolt  expanded  into  a  drill  hole  in  the  top  of  Terrapin  Hock  on  the 
Goat  Island  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  The  name  "Terrapin"  is  cut  In  rude 
letters  on  the  rock  around  the  bolt. 

Latitude  43°  04'  48.90"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  28.06". 

A  Nail. — This  station  was  established  in  1917  on  the  west  side  of  Goat 
Island  near  the  top  of  the  bank  and  about  halfway  between  A  M  and  A  T.  P, 
No.  6.    It  is  marked  by  no  permanent  monunient. 

Latitude  43°  04'  47.66"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  23.59". 

Boundary  monument  No.  21. — This  station  was  established  by  the  Interna- 
tional Waterways  Commission  about  1912.  It  is  one  of  the  commission's 
standard  monuments  and  is  on  the  top  of  the  bank  on  the  southwest  side  of 
Goat  Island  about  560  feet  southeast  of  the  top  of  the  path  leading  to  Terrapin 
Rock. 

Latitude  43°  04'  45.40":  longitude  79°  04'  20.39". 

Note. — The  International  Waterways  Commission's  triangulation  gives  the 
location  of  boundarv  monument  No.  21  as — 

Latitude  43°  04'  45.36"  :  longitude  79°  04'  20.38". 

A  T.  P.  No.  6.— This  station  was  established  in  1842  by  James  Hall,  State 
geologist  of  New  York.  It  is  on  the  southwest  side  of  Goat  Island,  about  470 
feet  southeast  of  the  top  of  the  path  leading  to  Terrapin  Rock,  being  a  cross 
cut  in  the  top  of  a  stone  post.  8  inches  square,  standing  in  the  path  and  pro- 
jecting 9  inches  above  the  surface.  The  top  of  the  stone  is  badly  battered,  but 
shows  a  rude  "  6  "  cut  on  one  side. 

Latitude  43°  04'  45.68"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  21.65". 

El  D. — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  at  the  top  of  the  bank  on 
the  southwest  side  of  Goat  Island,  alwut  30  feet  west  of  A  T.  P.  No.  6.  It  is 
marked  by  no  permanent  monument. 

Latitude  43°  04'  45.68"  :  longitude  79°  04'  22.03". 

H  H. — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  at  the  foot  of  the  bank, 
near  a  timber  sea  wall  on  the  south  side  of  Goat  Island,  about  650  feet  east  of 
A   T.  P.  No.  6.     It  is  marked  bv  no  permanent  monument. 

Latitude  43°  04'  43.72";  longitude  79°  04'  13.31". 

H  Walk. — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  on  the  Canadian  side 
at  the  top  of  the  cliff  above  the  outfall  of  the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.'s 
tunnel.    It  is  marked  by  no  permanent  monument. 

Latitude  43°  04'  48.97"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  42.66". 

Boundary  monument  No.  20. — This  station  was  established  by  the  Interna- 
tional Waterways  Commission  about  1912.  It  is  one  of  the  commission's  stand- 
ard monuments  and  is  on  the  Canadian  side,  about  130  feet  southwest  of  the 
Canadian  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Palls. 

Latitude  43°  04'  44.19"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  42.83". 

Note. — The  International  W\aterways  Commission's  triangulation  gives  the 
position  of  boundary  monument  No.  20  as — 

Latitude  43°  04'  44.15";  longitude  79°  04'  42.80". 

El  1- — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  near  the  top  of  the  bank 
on  the  Canadian  side,  about  100  feet  southwest  of  boundary  monument  No.  20. 
It  is  marked  by  no  permanent  monument. 

Latitude  43°  04'  43.36" ;  longitude  79°  04'  43.57". 

H  2. — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  near  the  top  of  the  bank 
on  the  Canadian  side,  about  200  feet  southwest  of  boundary  monument  No.  20. 
It  is  marked  by  no  permanent  monument. 

Latitude  43°  04'  42.54";  longitude  79°  04'  44.32". 


238      DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

E  3. — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  near  the  top  of  the  bank 
on  the  Canadian  side  about  300  feet  southwest  of  boundary  monument  No.  20. 
It  is  marked  by  no  permanent  monument. 

Latitude  43°  04'  41.72"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  45.08". 

J^  Canal. — This  station  was  established  in  1906.  It  is  on  the  Canadian  side 
just  above  the  intake  canal  of  the  International  Railway  Co.'s  power  house,  be- 
ing a  cross  cut  on  a  quarter-inch  bolt  in  the  top  of  a  rough  stone  12  by  18  by  18 
inches,  3  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Stone  is  marked  "  U.  S.  i  L.  S." 
It  is  22.8  feet  west  of  the  southeast  corner  of  concrete  wall  which  runs  south 
along  the  shore  from  the  canal,  33.8  feet  southwest  from  the  northwest  corner 
of  same  wall  and  156  feet  southeast  from  the  south  abutment  of  the  railway 
bridge. 

Latitude  43°  04'  38.89"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  45.26". 

□  ^y. — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  on  top  of  the  bank  on  the 
Canadian  side,  near  its  edge,  about  325  feet  south  of  the  intake  canal  of  the 
International  Railway  Co.'s  power  house.  It  is  max'ked  by  no  permanent  monu- 
ment. 

Latitude  43°  04'  36.26"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  44.48". 

Ei-f- — This  station  was  established  in  1917.  It  is  on  top  of  the  bank  on  the 
Canadian  side,  near  its  edge,  about  130  feet  northwest  of  the  Toronto  Power 
Co.'s  power  house.    It  is  marked  by  no  permanent  monument. 

Latitude  43°  04'  21.82"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  29.94". 

..^  Lorrrtto. — This  station  is  the  center  of  the  cross  on  the  Lorretto  Convent 
on  the  high  bank  west  of  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad  Co.'s  tracks,  south  of  the 
Falls  A'iew  Station.  This  point  was  located  by  R.  S.  Woodward  in  1886.  In 
1890  the  New  York  State  survey  placed  a  brass  screw  in  the  tin  deck  of  the 
cupola  directly  imder  the  center  of  the  cross  and  occupied  that  station. 

Latitude  43°  04'  32.85"  ;  longitude  79°  04'  57.11". 

Float  measurement fi  m  the  Gorge. — For  the  study  of  the  effect 
of  building  a  dam  at  the  foot  of  Fosters  Flats  further  knowledge  of 
Iwdraulic  conditions  in  the  rapids  below  and  above  the  AYhirlpool 
was  necessary.  There  are  published  records  of  soundings  taken  at 
most  of  the  points  where  sounding  operations  are  possible  without 
great  expenditure  of  time  and  money.  It  was  not  thought  that  the 
expense  of  further  soundings  would  be  justified  by  the  value  of  the 
results.  Instead  it  was  decided  to  obtain  a  few  velocity  measure- 
ments. As  the  total  flow  through  the  rapids  at  any  time  is  known, 
and  also  the  width  at  any  point,  the  cross  sectional  area  and  mean 
depth  could  be  determined  roughh^  from  the  velocities  shown  by  a 
few  floats. 

Six  bases,  of  various  lengths  ranging  from  100  to  300  feet,  were 
laid  out  in  the  rapids.  They  were  located  as  follows:  No.  1  was  just 
up.stream  from  the  "NMiirlpool ;  Xo.  2  was  just  upstream  from  the 
Eddy  Basin.  Xo.  3  was  2.000  feet  down.stream  from  the  Micliigan 
Contra]  Railroad  bridge,  Xo.  4  was  600  feet  downstVeam  from  tlie 
^anie  bridge,  Xo.  5  was  abreast  of  Thompsons  Point,  and  Xo.  6  was  at 
the  head  of  Fosters  Flats. 

The  floats  used  were  rod  floats  that  had  been  prepared  for  use  in 
the  survey  of  the  Horseshoe  Rapids  but  had  not  been  needed  there. 
Most  of  them  were  14  feet  in  length,  althougli  lengths  of  4.  6.  7.8.  and 
and  10  feet  were  also  used.  The  floats  were  loAvorod  into  the  river 
from  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  ])ridge  or  tlirown  from  the  American 
sliore  at  the  exit  of  the  Whii-lpool.  The  time  of  ])assing  the  bases 
as  observed  on  stop  watches  and  the  distance  of  the  floats  from  the 
American  shore  was  estimated.  In  all  48  floats  were  run.  The 
velocities  observed  varied  from  .5. .5  to  38  feet  per  second. 

Plats  were  made  of  the  velocities  observed  at  each  section,  rough 
transverse   velocity   curves   drawn,   and    an   estimate   of   the   mean 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     231) 

velocity  of  the  whole  stream  made.  Dividing  the  dischar*;e  of  tlie 
river  by  this  velocity  gave  the  cross  sectional  area,  and  this  divided 
bv  the  width  gave  the  mean  depth.  In  addition  foin-  sounded  profiles 
of  the  Gorge  made  by  Canadian  surveys  were  available  and  two 
profiles   from  the  work  of  the  Lake   Survey. 

The  Gorge  from  the  American  Falls  to  the  foot  of  Fosters  Flats 
was  then  divided  into  five  sections,  and,  from  a  study  of  all  the  avail- 
able data,  mean  values  for  the  width  and  hydraulic  mean  depth  were 
adopted.  Values  of  "n,"  the  coefficient  of  rouf^hness,  were  then 
adopted  for  each  section  such  that  by  using  Manning's  formula, 

V  =  -^— -Ri/6^RSj  the  computed  slope  for  each  section  was  the  same 

as  the  slope  shown  on  the  Lake  Survey  mean  profile  of  the  Lower 
Niagara  River.  The  values  of  "n"  used  varied  from  0.050  in  the 
smoothest  section  to  0.057  and  0.059  in  the  swiftest  rapids. 

Backwater  computations  were  then  made  by  successive  approxima- 
tions in  the  usual  manner  to  show  how  much  the  water  in  different 
parts  of  the  Gorge  would  be  raised  by  a  dam  at  the  foot  of  Fosters 
Flats. 

Table  No.  22  shows  the  amount  of  rise  at  three  different  points 
that  would  be  caused  by  dams  of  various  heights  at  the  foot  of 
Fosters  Flats. 

Table  No.  22. — Amount  of  backwater  rise  at  various  points  in  the  Gorge  by  dam 
at  foot  of  Fosters  Flats,  ichere  present  mean  stage  elevation  is  272. 


Elevation  of  water  at  crest  of  dam. 


325 
335 
340 
344 


Backwater  rise  at- 


Foot  of 
Foster 
Flats. 


Whirl- 
pool 
gauge. 


34.71 
44.15 
48.91 
52.80 


Sus- 
pension 
Bridge 
gauge. 


1.59 
5.47 
8.17 
10.78 


Maid  of 
the  Mist 
landing. 


1.59 
5.44 
8.10 
10.  09 


Photographs. — An  important  part  of  the  field  work  was  the  taking 
of  a  series  of  photographs  showing  the  appearance  of  various  parts 
of  the  river  at  different  stages.  On  October  30,  1917,  a  full  set  of 
photographs  was  obtained  at  an  extremely  high  stage  of  the  river. 
On  November  7  and  8  a  set  was  obtained  at  a  little  above  mean  stage. 
Attempts  to  get  pictures  at  an  extreme  low  stage  failed,  as  such  stages 
only  occurred  during  heavy  northeast  gales  accompanied  by  rain  or 
snow,  during  which  time  it  was  quite  impossible  to  get  satisfactory 
photographs.  A  third  set  was  obtained  on  December  3,  7,  and  18, 
when  the  stage  was  a  little  below  the  average.  In  all  54  photographs 
were  taken.  These  pictures  are  presented  and  discussed  in  Appendix 
C  of  the  report. 

Other  photographs  were  taken  showing  the  methods  and  equipment 
used  in  the  field  work. 

Gauges. — The  first  field  work  accomplished  was  the  installation  of 
automatic  water  gauges.  Eeconnaissance  for  this  work  was  begun 
on  September  20,  1917,  and  the  last  gauge  was  installed  on  October 


240      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  A^STD   NIAGARA  RIVER, 

27.  1917.  Much  other  work  was  done  cluiin<r  this  period.  The  ])rin- 
cipal  use  of  these  tjauges  was  to  determine  the  discharge  of  the  river 
at  the  times  of  taking  photographs  or  running  floats.  It  was  also 
desired  to  obtain  more  accurate  data  on  the  slope  of  the  lower  river 
between  the  Maid  of  the  ]Mist  Pool  and  Lewiston  to  disclose  any 
possible  changes  of  importance  in  regimen  of  the  river  due  to  in- 
creased diversions  of  water  for  power  development,  or  erosion  of  the 
Horseshoe  Falls,  and  to  strengthen  and  expand  the  data  on  which 
predictions  of  future  effects  of  erosion  and  diversions  had  very  largely 
to  be  based. 

Eight  automatic  gauges  were  installed.  They  were  Lake  Survey 
gauges  of  the  "  Wilson  type."  The  main  vertical  scale  on  each  was 
3  inches  to  the  1  foot,  and  the  time  scale  Avas  2  inches  to  1  hour. 
The  supplementary  vertical  scale  was  one-half  inch  to  the  foot  on 
the  Chip[)awa,  Terrapin  Point,  Prospect  Point,  and  Lewiston  gauges 
and  one-fourth  inch  to  the  foot  on  the  others.  Each  instrument 
provided  a  continuous  graphic  record  of  the  water  surface  elevation 
at  the  gauge  site. 

The  Chippawa  gauge  was  located  on  the  face  of  a  dock  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Welland  River  (Chippawa  Creek),  about  200  feet 
east  of  the  highway  bridge  and  about  400  feet  west  of  the  position 
occupied  by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey's  Chippawa  gauge  of 
former  years.     The  gauge  was  installed  October  11,  1917. 

Photograph  Xo.  Go  shows  this  gauge  in  position. 

The  International  Railway  intake  gauge  was  located  on  the  face 
of  the  park  wall  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  Niagara  River  just 
downstream  from  the  intake  of  the  International  Railway  Co.'s 
power  house.  This  is  the  position  formerly  occupied  by  the  United 
States  Lake  Survey's  gauge  of  the  same  name.  The  gauge  was  in- 
stalled October  9,  1917.     It  is  shown  in  photograph  Xo.  C6. 

The  Terrapin  Point  gauge  was  located  at  Terrapin  Point,  near  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  in  the  identical  position  used  for 
the  United  States  Lake  Survey's  Terrapin  Point  gauge.  It  was  in- 
stalled October  3,  1917,  and  maintained  till  December  6. 

The  Prospect  Point  gauge  was  at  Prospect  Point,  at  the  American 
end  of  the  American  Falls,  a  few  feet  from  the  brink  of  the  Falls. 
It  was  placed  as  closely  as  possible  in  the  position  of  the  gauge  for- 
merly maintained  at  this  point  by  the  L^nited  States  Lake  Survey. 
The  gauge  was  installed  October  27,  1917,  and  maintained  until 
December  10.  A  picture  of  this  gauge  is  given  in  photoirraph 
Xo.  68. 

The  Suspension  Bridge  gauge  was  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American 
shore  about  IGO  feet  upstream  from  the  Michigan  Central  bridge  in 
the  location  occupied  by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  gauge  of 
the  same  name  in  former  years.  This  gauge  was  installed  Septem- 
ber 20,  1917.     It  is  illustrated  in  photograph  Xo.  67. 

The  Whirlpool  gauge  was  located  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the 
Whirlpool  about  300  feet  southeast  of  the  mouth  of  a  small  creek 
entering  the  south  side  of  the  pool.  This  is  the  position  occupied 
bv  the  Lake  Survey's  Whirlpool  gauge.  The  gauge  was  installed 
Cictober  15,  1917. 

The  Lower  Gorge  gauge  w^as  located  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American 
side  above  Lewiston,  opposite   and  just  upstream   from   Smeatons 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   ORICAT    I.AKKS    AND    XIAdARA    RIVER.      241 

Ravine.  This  o;aii<ie  was  installed  September  29,  1917,  in  the  vicinity 
of  various  i)r()i)ose(l  j^ower-honse  sites  to  obtain  new  data  on  wat^r 
elevations  and  fluctuations  at  this  point,  inchidino;  backwater  effects 
of  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  a  notable  fact  that  this  gau^e  was  at  the  foot 
of  an  eddy  along  the  American  shore  and  showed  higher  elevations 
of  the  water  surface  than  existed  several  hundred  feet  farther 
upstream. 

A  j^icture  of  this  gauge  is  shown  in  photograph  No.  129. 

Tlie  Lewiston  gauge  was  on  the  downstream  end  of  Pitz  Dock  at 
Lewiston,  N.  Y.,  about  4  feet  east  of  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
dock.  The  Lake  Survey's  Lewiston  gauge  was  formerly  located  at 
the  other  end  of  the  dock,  about  200  feet  upstream.  This  gauge  was 
installed  October  1,  1917. 

The  location  of  all  of  these  gauges  is  indicated  on  the  general 
topographic  map  constituting  plates  Nos.  13  and  14  of  this  report. 

The  very  unusual  high  stage  of  December  9,  1917.  the  highest  in  40 
years,  put  several  of  the  gauges  temporarily  out  of  commission.  In 
order  to  gain  as  much  data  as  possible  regarding  this  maximum  stage, 
a  level  party  was  employed  to  determine  the  elevations  of  the  high- 
w^ater  marks  which  were  left  at  some  of  the  gauge  sites.  These  values 
are  given  at  the  foot  of  Table  No.  23.  The  maximum  registered  by 
the  "  engineer's  gauge  "  at  Buffalo  on  this  date  was  579.  By  the  ac- 
cepted discharge  formula  a  continuing  elevation  of  579  at  Buffalo 
would  correspond  to  a  flow  of  366,000  cubic  feet  per  second  through 
the  Niagara  Elver. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  the  weather  conditions  which  pro- 
duced this  unusual  rise.  The  United  States  Weather  Bureau  reports 
that  a  heavy  gale  from  the  northeast  with  heavy  snow  prevailed  on 
the  8th  of  December,  The  barometer  went  down  to  the  very  low  value 
of  29.05.  During  the  night  the  wind  shifted  to  the  west  and  increased 
in  A^olence,  attaining  a  maximum  velocity  of  78  miles  per  hour.  The 
gale  continued  strong  until  nearly  midnight.  The  fall  of  snow 
during  these  two  days  amounted  to  nearly  2  feet.  The  minimum 
temperature  was  6°  above  zero  at  9  a,  m,  on  the  9th.  The  gauges 
showed  an  unusually  low  stage  on  the  8th  and  extremely  high  on  the 
9th.  Under  the  existing  weather  conditions  it  was  quite  impossible 
to  obtain  photographs  of  the  high-water  conditions  or  take  any  other 
advantage  of  the  unusual  state  of  affairs. 

The  record  obtained  from  these  gauges  is  fragmentary  and  in- 
complete because  of  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the  gauge  instru- 
ments and  because  of  various  vicissitudes  which  the  gauges  experi- 
enced, partly  due  to  neglect  necessitated  by  the  pressure  of  other 
work.     It  was  ample,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  the  investigation. 

The  gauge  records  were  worked  up  in  tlie  usual  manner  and  eleva- 
tions scaled  from  them  to  the  nearest  hundredth  of  a  foot  for  every 
hour.  The  daih-  means  are  tabulated  in  table  No.  23.  Values  marked 
with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  the  means  of  days  where  four  or  more  hourly 
scalings  are  missing.  The  elevations  given  are  above  mean  sea  level 
according  to  the  level  adjustment  of  1903.  For  purposes  of  com- 
parison the  scalings  of  the  United  States  Lake  Survey's  Buffalo 
gauge  have  been  included  in  the  table. 

27880—21 16 


242      DIVERSIOX  OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 


Table  No.  23. — Daili/  mean  uatcr  surface  elevatiovs  of  Xiaf/ara  River. 
[In  feet  above  mean  sea  level  according  to  the  level  adjustment  of  1903.] 


Date. 

Buffalo 

gauge. 

Chip- 
pawa 
gauge. 

Inter- 
nationa 
Rail- 
way 
intake 
gauge. 

Ter- 
rapin 
Point 
gauge. 

1 

Pros- 
1    pect 

Point 
gauge. 

Suspen 

sion 

bridge 

gauge. 

Whirl- 
pool 
gauge. 

Lower 
gorge 
gauge. 

Lewis- 
ton 
gauge. 

1917. 
Sept.  26 

572.89 
573.07 
573. 19 
573. 50 
573. 58 
573.07 
572.94 
57.3.17 
572. 99 
573.25 
572.99 
573. 24 
572  88 

*341. 61 
341.75 

Sept.  27 

Sept.  28 

342.44 
342.6-1 

Sept.  29 

♦251. 06 
251. 51 
251.04 
250.76 
250.86 

^250.79 

*251.13 
250.98 
250.95 
250. 74 
250.55 
250.31 
250.46 

*250. 64 

Sept.  30 

♦342.70  1 

Oct.  1 

*247  18 

Oct.  2 

341.78 
342  .19 

Oct.  3 

*566.76 

506. 73 

*506. 73 

Oct.  4 

341.80 

Ml  2Q 



Oct.  5 

♦247  30 

Oct.  6 

341.92 
342.39 
341  78 

247  23 

Oct.  7 

247  20 

Oct.  8 

♦247  24 

Oct.  9 

572. 58 
■572.34 
572. 58 
574. 49 

573. 82 
572.94 
57.3. 08 
572. 73 
572.11 
572. 70 
573. 36 
572.82 
572. 81 
572. 73 
572. 29 
572.02 
573.05 
572.84 
573. 16 
573.20 

572. 73 
574.93 
573.38 
573.23 
573.45 
573.38 
572. 61 
572.90 
572.96 
572.80 
572. 98 
573.09 
573.00 
572. 88 
572. 66 
572.59 
572.85 
573. 16 

572. 85 
573.03 
573. 11 
572.94 
573. 15 
572.72 
572. 66 
572. 66 
573. 01 
572. 79 

572. 74 
572.63 
572.98 
572.57 

572. 86 
573.25 
572.56 
572.52 

572. 83 
572.98 
572. 43 
572.27 
572.51 
576. 08 
574.91 
579.00 

341.02 

340. 30 

340.79 

♦341. 76 

Oct.  10 

Oct.  11 

*562.'53' 

563. 07 

564.01 

*563.04 

*562. 87 

*562.'78" 
562. 71 

562. 70 
562.44 
562.23 
563.01 
.562. 77 
5&3. 13 
563.19 

562. 76 
564.06 
563.46 

*563. 11 

*562.'89" 
562. 66 

562. 71 

562. 77 
562. 63 
562. 71 
562. 81 
562. 79 

*562."56' 
562.48 
562.65 
502. 83 
562.  67 
5f;2. 75 
562. 81 
562.68 
562. 86 
562. 62 
562.65 
562. 46 

*562. 70 

*hok'.hh' 

508.34 

507.93 

508. 28 

*508.29 

♦soe.'e?' 

506.92 
506.94 

506. 75 

506. 76 
506.72 
506.61 
506. 67 

506. 77 
506. 76 
506. 72 

♦506. 73 

Oct. 12 

Oct.  13 

Oct.  14 

♦250.71 
♦2.50. 74 
250.57 
2.50.16 
2.50. 37 
2.50. 93 
2,50. 74 
250.67 
250.  63 
♦2,50. 39 
2.50. 34 
251.05 
2.50. 74 
251. 2S 
251.24 
250.  86 
2,52.  63 
251.77 
251.34 

Oct.  15 

♦342. 13 

♦341.35 

.340.33 

.34 1.02 

♦342. 25 

342.01 

341.49 

341.49 

♦340. 51 

♦339. 63 

♦.342.44 

341. 57 

♦341.51 

♦342. 48 

341.75 

♦342. 33 

♦293.91 
♦293. 62 
♦291.12 
♦292.  6;? 
♦294. 27 
♦293.59 
293. 22 
293.24 
292.12 
291. 03 
♦294.36 

♦294.' 55' 

♦247.08 
247  06 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  17 

247  08 

Oct.  IS 

Oct.  19 

247.07 
247  13 

Oct.  20 

247  16 

Oct.  21 

247  18 

Oct.  22 

247  13 

Oct.  23 

247  19 

Oct.  24 

247  30 

Oct.  2.5 

Oct.  26 

*.56s."64' 
.509.25 
508. 59 
510.67 
509.40 
508. 96 
508.90 
509.06 
508.64 

508. 51 
508.53 

*508. 30 
*508. 46 
508.64 
508.53 
508. 70 
508. 31 
508. 12 
508.37 
508. 62 
508.37 

508. 52 
508.85 
508.44 
508.66 

*508.41 

*506. 78 
506.73 
506. 83 
506. 82 
506. 73 
507. 12 
506.  S9 

♦506. 81 

*566.'75' 
506.73 
506.74 
506. 75 
506.72 

506. 75 
506. 77 
506.77 

506. 76 
500. 73 
506. 69 
506.73 
506.78 
506.73 
500.75 
506.77 

*506.72 
*500. 76 
500. 72 
506.72 
♦506.72 

♦5i2."s2' 
512. 93 
512. 80 
513.09 

*512.93 
512.84 
512.83 
512. 86 
512.72 

*512. 73 
512.76 
512.71 
512.74 
512.77 
512.70 
512. 74 
512.70 
512. 67 
512.72 
512.77 
512.72 
512.75 
512.77 
512.73 
512.80 
512.73 
512.74 

*512. 66 

247.22 
247  28 

247  29 

Oct.  28 

247  27 

Oct.  29 

247  33 

Oct.  30 

247  41 

247  41 

Nov.  1 

247.40 

Nov.  2 

♦343.20 
343.36 
341.28 
341.05 
341.93 
341.35 
341.73 
342. 15 
342.00 
341.73 
341.23 
340.80 
341.57 
342.31 
341. 61 

♦342. 06 

247.34 

Nov.  3 

♦251.06 
250.74 

♦250. 92 
250. 97 
250.79 
250.80 
250.91 
250.90 
250.85 
250.74 
250.53 
250.72 
250.96 
250.81 
250.77 
250.95 
250.72 
250.93 
250.68 
250.88 
250.59 
251.01 
250.82 
250.73 
250.60 
250.77 
250.52 
250.70 
251.07 
250.71 
250.48 
250.58 
2,50.79 
250.44 
250.28 
250.25 
253.51 

♦253.50 
250.20 

247  39 

Nov.  4 

247.36 

Nov.  5 

247  37 

247.30 

Nov.  7 

247  33 

Nov.  8 

247.28 

Nov.  9 

247.26 

Nov.  10 

247.27 

Nov.  11 

247.33 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  1.5.. 

*247  26 

Nov.  16 

247.24 

Nov.  17 

247.19 

247.23 

Nov.  19 

247.20 

Nov.  20 

♦342. 10 
341.43 
341.58 

♦339. 96 

♦293.02' 

293.27 

♦291.86 

247.22 

247.26 

247.39 

Nov.  23 

247.27 

247.28 

Nov.  25 

247.23 

247.23 

♦292. 84 
293. 76 
292.68 
293.21 

♦294.50 
292.94 

♦292.53 
293.06 

♦294.20 

♦292. 14 
291.80 
291.41 

♦296.55 

247.22 

*562.75 
562.52 
*562. 61 

*506.76 
506.70 
506.74 
506.80 
*506.73 
*506. 70 

247. 17 

Nov.  29 

247.19 

Nov.  30 

247.18 

Dec.  1 

247.17 

*512.72 
512. 69 
512.73 
512.78 
512.69 
512.66 
512.04 
513.30 

*513. 21 

247.19 

Dec.  3 

♦562.60 

247.17 

247.12 

Dec.  5 

247.11 

506.65 

247.14 

Dec.  7 

247.06 

247.24 

Dec.  9 

♦247.28 

565.40 

513.50 

353.20 

305.70 

Values  marked  •  are  means  from  which  four  or  more  hourly  scallngs  are  missing. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER.      243 

The  various  <yaii«res  on  the  Niat;ara  Kiver  serve  as  measurinp;  de- 
vices for  measiirin<r  the  floAV  of  the  river  or  of  one  channel  of  tlie 
river  at  any  particular  point.  If  artificial  or  natural  chan<^es  in  the 
regimen  of  the  river  did  not  occur,  the  relation  between  different 
gauges  would  be  constant.  Any  change  in  these  relations  indicates  a 
change  in  regimen,  the  most  important  being  due  to  increased  diver- 
sion by  the  power  companies  or  to  recession  of  the  Falls.  An  unpub- 
lished report  of  the  United  States  Lake  Survey,  dated  1012,  gives  an 
analysis  of  the  effect  of  diversions  upon  the  various  gauges  above 
the  Falls  as  shown  by  the  changes  in  their  relations  to  the  Suspension 
Bridge  gauge.  The  observations  of  1917  were  used  in  combination 
with  earlier  Lake  Survey  records  in  computations  and  studies  the 
results  of  which  are  as  follows : 

Buffalo  gauge. — The  computed  lowering  due  to  increased  diversion 
since  1912  Avas  0.03  foot.  The  observed  lowering  was  0.02,  an  excel- 
lent check. 

Chippawa  gauge. — Computed  lowering  since  1912,  0.15  foot,  ob- 
served lowering  0.18,  an  excellent  check. 

Internatiomil  Railway  intake  gauge. — Computed  lowering  since 
1912,  0.64,  observed  lowering  1.03.  This  leaves  an  unexplained 
lowering  of  0.39.  Similar  excess  of  lowering  has  been  observed  in 
the  past,  and  very  reasonably  has  been  referred  to  as  the  effect  of  the 
recession  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls. 

Prospect  Point  gauge. — If  it  be  assumed  that  the  division  of  water 
between  the  two  sides  of  Goat  Island  has  remained  constant  the  com- 
puted lowering  due  to  increased  diversion  since  1906  is  0.07  foot.  It 
is  probable  that  the  increased  diversions  of  the  American  companies 
have  decreased  the  percentage  of  flow  through  the  American  channel. 
In  this  case  the  lowering  would  be  greater  than  0.07  foot.  The  ob- 
served lowering  was  0.12  foot. 

Terrapin  Point  gauge. — The  gauge  relations  of  this  gauge  have 
never  been  satisfactory.  Observations  in  1906  and  1912  gave  widely 
different  relations.  By  the  1906  relation  the  computed  lowering  is 
0.29,  while  only  0.22  was  observed.  If  the  1912  equations  are  used 
the  computed  low^ering  is  0.05,  and  the  1917  observations  indicate  a 
rise  of  0.02.  In  either  case  there  is  a  discrepancy  of  0.07  foot.  This 
gauge  is  located  in  a  shallow  stream  of  water  at  the  Goat  Island  end 
of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  and  does  not  appear  to  reflect  accurately  the 
conditions  of  the  river  as  a  whole.  The  use  of  the  gauge  in  studies 
of  the  regimen  of  the  Niagara  River  is  to  be  avoided  when  possible. 
The  Suspension  Bridge  and  Whirlpool  gauges  each  record  the 
flow  of  the  whole  river  through  channels  in  which  no  artificial 
changes  have  been  made  for  manv  vears.  They  were  maintained  in 
1906,  1907,  1908,  1909,  1910,  and  1917.  The  five  later  years  agree  in 
showing  a  relation  by  which  a  change  of  1  foot  in  the  Suspension 
Bridge  gauge  is  accompanied  by  a  similar  change  of  1.17  feet  at  the 
Whirlpool.  The  absolute  elevat:ions  at  the  Whirlpool  corresponding 
to  given  stages  at  Suspension  Bridge  vary  by  small  amounts,  always 
less  than  0.20  foot,  from  year  to  year.  These  variations  follow  no 
systematic  course,  and  probably  represent  small  local  changes  at  the 
gauge  sites.  The  records  for  1906  were  few.  covering  only  a  small 
range,  and  they  appear  to  be  somewhat  discordant.  The  relation  for 
1917  coincides  almost  exactly  with  that  for  1907,  and  very  closely 


244      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

with  that  for  1908.    The  1909  and  1910  relations  show  elevations  at 
the  Whirlpool  lower  by  more  than  one-tenth  of  a  foot. 

The  Lower  (rovi/e  f/auye. — Occupied  an  entirely  new  site.  In  re- 
latin«r  it  to  the  other  <raufres  it  was  necessary  to  take  into  account  the 
fact  that  water  surface  elevations  at  the  site  are  dependent  on  the 
elevation  of  Lake  Ontario  to  some  extent,  as  well  as  upon  the  eleva- 
tion of  Lake  Erie.  For  this  reason  it  was  necessary  to  derive  an 
equation  with  three  variables.  The  ^au^res  used  were  Wliirlpool, 
Lower  Gorge,  and  Lewiston.  There  Avere  IT  days  on  whicli  each 
of  tliese  three  gaufres  simultaneously  gave  a  good,  reliable  record, 
with  no  missing  hourly  scalings.  The  derivation  of  the  relation- 
from  these  values  involved  considerable  analytical  difficulties,  due 
to  the  small  number  of  observations  and  the  small  range  of  stage 
that  occurred  at  the  Lewiston  gauge.  The  relation  finally  adopted 
was — 

Lower  Gorge=247+0.000043   (Whirlpool— 249.56) ^-f 0.77 
(Lewi.ston— 247). 

At  mean  stage  Whirlpool  is  at  elevation  292.51  and  Lewiston  is 
246.73.  By  the  relation  given  above  Lower  (xorge  is  250.20.  At 
standard  low  water  Whirlpool  is  286.24  and  Lewiston  is  243.38. 
This  gives  246.34  for  the  standard  low-water  value  at  Lower  Gorge. 

This  relation  is  believed  to  be  the  best  obtainable  from  the  data 
available.  It  could  doubtless  be  improved  by  maintaining  these 
three  gauges  carefully  for  a  full  sea.son  or  longer. 

Pro-file  of  lower  river. — In  1912  the  LTnited  States  Lake  Survey 
compiled  standard  j)rofiles  of  the  St.  Marys,  St.  Clair,  Detroit, 
Niagara,  and  St.  Lawrence  Eivers.  The  upper  part  of  the  Niagara 
profile  was  well  determined  by  numerous  gauges,  but  in  the  lower 
river,  and  especially  in  the  rapids  of  the  lower  river,  the  data  used 
was  scanty  and  rather  poor.  In  the  studies  of  power-house  loca- 
tions along  the  rapids  below  Devils  Hole  it  was  very  desirable  to 
have  more  accurate  data  on  water-surface  elevations  of  this  part  of 
the  river.  It  w'as  intended  to  make  observations  at  high,  low,  and 
medium  stages,  but  very  low  water  occurred  at  times  wiien  no  men 
were  available  for  this  work,  and  the  low-water  profile  observed 
differs  l)ut  slightly  from  the  one  made  at  mean  stage. 

For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  these  profiles  a  large  number  of 
gauge  points  were  established  along  the  river  from  the  Suspension 
Bridge  gauge  to  Lewiston,  and  tiie  elevation  of  these  jjoints  were 
careful!}^  determined. 

On  December  6  and  7,  1917,  the  vertical  distance  from  the  gauge 
point  to  the  water  surface  was  read  at  40  of  these  points.  During 
the  reading  the  mean  water-surface  elevation  was  292.07  at  the 
Whirlpool  gauge,  250.38  at  the  Lower  Gorge  gauge,  and  247.10  at 
the  Lewiston  gauge.  Tlie  fluctuations  that  occurred  during  the 
readings  Averc.  respectively,  1.14,  0.56,  and  0.15  feet.  These  readings 
and  the  automatic  gauge  records  gave  Ihe  data  for  the  mean  stage 
profile. 

On  December  8  another  set  was  read,  but  owing  to  bad  weather 
and  limited  time,  and  the  fact  that  the  water  was  too  low  for  meas- 
urement at  some  points,  only  14  readings  were  made.  The  mean 
gauge  readings  at  tlie  Whirlpool,  liower  (Jorge,  and  Lewiston  gauges 


DIVErxSIOX   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD   NIAGARA    ]:1VER.     245 

Avere  1^91.11,  250.33.  and  247. '20,  respectively,  while  tlie  iliictuations 
were  0.47.  0.31,  and  ().'2'2.  These  readinixs  and  records  furnished  the 
data  for  the  low-water  i)roHle.  As  noted  above,  much  lower  values 
Avotdd  have  been  desirable. 

On  December  9  the  highest  stage  of  the  season  occurred,  but 
weather  conditions  were  such  that  gauge  readings  could  not  be  ob- 
tained. On  the  following  day  the  stage  was  still  high,  and,  despite 
the  difficult  conditions,  readings  on  five  of  the  most  imi)ortant 
points  were  obtained.  Many  of  the  gauge  points  were  found  to  be 
submerged  and  no  readings  could  be  made  on  them.  The  elevations 
of  the  three  automatic  gauges  w^ere,  respectively,  298.23.  254.4S.  and 
247,75,  while  the  fluctuations  of  these  gauges  during  the  period  of 
the  readings  were  0.90,  1.17,  and  0.24.  Both  the  Whirljiool  and 
Lew'iston  gauges  had  been  stopped  by  the  high  .stage  of  the  preced- 
ing day,  and  elevations  at  these  two  points  were  supplied  by  gauge 
relations  from  the  record  of  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.'s  gauges  at 
station  2  and  Lewiston,  resi)ectively. 

It  was  next  necessary  to  reduce  all  observations  on  each  profile  to 
values  corresponding  to  the  mean  stage  prevailing  during  the 
measurement  of  the  profile.  In  doing  this  all  available  evidence  was 
taken  into  account.  The  observed  ratios  of  fluctuations  were  given 
the  most  Aveight,  but  the  general  laws  of  hydraulics  and  the  nature 
of  the  river  channel  were  also  considered.  The  three  profiles  were 
then  carefully  plotted,  as  shown  on  plate  No.  15. 

The  values  were  then  reduced  to  the  ofHcial  mean  stage  and 
standard  low  water  of  the  Whirlpool  and  Lewiston  gauges,  as  shown 
on  the  Lake  Survey  profile  of  1912,  The  Lake  Survey  profile  was 
then  replotted  on  a  different  scale,  the  new^  profile  between  the 
Suspension  Bridge  gauge  and  Lewiston  being  incorporated.  This 
profile  is  shown  on  plate  No.  11.  It  was  used  as  the  basis  of  all  com- 
putations of  slopes,  fall,  etc.,  in  the  present  investigation.  The 
official  mean  stage  profile  differs  but  very  little  from  the  observed 
mean  stage  profile  of  plate  No.  15,  and  may  be  considered  well  de- 
termined. In  places  along  the  American  shore  there  are  eddies  and 
current  retardations  producing  what  appears  on  the  profile  as  nega- 
tive slopes.  The  standard  low  water  profile  is  not  well  determined, 
but  is  of  value  in  indicating  about  what  slopes  may  be  expected  at 
extreme  low  stage. 

Levels. — A  considerable  amount  of  leveling  was  accomplished  dur- 
ing the  investigation.  A  good  wye  level  was  used,  and  careful,  ac- 
curate work  was  performed.  All  lines  were  run  in  duplicate,  and 
good  closures  were  obtained  on  all  accepted  lines.  The  most  im- 
portant new  line  was  that  through  the  gorge  on  the  x\merican  side. 
This  line  ran  from  the  j^recise  level  bench  mark  on  the  old  academy 
at  Lewiston  to  the  Pitz  Dock,  and  then  up  the  electric  railway  tracks 
in  the  gorge  to  the  Lake  Survey  bench  mark  near  the  Suspension 
Bridge  gauge.  This  line  connected  with  the  old  Lake  Survey  bench 
marks  at  the  Whirlpool  and  on  the  abutment  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
bridge.  A  number  of  new  bench  marks  were  established  along  this 
line.  Another  line  was  run  from  B.  M.  Toll  at  the  Canadian  end 
of  the  upper  steel  bridge  to  Boundary  Monument  No.  20,  near  the 
International  Railway  intake  ga'uge.  In  addition  levels  were  run 
to  each  automatic  gauge  at  least  twice  during  the  season,  and  several 
minor  lines  were  run. 


246      DIVERSION  0]'^  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  descriptions  and  elevations  of  the  new  bench  marks  are  given 
in  Table  No.  24.  Table  No.  25  gives  descriptions  and  elevations  of 
older  bench  marks  in  this  vicinity. 

Table   No.   2.). — \i  la   htncJi    imirku   cst(iblis]u(l    in    IDll    in    ricijiiti/   of 

Niaga7-a  Falls. 

[Note. — Elevations  are  given  in  feet  above  mean  tide  at  Sandy  Hook  and  according  to 
the  precise  level  adjustment  of  1903.] 

B.  M.  Boundary  Monument  19  is  the  top  of  the  brass  plug  in  the  International 
Boundary  Monument  No.  19  near  Prospect  Point.     Elevation,  521.7;13. 

B.  M.  Boundary  Monument  20  is  the  top  of  the  brass  plug  in  the  International 
Boundary  Monument  No.  20  on  the  Canadian  shore  between  the  river  and  the 
highwav  about  100  feet  south  of  the  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  Elevation, 
518.352.' 

B.  M.  Rail  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side.  It  is  a  square  cut  in.  the 
west  edge  of  the  top  of  a  flat  rock.  2  feet  north  and  10  feet  east  of  north 
switch  point  of  Gorge  Railway  tracks.  10.5  paces  south  of  southeast  abutment 
of  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad  bridge.     Elevation,  379.7S4. 

B.  M.  Stonetrall  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side.  It  is  a  square  cut 
in  coping  stone  of  dry  masonry  retaining  wall  about  182  paces  north  of  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  bridge.  Bench  mark  is  9  paces  south  of  north  end  of  wall. 
Elevation,  348.416. 

B.  M.  Rai)ids  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side.  It  is  a  square  cut  in 
the  southwest  corner  of  the  concrete  walk  at  the  Rapids  station  of  the  Gorge 
Railway.     Elevation.  334.609. 

B.  M.  Door  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  above  the  W'hirlpool  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Gorge  Railway  tracks  directly  in  front  of  north  side  of  the  iron 
door  of  an  old  powder  house.  The  bench  mark  is  the  top  of  a  round  knob 
chiseled  on  shelf  of  rock  2  feet  above  ground  and  2.6  feet  from  the  door  jamb. 
Elevation.  320.4.50. 

B.  M.  Spring  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  just  below  the  Whirlpool 
between  the  track  and  the  river  at  south  edge  of  first  group  of  large  rocks 
projecting  into  river.  It  is  the  top  of  a  knob  surrounded  by  a  circular  chisel 
cut  on  stone  in  top  course  of  a  dry  masonry  wall.  Point  is  on  north  end  of 
waU  opposite  an  iron  drain  pipe.     Elevation,  306.269. 

B.  M.  Eye  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  opposite  the  head  of  Niagara 
Glen.  Bench  mark  is  top  of  an  iron  eyebolt  set  in  the  north  side  of  a  rock  pro- 
jecting from  the  bank  5  feet  outside  of  outer  rail  of  track,  25  feet  north  of 
troUev  iwle  No.  153,  and  14  feet  north  of  north  end  of  dry  masonry  wall.  Eleva- 
tion. 301.995. 

B.  M.  Red  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  opposite  the  center  of  Niagara 
Glen  between  trolley  poles  Nos.  169  and  170.  It  is  the  center  of  a  square 
chiseled  on  the  highest  point  of  a  red  boulder  on  the  side  of  the  bank  outside 
of  the  tracks.  5i  feet  from  outer  face  of  dry  retaining  wall  and  about  3  feet 
below  top  of  wall.     Elevation,  287.257. 

B.  M.  Rock  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  opposite  the  foot  of  Niagara 
Glen.  It  is  the  center  of  a  square  chisel  cut  on  a  point  of  rock  projecting  from 
the  bank  inside  of  the  tracks.  It  is  4.4  feet  east  of  inner  rail  of  tracks  and  20 
feet  north  of  trolley  pole  No.  190.     Elevation,  286.348. 

B.  M.  Devils  Hole  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  abreast  of  the  Devils 
Hole  tablet.  It  is  center  of  a  square  chisel  cut  on  flat  rock  8.2  feet  west  of 
outer  rail  and  8.2  feet  north  of  northwest  corner  of  abutment  of  small  bridge. 
Elevation,  277.775. 

B.  M.  Wall  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  about  two-thirds  of  the 
way  from  the  Devils  Hole  to  the  transmission  line  crossing  near  trolley  pole 
No.  225.  It  is  a  square  chisel  cut  on  top  of  the  bottom  stone  in  the  center  of  a 
masijnry  wall  on  east  side  of  tracks  20  feet  from  south  end  of  wall  and  4.5  feet 
south  of  a  drill  hole  3  feet  above  ground  in  one  of  the  bottom  stones  of  the 
wall.     Elevation,  269.752. 

B.  M.  Transmission  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  under  the  transmis- 
sion line  crossing  of  th(;  Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  Power  Co.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  sfjuare  chisel  cut  on  top  of  boulder  outside  of  Gorge  tracks  and  op- 
jiosite  most  northerly  transmission  tower.  It  is  4.3  feet  northwe.st  of  trolley 
pole  No.  237.     Elevation,  268.792. 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     247 

B.  i][.  Stone  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  north  of  the  transmission 
line  crossing.  It  is  the  highest  point  on  a  brown  stone  2  feet  west  of  the  guard 
rail  and  12  paces  south  of  trolley  pole  No.  250.     Elevation,  266.378. 

B.  M.  Loioer  Gorge  Gauge  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  54  paces  south 
of  B.  M.  South.  It  is  a  square  cut  on  a  large  boulder  5  feet  from  and  2  feet 
above  the  water's  edge  at  mean  stage.  It  was  opposite  the  Lower  Gorge  gauge. 
Elevation,  253.341. 

B.  M.  South  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  opposite  Smeatons  Ravine. 
It  is  the  highest  point  of  a  stone  projecting  from  the  south  end  of  a  masonry 
wall  on  east  side  of  Gorge  tracks.  The  stone  is  the  second  large  stone  from  the 
bottom  of  the  wall  opposite  trolley  pole  No.  264  and  54  paces  north  of  the 
Lower  Gorge  gauge.     Elevation*  270.357. 

B.  M.  Fishery  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  some  distance  south  of 
Fish  Creek.  It  is  the  highest  point  of  the  reddest  stone  in  the  northwest  corner 
of  a  dry  masonry  wall  topped  with  concrete  on  the  south  side  of  the  stairs 
leading  down  to  a  tish  dock  between  trolley  poles  Nos.  276  and  277.  Elevation, 
270.882. 

B.  M.  Fish  Creek  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  on  the  Gorge  Railway 
bridge  over  Fish  Creek.  It  is  a  square  cut  on  the  northwest  stone  of  the  north 
abutment  of  the  bridge,  6  paces  south  of  trolley  pole  No.  295.  Elevation, 
284.754. 

B.  M.  Boulder  is  in  the  Gorge  on  the  American  side  north  of  the  Lewiston 
suspension  bridge  and  near  north  end  of  bridge  of  the  Gorge  Railway  over  a 
deep  gulley.  It  is  a  square  cut  on  west  edge  of  a  bowlder  6  feet  north  of  north 
end  of  liridge  and  2  feet  east  of  guard  rail,  opposite  trolley  pole  No.  321.  Eleva- 
tion, 306.825. 

B.  M.  Leioistmi  Gmige  is  in  Lewiston,  N.  Y.  It  is  a  square  cut  on  a  large 
stone  projecting  a  few  inches  out  of  the  ground  and  about  50  feet  northeast  of 
the  northeast  corner  of  Pitz's  dock.     Elevation,  253.175. 

B.  M.  Pitz  is  in  Lewiston,  N.  Y.  It  is  the  top  of  a  three-fourth-inch  gas  pipe 
projecting  2*  inches  out  of  the  concrete  walk  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
veranda  of  the  "Anglers  Retreat "  hotel.    Elevation,  292.627. 

B.  M.  Monument  is  in  Lewiston,  N.  Y.  It  is  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
top  of  a  concrete  monument  about  6  inches  sqiiare  and  8  inches  high  at  the 
northeast  corner  of  Center  and  Third  Streets.    Elevation,  254.873. 

Table  No.  25. — Bench  marks  along  the  Niagara  Hirer  rstahlislied  previous  to 
1917  hy  the  United  States  Lake  Siirvey,  the  Board  of  Engineers  for  Deep 
Waterways,  and  others. 

[Note. — Elevations  are  given  in  feet  above  mean  tide  at  Sandy  Hook  according  to  the 
precise  level  adjustments  of  1903.  Bencli  marks  marked  with  an  asterisk  (•)  have 
had    their    elevations   determined    by    precise    levels,    others    by    ordinary    wye   levels.] 

*P.  B.  M.  Btiffalo  Lighthouse  is  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  on  plinth  of  the  old  Buffalo 
Light  (now  abandoned)  south  of  the  United  States  pier  and  in  line  with  Erie 
Street,  being  the  top  of  a  high  point  on  the  east  corner  and  upper  surface  of 
plinth.    Elevator.  .590.101. 

*P.  B.  M.  Waterworks  is  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  on  stone  window  sill  of  center 
window  on  the  river  side  of  the  main  building  of  the  old  pumping  station  of 
the  Buffalo  waterworks  near  the  foot  of  Massachusetts  Avenue,  being  the  center 
of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  horizontally  into  stone  6  inches  from  north  end  of  sill  and 
35  inchs  above  the  watertable  at  the  ground,  marked  thus : 

U.   S. 

o 

p.  B.  M. 

Elevation,  582.804. 

*P.  B.  M.  International  Bridge  No.  2  is  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  on  a  projection  of 
stone  in  fourth  course  of  masonry  below  bridge  seat  on  north  end  of  east  abut- 
ment of  International  Bridge  over  main  channel  of  Niagara  River,  being  a 
square  cut  on  stone  5.70  feet  below  bridge  seat  and  3.77  feet  back  of  the  north- 
west corner  of  abutment,  the  stone  above  being  marked  in  white  paint  thus: 

U.  S.  B.  M. 
88 

Elevation,  582.258. 

*P.  M.  B.  Guard  Lock  is  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  the  center  of  coping  stone  on 
tO'\AT)ath  side  of  guard  lock  of  old  Erie  Canal,  650  yards  below  the  Interna- 
tional Bridge  over  the  Black  Rock  Ship  Canal  at  Black  Rock,  being  the  highest 
point  in  a  small  square  cut  in  the  soutlieast  corner  of  a  larger  square  which 


1^48      DIVERSION    OF    WATER   IRO.AI    GREAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER. 

is  opposite  the  liiufre  ot  tlie  upper  irate  and  23  feet  below  upper  end  of  lock, 
marked  tlius:         Kievai;i>n,  r>7(j.4r>4. 

[Note. — Tlie  elevation  ^iven  on  pa^'e  2710  of  the  (Miief  of  i:nj.'ineers'  Report 
for  19U3  is  570.6.")0,  which  is  incoirect.] 

P.  B.  11.  Sill  is  on  ihe  stone  sill  oi  the  buseiueut  window  on  the  west  side  of 
the  oltiee  of  the  Bnl'lalo  Smelting:  Works,  at  the  foot  of  Austin  Street,  Black 
Rock,  Buflalo,  N.  Y.,  being  a  smootlied  square  sunk  sliglitly  below  the  level  of 
the  sill.     Elevation,  574.762. 

*P.  B.  M.  Tonatrauda  Xo.  1  is  in  Tonawanda,  X.  Y..  on  stone  water  table  on 
west  side  of  steeple  of  Chrislian  Chapel  Church,  a  red  brick  building  on  south- 
east corner  of  Broad  and  Seymore  Streets,  being  the  inter.soolion  of  two  cross 
marks  cut  in  center  of  large  square  cm  top  of  stone.    I^llevation,  ri76.214. 

*P.  B.  M.  Xorth  Tonananda  Xo.  2  is  in  North  Tonawanda.  N.  Y.,  on  stone 
water  table  6^  feet  south  of  entrance  tt»  tlie  old  engine  house  (  marked  "  1873  ") 
of  the  Tonawanda  Iron  iV:  Steel  Co.,  (Utuated  on  llie  right  bank  of  tlie  Niagara 
River  and  on  the  west  side  of  ]\Iain  Street,  being  the  top  of  a  small  .scjuare  in 
the  northeast  corner  of  a  large  s(|uare  cut  in  corner  of  stone.  Elevation, 
578.822. 

*P.  B.  M.  Whcatflcld  is  in  Wheatfield  Township,  N.  Y.,  on  the  .south  end  of 
stone  water  table  on  oast  front  of  brick  schoolhouse,  which  is  in  district  No.  2, 
and  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niagara  River  and  on  the  main  road  560 
yards  below  the  Edgewater  Bridge  of  the  International  Railway,  being  a  square 
cut  on  stone.     Elevation,  576.541. 

*P.  B.  .\f.  La  Salle  \o.  1  is  in  La  Salle,  N.  Y.,  just  south  of  the  La  Salle  sta- 
tion, on  the  northwest  corner  of  bridge  seat  of  e;!St  abutment  of  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad  bridge  over  Cayuga  Creek,  being  the  top  of  a  square  cut  ou 
stone.     Elevation,  571.611. 

*P.  B.  M.  La  Sulle  No.  2  is  in  La  Salle,  N.  Y.,  on  the  top  of  the  water  table 
at  the  southeast  corner  of  brick  residence  belonging  to  Mr.  E.  H.  Smith,  about 
one-fourth  mile  w^est  of  New  Y^irk  Central  Railroad  station,  on  main  road 
along  the  river  front,  being  the  ton  of  a  brass  liolt  leaded  vertically  into  the 
water  table    Elevation,  580.290. 

*P.  B.  M.  Lcliotn  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y..  on  the  west  end  of  stone  doorsill 
of  west  door  on  soutli  side  of  the  New  York  (I'entral  Railroad  station,  called 
"  Echota,"  being  the  top  of  a  small  square  in  the  southeast  corner  of  a  larger 
square  cut  on  the  stone.    Elevation,  572.922. 

*P.  B.  M.  Xiagara  No.  1  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  on  a  stone  5i  inches 
square,  with  a  small  square  cut  on  northwest  corner,  used  as  reference  stone 
for  the  ceriter  line  of  the  tunnel  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Plant,  and  is  set 
in  concrete  in  the  gutter  about  10  feet  norfhwest  of  entrance  to  power  house 
No.  1  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  10  feet  north  of  north  door  jamb  and  3 
feet  out  from  building,  being  the  top  of  a  copper  bolt  leaded  in  the  center  of 
the  stone.     Elevation,  566.547. 

*  P.  B.  M.  Niagara  No.  2  is  in  Niagara  Falls.  N.  Y.,  on  window  sill  of  first 
Avindow  west  of  northeast  comer  of  Niagara  Falls  Prtwer  Co.'s  power  house 
No.  1,  being  the  top  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  vertically  in  east  end  of  stone,  5} 
feet  from  front  of  building.  5  inches  back  from  front  edge  of  window  sill,  7 
inches  west  of  east  side  of  window  and  on  side  of  building  facing  Buffalo 
Avenue.     Elevation.  571.827. 

P.  B.  ^f.  Copper  Bolt  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  on  the  retaining  wall  on  the 
southerly  side  of  the  can.il  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Pow'er  Co.,  87  feet  west  of 
power  house  No.  2,  lieing  the  top  ot  a  copper  bolt  leaded  into  the  top  of  the 
coping  stone.     Elevation.  567.216. 

T.  B.  M.  Paper  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  on  the  wall  on  the  northerly  side 
of  the  intake  cannl  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  at  the  west  end,  ))eing 
the  t<jp  of  the  west  anclKjr  bolt  holding  a  large  iron  chock  just  west  of  the 
automatic  gauge  of  the  power  company.     Elevation.  567,288. 

P.  B.  M.  Port  Day  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y'..  on  the  west  side  of  the  canal 
of  the  Hudrnulic  Power  Co.  at  its  head,  25  feet  from  the  Niagara  River,  50 
feet  from  the  canal.  IS  feet  from  an  iron  electric  light  pole.  6  feet  from  a  double 
boxwftod  tree,  being  the  top  of  a  conical  iron  bolt  leaded  into  the  top  of  a  cut 
stone  6  inches  square  projecting  4  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Elevation.  567.165. 

P.  B.  M.  Park  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  on  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
administration  building,  New  York  State  reservation,  directly  under  north 
window  on  the  east  side  of  the  building,  10.3  feet  from  the  northeast  comer. 


DIVERSIOX    OF   AVATKR   FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVEK.      249' 
heiiiu-  tlie  fop  of  u  brass  bolt  leaded  vortically    into  the  water  table,   inarkecl 

tllUH 

U.  S. 

O 

B.  M. 

Elevation.  050.400. 

B.  M.  Tria)i</lc  Terrapin  is  in  Niafiam  Falls,  N.  Y..  at  the  Goat  Island 
end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  bein.ir  the  top  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  vertically  into 
the  lai-,!j;e  bowlder  known  as  "  Teri-ai»in  Kock."  The  word  "Terraiiin"  i.s  cut 
in  rude  letters  around  the  bolt.     Elevation,  511.119. 

B.  M.  Terrapin  Gauyc  is  in  Xiafiara  Falls,  X.  Y.,  at  the  (ioat  Island  end 
of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  beinj;  the  top  of  a  rounded  knob  on  a  small  projecting 
led^'o  on  the  south  side  of  "Terrapin  Ttock."     Elevation,  .509.005. 

P.  B.  M.  Arch  is  In  Nia.2:ara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  on  the  retaining  wall  at  the  east 
abutment  of  the  upper  steel  arch  bridge,  being  the  top  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded 
verticall.v  into  the  .stone,  20.4  feet  southwest  of  the  southwest  edge  of  bridge 
plate.  1.55  feet  fi'om  outer  edge  of  wall,  and  29.1  feet  from  soutliwest  end  of 
wall,  marked 

V.  S. 

o 

B.  M. 

Elevation.  301.172. 

P.  B.  M.  Toll  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  Ontai-io,  being  a  point  on  stone  in  the 
fourth  course  below  middle  window  on  the  west  side  of  the  Canadian  customs, 
and  toll  station  at  the  west  end  of  the  upper  steel  arch  bridge.  Elevation, 
525.918. 

P.  B.  M.  CMppa^a  is  in  Chippawa,  Ontario,  being  a  square  cut  on  top  of 
stone  water  table  at  southwest  corner  of  Baltimore  Hotel,  on  the  corner  of 
Front  and  Bridgewater  Streets.     Elevation.  571.670. 

P.  B.  M.  Black  Creek  is  in  Black  Creek,  Ontario,  being  a  square  cut  on  the 
southwest  corner  of  upper  plate  under  the  nortbw^est  corner  of  the  highway 
bridge  over  Black  Creek.     Elevation,  570.554. 

P.  B.  M.  Bridge  No.  1  is  in  Niagara  Falls.  N.  Y".,  being  the  top  of  a  brass 
bolt  leaded  vertically  into  the  top  of  a  large  bowlder  at  south  end  of  retaining 
wall  at  abutment  of  IMichigan  Central  Railroad  bridge  over  Niagara  River. 
The  bolt  is  15  feet  from  abutment  and  11,3  feet  from  inclined  railway  building, 
marked  thus : 

P.  B.  M. 
O 

u.  s. 

Elevation,  303.580. 

P.  B.  M.  Bridge  No.  2  is  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y''.,  6  feet  from  the  water's  edge,.. 
362  feet  south  of  the  south  side  of  the  abutment  of  Michigan  Central  Railroad 
bridge  in  the  gorge,  being  the  top  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  vertically  into  a  large 
flat  rock  marked 

T'.  S. 

O 
P.  B.  M. 

Elevation,  345.284. 

*P.  B.  M.  Suspension  Bridge  is  in  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  in  the  northwest  cor- 
ner of  the  Suspension  Bridge  passenger  station  of  the  New  Y''ork  Central  Rail- 
road, being  the  center  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  horizontally  into  center  of  sev(>nth 
stone  above  the  water  table,  43  inches  above  the  platform  and  6  inches  south  of 
the  northwest  corner  of  the  buildins:.     Elevation,  584.377. 

P.  B.  M.  Whirl  is  on  the  American  side  of  the  Niagara  Gorge  at  the  whirlpool 
on  the  ledge  of  flat  rock  extending  into  the  river  at  the  point,  only  a  few 
inches  above  mean  stage  of  the  river  (often  submerged),  20  feet  from  the  west 
edge  of  the  ledge,  35  feet  from  the  north  edge  and  35  feet  from  the  corner, 
being  the  top  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  vertically  into  the  rock  and  marked 

B.  M. 

o 

WHIRL 
Elevation,  294.426. 

P.  B.  M.  Whirlpool  is  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  Niagara  Gorge  at  the 
whirlDool.  750  feet  from  point  at  entrance  to  whirlpool.  275  feet    south  of  u 


250      DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER   TKO.M    CltKAT    I.AK'LS   AXU    NIAOALA    lUVKIl. 

small  creek,  beinjr  the  top  of  an  iron  holt  leaded  vertically  intn  the  top  of  rock 
led^c  1-0  feet  from  its  water  edse.  marked 

r.  s. 

O 

p.  B.  M. 

"When  established  in  IflOG  the  aI)ove  description  was  written  and  the  eleva- 
tion was  reported  as  207.040.  In  1909  it  was  found  that  the  part  of  the  rock 
on  whicli  the  bench  is  situated  had  been  Itroken  from  the  lediie  formiuir  a  large 
irrefrular  fraprnient  and  that  the  elevation  had  been  somewhat  chansed.  In 
1917  levelinfr  from  P.  B.  M.  Pool  determined  the  elevation  to  l)e  290.977. 

P.  R.  M.  Pool  is  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  Niagara  Gorge  at  the  Whirli)ool, 
about  40  feet  north  of  P.  B.  M.  Wliirlpool,  on  the  same  ledge  of  rook  (not  broken 
off  here)  close  to  the  water's  edge,  being  the  top  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  verti- 
callv  into  the  ledge,  marked 

B.  M. 

o 

POOL 

Elevation,  297.731. 

*  P.  li.  M.  University  is  about  2  miles  north  of  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  65 
yards  east  of  top  of  Gorge  of  Niagara  Kiver,  in  west  corner  of  main  building  of 
Niagara  I'niversity,  being  the  center  of  a  brass  bolt  leaded  horizontally  into 
stone  4i  inches  east  of  corner  and  20  inches  al)ove  ground.     Elevation,  r)S9  3">2. 

*  T  B.  M.  Xo.  31  is  in  Lewiston  Heights,  N.  Y.,  on  top  of  retaining  wall  on 
south  side  of  wagon  road,  10  feet  north  of  center  of  track  of  tlie  New  York 
Central  Railroad  and  39  feet  east  of  northeast  corner  of  Lewist<in  Heights 
Station,  being  the  top  of  a  small  square  cut  on  large  stone.     Elevation,  .".'^0.919. 

*  /'.  B.  M.  Lciriston  Heights  No.  2  is  111  yards  east  of  the  center  of  Lewiston 
Heigiits  Station,  N.  Y.,  in  face  of  .solid  ledge  rock  on  upper  side  of  wagon  road 
leading  down  from  Lewiston  Heights  Station  to  Lewiston,  being  the  center  of  a 
Ijrass  bolt  leaded  horizontally  in  vertical  face  of  rock,  21  inches  below  top  of 
ledge,  and  marked  thus,  in  3-inch  letters: 

U.  S. 

o 

p.  B.  M. 

Elevation,  506.404. 

*P.  B.  M.  Lewistotv  is  in  Lewiston,  N.  Y..  at  corner  of  Center  and  Ninth 
Streets,  on  the  northwest  corner  of  stone  door  sill  of  north  door  of  west  wing 
of  old  Seminary  Building,  being  a  square  cut  on  stone.     Elevation,  401.331. 

*P.  B.  J/.  Murphy  is  in  Lewiston,  N.  Y.,  on  south  side  of  Center  Street, 
between  Fourth  and  Fifth  Streets,  being  a  square  cut  on  water  table  of  north- 
east corner  of  foundation  of  brick  store  owned  by  Eugene  Murphy.  Elevation, 
363.34. 

Topography. — A  general  topographic  map  was  prepared  showing 
the  Xiafrara  River  from  above  Cayuga  Island  to  below  Lewiston. 
Along  the  Canadian  shore  a  strip  of  country  about  half  a  mile  wide 
is  depicted,  while  on  the  American  side  the  map  covers  a  triangle 
about  0  miles  wide  and  7  miles  long.  This  area  includes  the  ground 
covered  l)y  all  the  American  power  development  projects  of  merit 
which  have  been  proposed.     The  map  is  shown  on  plates  Xos.  13  and  14. 

For  the  most  important  part  of  this  map  a  very  careful  transit 
and  stadia  siir\ev  was  made.  The  area  covered  is  roughly  bounded 
by  the  Military  I^oad,  Fish  Oeek,  the  top  of  the  Gorge.  Bloody  Run, 
Wli ill ])()()!  Avenue,  Sugar  Street,  and  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
road tracks.  Tliis  amoimts  to  about  12  square  miles.  The  work  was 
thoroughly  and  carefully  ])erformed.  All  details  that  properly 
should  show  on  a  1 :  10000  map  Avere  located,  and  enough  elevations 
were  taken  for  tlie  plotting  of  contours  with  a  vertical  interval  of 
2  feet. 

The  re.st  of  the  map  was  compiled  from  various  sources,  including 
maps  of  the  Board  of  Engineers  for  Deep  Waterways,  the  Lake 


DIVERSION"   OF   WATER   FRO.M    (.RKAT   LAKES   AXD   NIAGARA   RIVER.      251 

Survey,  the  (Teoloofieal  Survey,  the  city  of  Niagara  Falls,  and  the 
two  American  power  companies,  corrections  and  additions  bein<r 
obtained  by  fra<j:mentary  surveys  and  reconnaissance. 

A  special  survey  was  made  of  the  American  bank  of  the  (ioi-fre 
from  above  the  Devils  Hole  to  below  Fish  Creek.  This  was  done  by 
transit  and  stadia,  supplemented  by  a  "  hand  transit."  The  results 
are  incorporated  in  the  large  topographic  map,  and  are  also  given 
separately  on  a  larger  scale  on  plate  No.  IG.  Practically  all  the  pro- 
posed lower  river  poAver-house  sites  are  located  within  the  limits  of 
this  survey. 

The  transit  and  stadia  surveys  involved  a  large  number  of  closed 
traverses  which  were  tied  in  horizontally  to  several  existing  triangu- 
lation  stations,  and  vertically  to  several  precise  bench  marks.  The 
latitude,  longitude,  and  elevation  of  each  transit  station  or  stake 
was  computed  carefully,  and  the  point  plotted  accurately.  All  side 
shots  were  plotted  with  large  Colby  protractor.  By  such  methods  a 
map  of  great  accuracy  has  been  ()l)tained. 

Rock  Soiindings. — In  making  estimates  of  the  cost  of  a  power  canal 
from  the  upper  river  to  the  edge  of  the  lower  (lorge  it  was  necessary 
to  know  the  depth  of  earth  that  would  be  found  on  top  of  the  rock 
along  the  various  proposed  routes.  The  only  data  available  was  a 
line  of  rock  soundings  near  Military  Road  made  by  the  Deep  Water- 
ways Board,  and  a  few  records  of  city  sewer  surveys  at  Niagara  Falls. 
To  supplement  this  data  an  extensive  rock  survey  was  made  over  the 
areas  between  the  Military  Road  and  Sugar  Street. 

The  soundings  were  made  with  a  series  of  hexagonal  tool  steel  rods. 
The  first  rod  was  If  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet  long.  It  was  driven 
into  the  ground  with  sledges  until  only  about  half  a  foot  remained 
above  ground.  It  was  then  pulled  out  by  means  of  a  special  "  puller," 
consisting  of  a  series  of  levers,  and  the  next  rod  w^as  inserted  in  the 
hole.  This  rod  was  1|  inches  in  diameter  and  7  feet  long,  and  was 
driven  and  pulled  in  the  same  manner. 

This  process  was  continued,  each  rod  being  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
smaller  and  3  feet  longer,  until  rock  was  struck.  The  longest  rod 
used  was  three-fourths  inch  in  diameter  and  25  feet  long.  A  longer 
rod  of  five-eighths  inch  size  was  provided,  but  could  not  be  used  be- 
cause it  was  too  flexible  to  be  inserted  in  the  hole  w^ithout  use  of  a 
small  gin  pole  or  derrick. 

The  work  was  carried  on  under  great  difficulties  throughout  the 
coldest  winter  ever  recorded  in  this  region.  Photographs  Nos.  69 
to  71  illustrate  the  process.  No.  69  shows  a  rod  being  driven  and  No. 
70  shows  the  pulling  machine  in  operation.  The  rock  surface  was 
overlaid  with  a  foot  or  two  of  hardpan  and  bowlders,  and  this  often 
bent  and  twisted  the  rods  so  that  two  heavy  screw  jacks  had  to  be 
used  to  pull  them,  as  is  shown  in  photograph  No.  71. 

Altogether  60  rock  soundings  were  made.  They  are  ])lotted  on  the 
general  topographic  map,  plates  Nos.  13  and  14. 

Other  field  work  performed  included  an  examination  of  the  Welland 
Canal,  a  reconnaissance  of  the  route  of  the  proposed  Erie  &  Ontario 
Sanitary  Canal,  and  various  inspections  of  the  new  construction 
under  way  on  both  sides  of  the  river  at  Niagara  Falls. 

The  most  difficult  and  important  part  of  the  office  work  was  the 
designing  and  estimating  of  proposed  power  development  projects 
for  the  use  of  water  diverted  from  Niagara  River.     A  great  deal  of 


252       DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER. 

time  was  spent  on  this  work,  studj'ing  the  situation  and  the  various 
problems  involved,  consultin<r  informalh'  Avith  engineers,  contractors, 
and  others  familiar  with  these  matters,  making  outline  designs,  and 
preparing  and  checking  estimates.  In  this  connection  a  careful 
study  was  made  of  all  the  reports  submitted  by  those  interested  in 
Niagara  power  development.  The  detailed  description  of  this  work 
is  given  in  Section  F  of  this  report. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  power  projects  was  the  matter  of  reme- 
dial works  above  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  A  large  amount  of  time  was 
spent  in  the  stud}'  of  this  problem  and  in  the  preparation  of  outline 
plans  and  estimates.    These  are  given  in  Section  E. 

Other  office  operations  not  already  specifically  noted  included 
reduction  and  study  of  data  pertaining  to  the  Chicago  Drainage 
Canal,  and  the  assembling  and  examination  of  data  pertaining  to 
various  phases  of  the  investigation.  The  preparation  of  the  report 
has  been  a  task  requiring  a  large  amount  of  time. 

W.  S.  Richmond. 


Appendix  C, 

PRP:SERVATI0N    of    scenic    beauty    of     NIAGARA 
FALLS  AND  OF  THE  RAPIDS  OF  NIAGARA  RIVER. 


[Lieutenant  Jones's  repoi't.] 

August  26,  1919. 
From :  First  Lieut.  Albert  B.  Jones,  Engineers,  L^nited  States  Armj\ 
To :  The  Division  Engineer,  Lakes  Division,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Subject:  Report  on  preservation  of  scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls 
and  of  the  nipids  of  Niagara  River. 

There   is   submitted   herewith    report   on    preservation    of   scenic 
beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  and  of  the  rapids  of  Niagara  River. 

Albert  B.  Jones, 
First  Lieutenant^  Engineers. 


I  .   THE   PROBLEM. 


Freliminary . — The  Falls  of  Niagara  are  probably  the  most  famous 
scenic  marvel  in  the  world.  Except  for  the  distant  and  inaccessible 
Zambesi  Fall  in  Africa,  no  other  cataract  approaches  it  in  majest}- 
and  power.  The  staggering  rush  of  this  great  volume  of  water,  the 
roar  of  its  descent,  and  the  rainbow-marked  colunm  of  ascending 
spray  form  a  spectacle  which  for  240  years  has  excited  the  awe  ana 
admiration  of  all  beholders.  No  place  in  this  country  is  so  well 
known  to  Euroj^teans,  and  even  visitors  from  China  and  Japan  are 
anxious  to  view  the  famous  cataract.  Neither  is  the  place  without 
honor  in  its  own  country.  No  great  natural  feature  in  the  United 
States  is  visited  by  as  many  Americans  as  Niagara  Falls.  The  offi- 
cers in  charge  of  the  New  York  State  reservation  estimate  the  annual 
number  of  visitors  at  one  and  one-half  million  persons.  Many  of 
these  come  from  a  great  distance,  and  their  average  expenditure  for 
the  trip  is  estimated  at  $2.5  apiece,  or  a  total  of  $37,000,000  per 
annum. 

The  money  these  sightseers  spend  each  year  is,  in  a  measure,  an 
indication  of  the  value  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls.  These 
people  feel  that  to  have  experienced  the  sublimity  and  grandeur  of 
the  cataract  and  its  surroundings  has  been  an  adequate  return  for  an 
expenditure  of  $37,000,000  per  year.  Such  an  expenditure,  by  the 
people  of  a  Nation  commonly  accused  of  a  money-grubbing  commer- 
cialism is  surely  a  sign  of  our  aesthetic  salvation.  In  this  way  the 
Falls  are  a  great  national  asset,  intangible,  it  is  true,  and  not  to  be 
measured  in  dollars  and  cents,  but  nevertheless  of  immense  value  to 
the  spiritual  and  artistic  life  of  the  Nation.  The  destruction  or 
serious  defacement  of  this  great  spectacle  for  the  sake  of  developing 

253 


254      DIVERSION   OF   WATKR  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

water  power,  or  for  any  other  object,  would  be  a  piece  of  intolerable 
vandalism  to  which  the  people  of  this  country  would  never  submit. 

Fifteen  years  a^jo  it  appeared  possible  that  such  a  defacement  Avas 
impending  and  water-power  development  was  accordingly  checked 
bv  the  Burton  Act  and  the  subsecjueut  tieaty  with  (n-eat  Britain. 
By  its  terms  the  Burton  Act  was  a  temporary  measure.  It  Avas  like 
the  temporary  injunction  issued  by  courts  of  equity  which  forbids  a 
certain  act  to  be  done  until  investigation  shows  Avhether  or  not  its 
consequences  Avill  be  harmful  to  the  plaintiff.  The  investigation  has 
now  been  made,  and  it  remains  only  to  determine  what  are  the  proper 
limits  that  should  be  placed  upon  power  development  to  prevent  dam- 
age to  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls. 

The  water  power  also  has  its  imaginative  and  spiritual  appeal.  It 
lepresents  in  a  most  dramatic  Avay  the  triumph  of  man  over  nuitter. 
The  very  name  ''  Niagara  "  has  become  proverl)ial  as  representing  the 
great  forces  of  nature  in  one  of  their  more  irresistible  and  uncon- 
trollable manifestations  and  yet  a  part  of  this  aAve-inspiring  force 
has  been  harnessed  to  the  service  of  man.  The  record  of  the  energy 
and  persistence  of  the  pioneers  Avho  developed  the  great  hydraulic 
and  electric  installations  at  Niagara  forms  a  bright  page  in  the  his- 
tor}'  of  science  and  engineering. 

Aside  from  the  direct  monetary  value  of  the  electric  power,  these 
developments  have  also  great  value  as  a  cultural  and  civilizing  force. 
The  presence  of  large  amounts  of  cheap  power  at  Niagara  has  been 
the  chief  moving  force  behind  the  recent  advance  of  the  electro- 
chemical industries,  and  this  advance  has  been  revolutionary.  Com- 
pare conditions  now  with  those  of  1890,  when  the  first  large  power 
house  was  building.  Then  aluminum  Avas  a  laboratory  curiosity 
worth  $10  or  $12  a  pound ;  noAV  it  is  an  eA'ery-day  necessity  and  costs 
little  more  than  copper.  Then  steel  Avas  a  simple  alloy  of  iron  and 
carbon :  to-day  nearly  CA'ery  tool  of  the  mechanic  is  hardened  or 
toughened  with  silicon,  chromium,  titanium,  or  some  other  product 
of  the  electric  furnace.  Then  emery  and  graphite  Avere  valuable  min- 
erals Avhose  A'isible  supply  was  rapidly  decreasing;  noAv  carborundum 
and  artificial  graphite  are  driving  the  natural  supply  from  the 
market  by  their  cheapness  and  uniformly  high  qualit}'.  To  these 
must  be  added  calcium  carbide  and  acetylene  gas.  liquid  chlorine, 
artificial  gems,  and  many  other  products  (juite  unknoAvn  or  not  com- 
mercially available  28  years  ago.  These  things  have  revolutionized 
our  Avay  of  living  in  many  Avays,  ranging  from  cookery  to  transpor- 
tation. The  farmer  stimulates  his  croj:)S  Avith  fertilizers  seized  from 
the  atmosphere  by  Niagara  poAver.  The  food  he  grows  is  cooked  in 
A'e.ssels  of  Niagara  aluminum  with  Avater  purified  by  liquid  chlorine 
from  the  same  source.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  tliat  modern 
aeroplanes  and  motor  cars  would  be  impossible  Avithout  the  aid  of 
the  aluminum,  abrasiA'es.  and  alloy  steels  dcA^eloped  by  Niagara 
poAver. 

These  things  belong  to  the  past.  What  beneficial  results  would 
floAv  from  a  fiirtlier  development  of  this  natural  resource  no  one  can 
tell,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  expect  the  future  to  be  less  productive 
than  the  pa.st.  Rather  does  science  advance  by  geometrical  progres- 
sion, using  the  gains  of  to-day  as  the  basis  for  a  broader  advance  on 
the  morroAv.     Surel}'  Ave  owe  it  to  ourselves  and  to  posterit}'  to  de- 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     255 

velop  this  magic  power  to  the  utmost  limits  that  are  possible  with- 
out committing  the  sacrilege  of  harming  nature's  great  temple  of 
beaut3^  It  may  well  be  that  while  doing  so  we  can  also  repair  some 
damage  that  has  already  been  done  by  the  hand  of  man  and  by  that 
process  of  natural  decay  which  tends  to  destroy  all  waterfalls. 

In  short,  our  problem  reduces  itself  to  this :  What  can  be  done  to 
repair  existing  damage  to  the  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  how  much 
more  power  can  be  developed  without  doing  further  damaged 

DescHftion  of  the  Falls  and  rapids. — For  the  study  of  tliis  prob- 
lem a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Falls  and 
rapids  is  necessary.  In  Section  A  of  this  report  will  be  found  a  de- 
scription of  the  river  as  a  whole  with  its  relations  to  the  adjacent 
lakes.  The  features  having  a  scenic  interest  will  now  be  described  in 
more  detail.  The  items  described  will  all  be  found  on  the  topo- 
graphic map  on  photographs  13  and  14  of  this  report.  In  photo- 
graphs Nos.  72  to  129  are  a  collection  of  views  of  the  most  important 
scenic  features  under  various  conditions  of  stage  and  diversion.^ 
Photograph  No.  72  shows  summer  and  winter  panoramic  view^s  taken 
from  the  Canadian  edge  of  the  Gorge  a  little  ways  above  the  bridge. 
Photograph  No.  73  is  another  panorama  taken  from  "  Falls  View." 
The  other  photographs  are  pictures  of  the  individual  features. 

The  upper  Niagara  River  down  to  Port  Day  is  a  stream  of  no  par- 
ticular scenic  value.  Just  below^  this  point  Goat  Island  divides  the 
stream  into  two  channels,  the  right  hand  or  northeasterly,  of  which 
forms  the  "American  or  Goat  Island  Rapids."  Photographs  Nos. 
74  to  76  show  these  rapids.  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  rapids, 
especially  the  part  below  the  bridge,  not  shown  in  the  pictures.  It 
consists  of  a  series  of  cascades  and  chutes  divided  up  by  a  number 
of  small  wooded  islands.  The  contrast  between  the  dark  green  of  the 
islands  and  the  foaming  breakers  and  white  waters  of  the  rapids  is 
very  beautiful,  especially  in  bright  weather.  These  rapids  are  2,500 
feet  long  and  from  400  to  1,200  feet  wide.  Their  average  floAv  under 
present  conditions  is  perhaps  9,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Southeast  of  Goat  Island  lies  the  "  Canadian  or  Horseshoe  Rapids." 
These  begin  with  a  series  of  long  cascades  extending  from  the  Three 
Sister  Islands  across  the  stream  to  the  Dufferin  Islands.  Below  the 
cascades  the  rapids  flow  swiftly  down  a  wide  and  steep  incline  of 
rock;  some  parts  are  quite  shallow.  While  some  views  of  this  rapid 
give  a  sensation  of  power  and  swiftness,  there  is  but  little  of  beauty 
or  grandeur  in  it  except  at  the  cascades.  The  Canadian  Rapids  are 
shown  in  photographs  Nos.  78  to  81  and  still  better  in  photograph 
No.  73.  They  are  about  3,000  feet  long  and  the  width  varies  from 
3,500  to  1,200  feet.  Under  present  conditions  the  average  flow  just 
above  the  Falls  is  about  150,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

At  the  foot  of  the  American  Rapids  the  water  drops  over  a  verti- 
cal cliff  into  the  Gorge,  forming  the  "American  Fall."  This  is  prob- 
ably the  most  beautiful  and  best  known  feature  of  Niagara.  It  can 
be  seen  to  advantage  from  Prospect  Point,  Luna  Island.  Goat  Island, 
the  International  Bridge,  and  the  Canadian  side,  and  is  the  detail 
most  often  selected  for  reproduction  in  photographs  and  paintings. 
It  is  shown  in  photographs  Nos.  82  to  90,  also  in  Nos.  72  and  73. 

^  See  also  supplementary  report  on  p.  281. 


256      ]»I VERSION    OF    WATKR  TEOM   GREAT  LAKES   AXD   NIAGARA   RIVER. 

The  crest  line  is  about  1.000  feet  long  and  on]}'  slightly  curved. 
Over  this  crest  the  Avater  rushes  with  an  average'  depth  of  li  feet 
and  an  average  velocity  of  6  feet  per  second  and  plunges  vertically 
dov^n  onto  the  huge  rocks  piled  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff.  The  height 
of  the  fall  is  167  feet.  At  the  southwest  end  Luna  Island  separates 
the  last  GO  feet  from  the  main  foil.  This  section  is  known  as  the 
-Luna  Fair'  or  "Bridal  Veil  Fall."  Prospect  Poii:kt  is  the  best 
viewpoint  for  the  American  Falls  and,  being  oas}'  of  access,  is  the 
most  visited  point  of  Xiagara.  Here  the  visitor  finVls  the  whole  roar- 
ing rush  and  power  of  the  Falls  at  his  very  feet.  A  still  greater 
effect  of  irresistible  power  is  felt  Avhen  this  cataract  is  viewed  from 
the  talus  slop  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff  below  Prospect  Point.  Here 
the  rock  itself  trembles  from  the  impact  of  the  falling  waters. 

The  '-Horseshoe  or  Canadian  Fall"  lies  south  and  west  of  the 
American  Falls  and  is  separated  from  it  by  Goat  Island.  This  fall 
has  a  tremendous  floAv  of  water,  sixteen  tinios  as  much  as  the  Ameri- 
can Falls,  but  for  several  reasons  it  fails  to  make  a  proportionate 
effect.  The  original  horseshoe  shaped  crestline  which  gave  it  its 
name  has  gradually  been  eaten  away  until  now  the  plan  is  a  curved 
V  as  shown  on  plate  No.  18.  The^pex  of  this  notch  is  not  ordi- 
narily visible  from,  any  point  of  view.  The  greater  bulk  of  the  water 
rushes  into  this  notch  and  sends  up  a  cloud  of  spray  and  mist  which 
nearly  always  forms  an  impenetrable  curtain  in  front  of  this  part 
of  the  fall. 

Photographs  Nos.  91  to  104  andNos.  72  and  73  show  different  views 
of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  but  it  was  impossible  to  get  one  showing  the 
face  of  the  Falls  at  this  notch.  Even  without  the  spray  the  shape 
of  the  crest  is  such  that  only  a  distant  and  foreshortened  view  would 
be  possible. 

At  ordinary  stages  the  parts  of  the  Falls  adjacent  to  the  notch 
show  a  spectacle  comparable  to  the  American  Falls,  but  only  to  be 
seen  from  a  distance.  The  ends  are  the  only  parts  which  can  be  ap- 
proached by  the  observer  and  these  show  only  a  meager  display. 
The  flow  is  not  continuous  along  their  crest,  but  is  broken  in  sev- 
eral places.  At  very  low  stage  many  stretches  of  bare  rock  are  visi- 
ble and  the  floAv  is  reduced  to  small  detached  streams;  see  photo- 
graphs Xos.  95  and  97.  observing  that  these  were  taken  at  a  moder- 
ately low  stage  and  that  conditions  are  often  much  worse  than  the 
pictures  show. 

The  crest  line  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  2,600  feet  long.  The  height 
is  162  feet  and  the  average  flow  under  present  conditions  is  about 
150.000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

At  the  head  of  the  Gorge  below  the  Falls  is  the  stretch  of  quiet 
Avater  called  in  this  report  the  "  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool."  This  is 
shown  in  photographs  Nos.  72,  73.  and  105.  The  Pool  is  a  body  of 
deep,  comparatively  quiet  Avater  extending  from  the  foot  of  the  Falls 
to  the  railroad  bridges  and  surrounded  by  Avails  of  rock  200  feet 
high.  Its  upper  part  is  navigated  by  two  small  steamers.  The  Avater 
at  the  head  of  the  Pool  is  stirred  into  foam  by  the  Falls.  Elsewhere 
it  is  blar-k  and  quiet  except  just  below  the  highAvaj''  bridge,  where  it 
rofoivos  the  discharge  of  the  Niagara  Falls  PoAver  Co.'s  tunnel. 
This  discharges  10  per  cent  more  Avater  than  the  American  Falls  and 
creates  a  Avake  of  Avhitecaps  and  broken  Avater  clear  across  to  the 
Canadian  sliore.     Tlic  tnd-wntci-  frmn  all  tlie  poAvor  plants  is  dis- 


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Photograph    No.  85  (Nov.  21.  1907).  -  AMERICAN     FALLS     FROM     CANADIAN    SIDE, 

River  discharge  180,000  cubic  feet  per  second.      Approximate  flow  over   Falls   165.000  cubic 

feet  per  second. 


Photograph   No.  86  (Nov.  22,  1906).      AMERICAN    FALLS    FROM    CANADIAN    SIDE. 

River  discharge  266,000  cubic  feet  per  second.      Approximate  flow  over   Falls  250,000  cubic 

feet  per  second. 


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DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA   RIVER.     257 

charged  into  this  pool  and  three  of  the  power  houses  are  on  its  banks 
at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs. 

The  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  is  12,000  feet  long.  It  has  an  aver- 
age width  of  850  feet  and  a  maximum  of  1,400.  Its  greatest  depth 
is  not  known,  but  a  sounding  of  192  feet  has  been  recorded. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  the  river  narrows  sharply 
to  a  width  of  about  360  feet  at  the  railroad  bridges.  The  next  mile 
of  the  river  is  known  as  the  "Whirlpool  Rapids."  These  are  the 
most  spectacular  rapids.  The  width  is  only  about  400  feet  except 
near  the  lower  end,  where  it  widens  to  800.  The  cliffs  are  from  230 
to  270  feet  high  and  are  very  precipitous,  especially  on  the  American 
side.  The  bottom  of  this  deep  gorge  is  obstructed  by  great  masses 
of  rock,  over  which  the  water  dashes  tumultously,  reaching  velocities 
of  more  than  30  feet  per  second.  Breakers  and  standing  waves  are 
formed  on  a  larger  scale  than  anywhere  else.  Photographs  Nos.  106 
to  113  illustrate  these  rapids. 

At  the  foot  of  these  rapids  is  the  "  Whirlpool."  This  is  an  im- 
mense elliptical  basin  1,700  feet  long  and  1,200  feet  wide  surrounded 
by  banks  280  feet  high.  The  water  enters  from  the  southeast  and 
circles  around  rapidly  in  a  counterclockwise  direction,  eventually 
making  its  escape  through  the  outlet  to  the  northeast  by  passing 
und-er  the  incoming  stream.  Logs  and  other  drift  frequently  circle 
the  Whirlpool  for  weeks  before  making  their  escape.  The  deepest 
sounding  that  has  been  made  in  the  Whirlpool  is  126  feet.  No  com- 
prehensive view  of  the  Whirlpool  is  available,  but  photographs  Nos. 
116  to  119,  taken  to  show  the  head  of  Lower  Rapids,  give  glimpses  of 
the  Pool. 

From  the  Whirlpool  the  water  rushes  violentlv  through  the  narrow 
gap  shown  in  plates  115  to  119  and  enters  the  "  Lower  Rapids."  These 
are  a  little  more  than  2  miles  long.  They  are  similar  to  the  Whirlpool 
Rapids  except  that  the  velocities  are  not  quite  so  great  and  the  cliffs 
are  less  steep.  For  the  first  half  mile  the  width  is  about  600  feet. 
Below  this  the  Gorge  is  obstructed  by  a  mass  of  rock  on  the  Canadian 
side  known  as  "  Fosters  Flats  "  or  "  Niagara  Glen."  For  half  a  mile 
abreast  of  the  flats  the  rapids  are  almost  equal  to  those  above  the 
Whirlpool.  The  narrowest  part  of  the  river,  in  fact,  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  Great  Lakes  system  from  Duluth  to  the  sea  occurs  near 
the  head  of  Fosters  Flats,  where  the  width  is  about  310  feet.  The 
portion  of  the  rapids  below  the  flats  is  from  500  to  800  feet  wide, 
with  increasing  depths  and  diminishing  velocities  until  some  dis- 
tance above  the  Suspension  Bridge  the  term  "  rapids  "  is  hardly  ap- 
plicable and  below  the  bridge  the  current  is  quite  moderate  and  the 
river  is  navigable  for  the  largest  boats.  The  cliffs  of  the  lower  gorge 
reach  a  maximum  height  of  310  feet.  Pictures  of  the  Lower  Rapids 
are  shown  on  photographs  Nos.  120  to  129. 

Effect  of  stage  and  of  diversions.— The  amount  of  water  flowing 
through  the  Niagara  River  depends  primarily  upon  the  elevation  of 
Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo;  the  higher  the  lake  the  greater  the  flow  in  the 
river.  This  relation  may  be  expressed  with  sufficient  accuracy  for 
present  purposes  by  the  formula — 

Q=3,904  (H-658.37)V2 
where  Q  is  the  discharge  of  the  river  in  cubic  feet  per  second  and  H 
is  the  elevation  of  Lake  Erie  at  the  Buffalo  gauge.    This  formula  is 
27880—21 17 


258      DIVERSION   OF  WATEK  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

derived  from  current  meter  measurements  made  from  the  Interna- 
tional Bridjue  at  Black  Kock  bv  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  and 
has  been  checked  by  measurements  at  two  other  sections.  An  auto- 
matic water  oauo^e  has  been  maintained  at  Buffalo  since  1898.  By 
combinintr  the  records  of  this  frauge  with  the  formula  given  above  the 
fluctuations  of  the  river  flow  can  be  studied. 

In  the  21  years  since  this  gauge  was  established  the  yearly  mean 
discharge  has  varied  from  a  minimum  of  184,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond in  1901  to  a  maximimi  of  218,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  1913. 
The  variations  in  the  daily  mean  flow  are  much  larger,  but  values 
greater  than  235,000  cubic  feet  per  second  or  less  than  160,000  are 
verv  rare,  seldom  occurring  oftener  than  two  or  three  times  a  year. 
During  heavy  gales  the  elevation  at  Buffalo  undergoes  very  great 
fluctuations  Avhich  last  only  a  few  minutes.  On  December  7,  1909.  at 
5.28  p.  m.,  the  gauge  recorded  580.28,  and  on  February  1, 1915,  at  6.54 
p.  m.,  it  was  567.38.  These  are  the  maximum  and  minimum  heights 
in  the  gauge  book.  Applying  the  formula  given  above  would  indicate 
corresponding  discharges  of  400,000  and  106,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond respectively.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  requires  several  hours  for 
the  effect  of  a  large  change  in  the  Buffalo  gauge  to  reach  the  Falls, 
and  as  these  extremes  last  for  only  a  few  minutes  the  maximum  and 
minimum  flows  at  the  Falls  were  probably  much  more  moderate  than 
these  figures  would  indicate. 

By  computing  the  elevation  at  Buffalo  from  that  recorded  at 
Cleveland  it  is  possible  to  use  a  longer  series  of  years.  Using  the 
51  years  beginning  in  1861,  the  mean  discharge  of  the  Niagara  River 
is  207,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  has  been  adopted  as  the  stand- 
ard for  this  report.  It  corresponds  to  the  gauge  heights  shown  on  the 
profile  on  plate  Xo.  11. 

The  effect  of  diversions  of  water  from  the  river  is  very  nearly  the 
same  as  the  effect  of  a  low  stage  of  Lake  Erie  except  that  only  the 
portion  of  the  river  between  the  point  where  the  water  is  taken  out 
and  the  point  where  it  is  returned  is  affected.  The  present  diversions 
for  power  affect  the  appearance  of  the  American  and  Canadian 
Rapids  and  the  American  and  Horseshoe  Falls,  but  not  the  Whirl- 
pool Rapids  or  the  LoAver  Rapids.  The  proposed  developments  with 
a  300-foot  head  would  affect  these  also,  as  do  the  diversions  of  the 
Welland  Canal,  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  and  the  Chicago 
Drainage  Canal. 

Photographs  Nos.  74  to  127  show  the  appearance  of  the  different 
falls  and  rapids  at  various  stages.  One  set  was  taken  at  extremely 
high  stage  and  one  at  about  the  mean  stage.  It  was  unfortunately  im- 
possible to  get  a  set  at  extremely  low  stage,  although  no  effort  was 
spared,  and  the  third  set  shows  conditions  only  a  little  below  mean 
stage. ^  Each  picture  is  marked  with  the  date  and  time  when  it  was 
taken,  and  the  computed  flow  of  the  river  at  that  time.  In  addition, 
those  showing  the  Falls  or  the  rapids  above  the  Falls  are  marked  with 
the  computed  flow  over  the  Falls.  In  studying  these  pictures  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  average  flow  of  the  river  is  207,000  cubic 
feet  per  second;  that  originall}^  this  all  went  over  the  Falls,  but  that 
at  present  the  power  diversion  amounts  to  about  50,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  and  the  flow  over  the  Falls  averages  157,000. 

'  See  also  supplementary  report  on  p.  281. 


Dm<:RSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     259 

Pilot ographs  Xos.  74  to  80  show  the  Canadian  and  American  Rapids 
above  the  r  alls  with  the  flow  over  the  Falls  ranging  from  155,000  to 
245,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  It  appears  that  change  of  stage  does 
not  have  a  very  great  effect  on  the  beauty  of  the  rapids.  The  Ameri- 
can Kapids  looks  better  in  the  extreme  liigh  stage  of  photograph  No. 
76,  but  this  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  better  lighting  conditions  on 
that  day  gave  a  better  photograph.  The  same  is  true  of  photograph 
No.  80  of  the  Canadian  Rapids.  The  only  place  whose  beauty  suffers 
badly  is  the  northwest  corner  of  the  Canadian  Rapids,  where  the  un- 
sightly shoal  shown  in  photograph  No.  81  is  much  more  conspicuous 
at  low  stage. 

The  American  Falls  is  shown  in  photographs  Nos.  82  to  90.  It  is 
rather  sensitive  to  changes  of  stage.  Photographs  Nos.  87  and  89 
show  this  particularly  well  despite  the  fact  that  No.  89  is  a  very  poor 
photograph  because  of  the  spray.  At  the  low  stage  the  crest  is  but 
thinly  covered,  and  the  water  shows  an  angular  drop  as  it  passes  over. 
At  the  high  stage  the  rock  ledges  of  the  crest  are  practically  invisible 
and  the  water  leaps  into  the  Gorge  in  a  beautiful  parabolic  curve. 
Photograph  No.  90  is  taken  from  a  higher  point  of  view  and  shows  the 
thinness  of  the  Falls  at  low  stage  still  more  plainly.  On  the  not  un- 
common days  when  the  flow  over  the  Falls  is  reduced  to  140,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  this  affect  is,  of  course,  very  much  worse  than  the  pic- 
tures show. 

Of  all  the  natural  features  at  Niagara  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  the 
one  most  affected  by  change  of  stage.  This  is  illustrated  in  photo- 
graphs Nos.  91  to  104.  The  appearance  of  the  "  notch,"  as  far  as  it  is 
visible  at  all,  is  not  appreciably  different  at  high  stage  or  at  low,  but 
on  either  end  of  the  Falls  the  effects  are  striking.  Photograph  No.  93 
shows  both  ends  of  the  Falls  from  Goat  Island  at  a  very  high  stage 
when  the  flow  over  the  Falls  was  245,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  At 
both  ends  there  is  a  continuously  buried  crest  line  with  a  rush  of 
white  water  over  it  comparable  with  the  American  Falls  at  its  best. 
Photograph  No.  96  shows  the  west  end  and  photographs  Nos.  99, 
101,  and  104  show  the  east  end  on  the  same  day.  Compare  these  with 
the  pictures  taken  from  the  same  points  on  days  when  the  flow  over  the 
Falls  was  reduced  to  155,000  or  165,000.  Photographs  Nos.  102  and 
103  show  the  broken  crest  line  and  separated  streams  at  the  east  end 
where  at  high  stage  there  was  the  splendid  display  of  photograph  No. 
104.  Photographs  Nos.  97,  98,  and  100  show  how  the  bare  black  rocks 
of  the  cliff  are  exposed  at  low  water,  while  in  Nos.  99  and  101  they  are 
concealed  behind  their  full  veil  of  falling  water.  Photograph  No.  95 
is  the  most  striking  of  all. 

It  must  be  emphasized  that  although  this  picture  and  No.  96  in- 
clude somewhat  different  amounts  of  background,  they  were  taken 
from  exactly  the  same  spot.  If  the  right-hand  part  of  No.  95  be 
covered  up  as  far  as  a  vertical  line  through  the  left-hand  ventilator 
on  the  roof  of  the  power  house,  these  two  are  exactly  comparable. 
The  slimy,  unsightly  ledges  of  rock  in  the  foreground  of  95  form 
the  crest  over  which  the  magnificent  cataract  of  96  is  plunging.  It 
should  also  be  noticed  that  photograph  No.  95  shows  several  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  per  second  more  than  the  average  flow  iinder  present 
conditions,  and  that  stages  a  great  deal  lower  than  this  are  not  at 


260      DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FKOyi   GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

all   uncommon/     The  appearance  of  the  face  of  this  part  of  the 
Falls  at  hiirh  and  mean  staj^e  is  shown  on  Nos.  9-2  and  O.**. 

The  ]\{aid-of-the-]Mist  Pool  is  not  noticeably  chan<red  in  appear- 
ance bv  chanofe  of  stapfe,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Whirl]iool. 
The  beauty  of  these  places  resides  more  in  the  vertical  cliffs  and 
steep,  wooded  talus  slopes  than  in  the  stream  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Gorgfe. 

In  the  Whirlpool  Rapids  and  Lower  Rapids  conditions  are  some- 
what ditferent.  Within  the  range  of  stage  usually  encountered 
these  rapids  are  most  beautiful  at  the  lower  stages.  The  beauty  of 
these  rapids  is  largely  due  to  the  huge  rocks  which  break  u])  the 
rushing  waters  into  breakers,  standing  waves,  and  flying  masses  of 
spray  and  foam.  At  high  stages  these  rocks  are  more  deei)ly  buried 
and  do  not  iH'oduce  these  effects  in  anything  like  the  same  degree. 
Although  the  volume  and  velocity  of  the  water  is  greater  at  high 
stages  the  beauty  is  less.  That  volume  and  velocity  alone  have  little 
scenic  value  is  well  illustrated  by  the  outfall  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co.  tunnel.  The  volume  of  water  entering  the  Maid-of-the- 
Mist  Pool  through  this  tunnel  is  nearly  10.000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
or  10  per  cent  more  than  the  usual  discharge  of  the  American  Rapids 
and  Falls.  Its  velocity  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  40  miles  per  hour, 
much  higher  than  exists  in  any  of  the  ra])ids.  Despite  the  immense 
quantity  and  velocity,  the  thing  receives  very  little  attention  from 
visitors  and  is  scarcely  mentioned  in  printed  accounts  of  the  beauties 
of  Niagara. 

Photographs  Nos.  107  and  108  show  the  upper  end  of  the  Whirl- 
pool Rapids  with  discharges  a  little  below  and  a  little  above  the 
average.  res])ectively.  The  low  flow  shows  slightlv  larger  breakers, 
although  this  is  partly  masked  by  the  fact  that  Xo.  108  is  a  better 
photograph.  ])eing  a  shorter  exposure  in  more  brilliant  light.  Photo- 
graph No.  109  is  the  same  place  at  high  stage  with  a  flow  of  267,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  This  was  a  long  exposure  on  a  very  dark  day, 
hence  the  general  white  and  streaked  effect  of  the  moving  water. 
Nevertheless,  a  close  study  will  show  that  the  spectacular  effects  have 
been  largely  reduced  at  the  higher  stage.  This  is  especially  marked 
in  the  case  of  the  mass  of  foam  directly  in  line  with  the  center  of  the 
cantilever  bridge.  Photographs  Nos.  110.  111.  and  120  show  an- 
other view  of  the  Whirlpool  Rapids  under  like  conditions.  Dis- 
counting the  difference  in  lighting,  it  is  evident  that  these  rapids 
show  to  better  advantage  with  a  discharge  of  208.000  than  at  a  higher 
discharge.  The  large  breakers  just  in  line  with  the  two  ends  of  the 
bridge  are  markedly  larger  in  ]-)hotograph  No.  110.  although  their 
details  have  been  lost  in  the  longer  exposure. 

In  the  Lower  Rapids  the  same  thing  holds  true.  Photographs  Nos. 
115  and  116  show  it  a  little.  In  photographs  Nos.  117  to  119  the 
stage  appears  to  make  very  little  difference.  No.  123  shows  how 
mucli  of  the  beauty  is  lost  at  a  high  stage,  but  reappears  at  the  lower 
stages  of  Nos.  121  and  122.  Photograph  No.  127  shows  the  same 
when  compared  with  125  and  126.  These  pictures  are  somewhat 
deceptive,  in  that  a  very  short  exposure  in  brilliant  light  is  required 
to  give  a  good  picture  of  waves  and  spray.  In  each  case  conditions 
were  better  in  the  pictures  taken  with  217,000  cubic  feet  per  second 

'  See  also  Bupplemi'ntary  report  on  p.  281. 


DR^RSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     261 

than  in  those  -with  203.000.  A  careful  study  of  intliviihial  waves 
vill  usually  show  that  they  are  larf^er  at  the  lower  sta^e,  and  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  amount  of  sj^ray  and  sparkle  and 
the  /Tfenera]  effect  upon  the  eye  is  conmionly  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  wave.  Of  course,  if  the  flow  were  reduced  too  far  the  rocks 
would  not  produce  waves  and  spray,  but  would  stand  up  bare  with 
Avater  running-  between  them.  In  other  words,  there  must  be  a  ])oint 
of  maximum  beauty  in  the  rai)ids.  If  the  flow  be  either  incieased 
or  diminished  from  this  point  the  lieauty  is  decreased.  It  Avould 
appear  from  a  careful  study  of  these  j)hoto^raphs  and  from  frequent 
observation  of  these  rapids  under  different  conditions  for  many 
years  that  this  point  lies  quite  a  bit  below  a  flow  of  200,000  cubic 
feet  per  second. 

To  sum  up,  it  may  be  said  that — 

1.  The  American  Rapids  are  not  much  affected  by  stage,  but  look 
best  with  a  moderately  large  flow. 

2.  The  Canadian  Rapids  are  very  little  affected  by  stage,  except 
the  northwest  corner,  which  i-equire  an  extremely  high  stage  to  cover 
the  shoal  there. 

3.  The  American  Falls  looks  best  at  high  stage. 

4.  The  "  notch  "  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  of  small  scenic  value  at 
any  stage.  At ,  low  stages  it  is  more  often  visible,  because  there  is 
then  less  mist. 

5.  The  ends  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  look  very  poor  at  low  stage 
and  poor  enough  at  the  ordinary  conditions  now^  prevailing.  At  very 
high  stages  they  are  marvelously  improved. 

6.  The  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  and  the  Whirlpool  derive  their 
beauty  primarily  from  the  Gorge,  not  the  riA^er,  and  are  not  affected 
bj'  change  of  stage. 

7.  The  Whirlpool  Rapids  and  Lower  Rapids  are  at  their  best  at  a 
comparatiA^ely  Ioav  stage.  As  the  floAv  increases  much  of  their  attrac- 
tion is  lost. 

Recession  of  falls} — It  has  been  recognized  by  all  students  of 
Xiagara  Falls  that  the  Falls  are  continually  eroding  their  crest  and 
thus  receding  up  the  ri\^er.  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  Falls  must 
once  have  been  located  at  the  edge  of  the  escarpment  at  Lewiston  and 
haA^e  gradually  moved  back  to  their  present  position,  excavating  the 
Gorge  as  they  traA^eled.  The  time  required  for  this  journey  is  va- 
riously estimated  by  geologists,  but  the  most  authoritative  values 
lie  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand  years. 

The  manner  in  which  the  recession  takes  place  is  well  described  in 
the  following  extract  from  folio  No.  190  of  the  Geologic  Atlas  of  the 
United  States,  published  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey : 

The  brink  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  formed  by  80  feet  of  hard,  massiA^e 
dolomite  (Lockport).  beneatli  \A-hich  is  BO  feet  of  relatively  soft  shale  (Roches- 
ter), extending  down  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  pool  below.  (See  pi.  No.  17.) 
A  short  distance  above  the  water  is  another  layer  of  hard  limestone  (Ironde- 
qiioit),  only  15  feet  thick.  Opposite  the  American  Falls  a  thin  layer  of  hard 
sandstone  (Thorold)  is  exposed  about  l.o  feet  beneath  this  limestone.  Then 
follows  relatively  soft  shaly  sandstone  of  the  Albion  formation  for  50  or  60  feet 
beloAv  the  .snrface  of  the  pool,  beneath  which  is  another  sandstone  layer  (Whirl- 
pool sandstone),  25  feet  thick.  Beneath  this  in  tnrn  is  300  feet  or  more  of  soft 
red  shale  (Queenston),  extending:  below  the  bottom  of  the  poid.    Thns  a  ma.ssiA-e 

1  See  also  supplementary  report  on  p.  281. 


262      DIVERSION   OF  "WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

layer  of  hard  compact  limestone  overlies  several  luimUed  feet  of  relatively 
soft  shales  containing  a  few  thin  layers  of  hard  rock. 

The  resistance  t»t  stream  erosion  of  the  massive  layer  at  the  top  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  any  of  the  layers  beneath  it.  The  thin,  hard  beds  in  the 
underlying  shales  are  at  a  decidetl  disadvantage  in  resisting  the  work  of  the 
cataract,  for  the  water  only  glides  over  the  massive  top  beds,  but  strikes  with 
tremendous  furce  on  the  thinner  beds  1.30  to  L'OO  feet  below  wherever  they 
become  exposed.  IMrect  impact  of  the  falling  water  on  the  rocks  above  the 
level  of  the  pool  is  not  the  chief  process  in  gorge  nniking,  however;  in  fact,  it 
counts  for  very  little.  By  far  the  most  important  factor  is  the  scouring  of  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  i)ool  at  the  base  of  the  Falls,  where  the  mass  of  falling 
water  strikes.  The  shale  is  gradually  worn  away  by  the  impact  of  the  water 
alone,  but  more  efficient  tools  are  continually  supplied.  Ry  the  wearing  away 
of  the  soft  shale  the  hard  layers  are  undermined  and  blocks  and  fragments 
of  limestone  and  sandstone  fall  into  the  pool,  where  the  tremendous  turbulence 
of  the  water  spins  them  round  and  round  after  the  manner  of  pestle  stones  iu 
the  making  of  potholes.  (PI.  No.  17.)  At  tirst  the  blocks  are  angular,  but 
even  after  they  become  rounded  and  although  they  are  themselves  worn  away 
in  the  process,  they  wear  the  softer  rock  away  more  rapidly,  hence  the  depth 
of  the  pool  is  greater  than  the  height  of  the  Falls. 

Thus  the  brink  of  the  cataract  is  ahvays  an  overhanging  ledge  projecting 
beyond  the  face  of  the  supporting  rock  wall.  "Whenever  a  block  falls  from  the 
brink  it  contributes  to  the  lengthening  of  the  gorge  at  the  top.  and  at  the  same 
time  supplies  a  new  tool  for  lengthening  it  at  the  bottom.  With  each  fall  of 
rock  from  the  brink  the  supporting  wall  behind  the  Falls  is  attacked  with 
renewed  vigor  and  the  lengthening  of  the  gorge  goes  on  for  a  time  at  a  slightly 
faster  rate.  This  process  has  resulted  in  the  making  of  the  whole  Gorge  from 
Lewiston  to  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  except  the  basin  of  the  Whirlpool,  which  is 
older  than  the  rest  of  the  Gorge. 

More  than  a  dozen  surveys  of  the  crest  line  of  the  Falls  have  been 
made  during  the  last  century  and  a  half,  and  are  available  for  de- 
termining the  rate  of  recession  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  Five  of  the 
most  valuable  of  these  are  sho"wn  on  plate  No.  18. 

The  first  is  from  a  plane  table  survey  of  the  Niagara  River  made 
mider  the  direction  of  Capt.  John  Montresor,  Royal  Engineers,  in 
1764.  The  original  map  is  in  the  British  Museum.  The  crest  line  on 
plate  No.  18  is  taken  from  a  reproduction  of  Montresor's  crest  line  in 
The  Falls  of  Niagara,  published  by  the  Canadian  Department  of 
Mines  in  1907.  This  original  map  "was  on  a  small  scale  and  sho"ws 
minor  inaccuracies  of  detail,  nevertheless  it  is  of  great  value  in 
illustrating  the  recession  of  the  Falls,  as  it  is  by  far  the  oldest  survey 
"VN'e  possess. 

The  second  line  on  the  plate  is  from  a  map  made  by  James  Hall  in 
1842.  This  "VN'as  the  first  careful  trigonometric  survey  of  the  crest 
line  made  especially  to  establish  a  basis  for  measuring  the  recession 
of  the  Falls.  This  appears  to  have  been  careful  and  "v\'ell-executed 
work.  A  series  of  stone  monuments  -were  left  to  which  all  subsequent 
surveys  have  been  tied.  This  line  was  also  taken  from  a  reproduc- 
tion in  "  The  Falls  of  Niagara." 

The  next  survey  made  was  that  of  the  United  States  Lake  Survey 
in  1875.  This  was  a  good  piece  of  work.  The  third  line  on  plate 
No.  18  shows  the  crest  line  determined  by  this  survey  reproduced 
from  the  original  manuscript  map.  During  the  next  30  years  four 
or  five  surveys  were  made.  These  have  not  been  reproduced  as  they 
would  confuse  the  map  with  too  many  lines  without  adding  ma- 
terially to  the  information  conveyed. 

The  fourth  line  shown  represents  another  survey  exectited  by  the 
United  States  Lake  Survey  in  1906.  This  was  also  taken  from  the 
original  manuscript  map.    The  fifth  line  is  a  survey  made  for  the 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.    263 

present  investigation.  The  engineers  who  performed  the  field  work 
were  Lake  Survey  employees,  and  the  method  used  and  results  ob- 
tained were  strictly  comparable  with  those  of  the  earlier  surveys  of 
that  organization.    This  survey  was  made  in  the  fall  of  1917. 

While  these  last  four  lines  show  certain  minor  discrepancies, 
notably  in  the  vicinity  of  the  international  boundary  line,  they  give 
a  very  satisfactory  record  of  the  rate  of  recession  of  the  Horseshoe 
Falls,  The  inconsistencies  are  chiefly  between  Hall's  line  of  1842  and 
the  three  lines  surveyed  under  the  direction  of  the  corps  of  engi- 
neers. The  latter  agree  very  Avell  among  themselves.  Montressor's 
line  was  much  less  carefully  surveyed,  and  not  being  referred  to  any 
permanent  monuments  or  landmarks  it  is  not  so  well  located  on  the 
sheet.  It  may  very  likely  be  in  error  as  much  as  50  feet  at  any  point, 
and  possibly  more  than  twice  that  amount  in  some  places.  Its  early 
date,  however,  gives  it  great  value,  as  it  is  the  best  basis  we  have  for 
computing  the  rate  of  recession  in  earlier  years. 

The  exact  measure  to  be  used  in  expressing  the  rate  of  recession  is 
a  thing  somewhat  different  to  determine.  In  preparing  Table  No. 
26  the  following  method  was  used :  A  line,  m-n,  was  drawn  from  the 
east  end  of  Montressor's  crest  line  on  Goat  Island  through  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.'s  power  house  to  the  west  edge 
of  the  Gorge.  The  length  of  this  line,  1,200  feet,  was  taken  as  the 
ultimate  width  of  the  Gorge,  which  the  Falls  is  excavating.  This 
agrees  with  the  width  adopted  by  Spencer  (Falls  of  Niagara,  p.  28) 
based  on  two  other  measurements.  Then  the  increase  in  the  area 
bounded  by  this  line  and  the  crest  line  divided  by  1,200  is  the  average 
amount  by  which  the  Gorge  has  been  lengthened  in  any  given  time. 
Dividing  this  by  the  length  of  time  in  years  gives  the  average  rate 
of  recession.  The  maximum  recession  between  any  two  successive 
lines  was  formed  by  measuring  the  length  of  the  longest  line  that 
could  be  drawn  between  them  as  nearly  as  possible  perpendicular  to 
each.  The  points  selected  for  the  ends  of  these  lines  are  indicated  on 
the  map  by  the  lower  case  letters  a,  b,  c,  etc.  Dividing  their  lengths 
by  the  elapsed  time  gives  the  maximum  rate  of  recession. 

Table  No.  26.— Rate  of  recession  of  Horshoe  Falls. 


From  1764  to  1842 

From  1842  to  1875 

From  1875  to  1906 

From  1906  to  1917 , 

Total  from  1764  to  1917 


Elapsed 
years. 


Area  of 
recession. 


Square 

feet. 
380,000 
202,000 
124,000 

53,000 


759,000 


Mean 
rate  of 
reces- 
sion. 


Square 
feet  per 
year. 
4,870 
6,120 
4,000 
4,820 


4,960 


Mean 
reces- 
sion. 


Mean 
rate  of 
reces- 
sion. 


Feet. 
317 
169 
103 

44 


Feet 

per 

year. 

'  4.1 
5.1 
3.3 
4.0 


633 


4.1 


Line  of 
maxi- 
mum 
reces- 
sion. 


a-b 
c-d 
e-f 
g-h 


a-k 


Maxi- 
mum 
reces- 
sion. 


Feet. 

470 

160 

180 

75 


775 


Rate  of 
maxi- 
mum 
reces- 
sion. 


Feet 

per 
year. 
6.0 
4.8 
5.8 
6.8 


5.1 


This  table  indicates  that  for  the  last  century  and  a  half  the  apex 
of  the  horseshoe  has  been  cutting  back  at  an  average  rate  of  about 
5  feet  per  year,  while,  if  it  be  considered  that  the  cataract  is  exca- 
vating a  gorge  1,200  feet  wide,  the  average  progress  was  at  the  rate 


264      Dn-ERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

of  about  4  feet  per  year.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  appears  that  the 
falls  are  now  forming;  a  gorge  which  will  run  to  the  soutlieast 
rather  than  southwest 'as  before,  and  that  this  new  gorge  will  be 
narrower  than  the  old.  The  rate  of  recession  in  the  new  narrower 
o-ort^e  is  faster  than  in  the  old.  and  the  rate  appears  to  be  increasing 
HI  spite  of  the  diversion  of  Avater  for  power  development.  The  area 
excavated  per  year  has  not  clianged  much,  but  in  the  narrower  gorge 
it  results  in  a  gi-eater  lineal  recession. 

The  result  of  this  recession  into  a  deep  notch  is  a  gradual  con- 
centration of  flow  into  the  center  of  the  crest  and  a  corresponding 
diminishing  of  the  flow  over  the  ends.  The  Lake  Survey's  gauge 
at  the  International  Eailway  Co.  intake  indicates  tliat  the  recession 
of  the  falls  has  reduced  the  depth  at  this  point  quite  a  bit  since 
1906.  The  amount  of  this  lowering  is  difficult  to  determine,  as  the 
problem  is  complicated  by  a  simultaneous  lowering  due  to  the  in- 
creased diversion  bv  the"^  power  companies.  Unpublished  reports 
of  the  Lake  Survey  state  that  the  elevation  at  this  gauge  was  re- 
duced 1.78  feet  between  1906  and  1912.  Of  this  0.88  was  explained 
by  the  effect  of  increasing  diversion  and  certain  other  artificial 
changes  in  the  river,  leaving  1.40  feet  lowering  due  to  the  recession 
of  the  falls  in  six  years.  This  appears  to  show  that  the  depth  of 
water  at  the  ends  of  the  crest  line  is  being  decreased  by  a  greater 
concentration  at  the  center. 

There  is  no  direct  evidence  of  the  reduction  in  the  flow  at  the 
Goat  Island  end  of  the  falls,  although  such  a  reduction  has  un- 
doubtedly occurred.  At  the  Canadian  end.  however,  a  real  record 
is  preserved.  In  1875  there  was  a  flow  over  the  crest  line  as  far 
north  as  the  outfall  of  the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.'s  tunnel. 
As  a  result  of  the  recession  of  the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  the 
flow  over  this  part  of  the  crest  became  very  thin  and  a  great  deal 
of  bare  rock  was  exposed.  Soon  aft^r  the  Queen  Victoria  Niagara 
Falls  Park  Commission  was  appointed  in  1887  they  took  measures, 
to  remedy  this  unsightly  condition  by  filling  in  the  land  along  this 
end  of  the  crest  and  building  a  retaining  wall.  Ultimately  about 
415  feet  of  the  crest  has  been  walled  up.  The  fact  that  this  baring 
of  the  Canadian  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  was  glue  to  natural 
causes  and  not  to  the  diversion  of  the  power  companies  should  be 
emphasized,  as  the  contrary  statement  has  often  been  made.  The 
work  had  been  undertaken"  and  more  than  one-third  completed  in 
1895  when  the  total  diversion  for  power  did  not  exceed  the  incon- 
sidera})le  amount  of  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  or  1  per  cent  of  the 
river  flow.  It  was  completed  before  the  second  of  the  flve  large 
stations  began  using  water.  There  can  be  no  question  whatever 
])ut  that  it  was  due  to  the  recession  of  the  falls  and  aggravated  by 
the  ])criod  of  deficient  rainfall  which  occurred  about  1890.  The 
building  of  the  wall  was  not  made  necessary  by  the  construction 
of  the  power  plants  and  has  been  of  no  advantage  to  any  of  tliem. 
As  stated  above,  the  result  of  the  recession  now  occurring  is  to  with- 
draw water  from  the  ends  of  the  Falls  and  concentrate  it  at  the  center. 
The  ends  are  the  parts  that  are  conspicuously  visible  to  spectatoi-s. 
The  notch  is  quite  invisible  from  the  most  frequented  viewpoints  and 
can  not  be  seen  to  any  advantage  from  any  point.  Thus  the  recession 
is  causing  a  decided  decrease  in  the  beauty  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls. 
Also  the  greater  concentration  of  the  flow  into  the  central  notch  causes 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   CHEAT   LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.    265 

a  thickening  of  the  darkening  curtain  of  mist  and  further  obscures 
the  spectacle.  This  effect  is  cumuhitive.  Increased  erosion  in  the  notch 
causes  concentration  of  flow  there;  concentration  of  the  flow  in  the 
notch  increases  the  erosion  there.  A  vicious  cycle  is  thus  established 
which  is  tending  to  the  rapid  destruction  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  as 
we  now  know  it.  It  may  be  confidently  predicted  that  if  nothing  is 
done  to  check  this  process  the  not  very  distant  future  will  see  the 
whole  Terrapin  Point  shelf  left  bare  to  a  point  several  hundred  feet 
south  of  where  it  crosses  the  boundary  line  and  a  similar  though 
smaller  effect  on  the  Canadian  side.  A  narrowed  cataract  not  much 
more  than  a  thousand  feet  in  length  will  plunge  into  the  end  of  a 
gorge  correspondingly  contracted ;  the  whole  will  be  shrouded  in  dense 
mist  and  bordered  on  each  side  by  the  dark  and  fissured  bed  of  the 
present  river.  If  the  present  rate  of  recession  of  the  apex  continues 
for  a  hundred  years  the  International  Kailway  Co.'s  power  plant 
would  probably  be  left  high  and  dry  and  the  Canadian  Niagara  would 
be  in  serious  difficulties.  In  four  or  five  centuries  the  first  cascade 
would  be  reached  and  the  drying  up  of  the  American  Falls  would 
commence,  two  of  the  power  houses  would  be  shut  down  and  all 
the  others  would  be  affected.  Once  the  first  cascade  is  crossed  the 
formation  of  the  rocks  and  channels  is  such  that  the  lowering  of  the 
Chippewa-Grass  Island  Pool  will  be  very  rapid. 

These  evils  may  seem  a  long  time  in  the  future,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  they  are  based  on  a  recession  of  the  apex  at  the  present 
rate  of  6  feet  per  annum.  The  rate  has  been  increasing  for  the  past 
40  years,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  will  continue  to  increase 
as  the  flow  becomes  more  and  more  concentrated.  The  recession  has 
already  done  serious  scenic  damage  at  the  Canadian  end,  also  at  Ter- 
rapin Point,  and  within  a  generation  it  may  be  expected  that  the 
visible  damage  at  the  latter  point  will  be  very  great  indeed. 

The  recession  of  the  American  Falls  is  a  matter  of  very  secondary 
importance  and  no  new  survey  of  the  American  crest  line  was  at- 
tempted for  this  investigation.  The  conclusions  to  be  shown  from 
the  best  data  available  are  well  summarized  in  the  following  extract 
from  the  United  States  Geological  Survey's  Niagara  Folio,  page  23 : 

RECESSION   OF   THE   AMERICAN   FALLS. 

Most  of  the  surveys  of  tlie  Falls  have  included  a  deterniii^iition  of  the  ci'est 
line  of  the  American  Falls,  but  in  the  survey  of  1911  (by  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey)  that  determination  was  omitted,  and  the  survey  by  the  United 
States  Lake  Survey  in  1906  is  therefore  the  latest  of  that  fall.  Attempts  nave 
been  made  to  compute  its  rate  of  recession,  but  with  one  exception  the  differences 
between  the  successive  crest  lines  are  so  slight  that  it  seems  doubtful  whether 
they  are  greater  than  the  probable  range  of  error.  Indeed,  the  map  on  which 
the*  several  lines  are  plotted  seems  to  indicate  errors  of  that  magnitude  in  cer- 
tain places  where  a  later  line  projects  farther  out  than  an  earlier  one.  Hall's 
map  of  1842  shows  a  great  salient  at  the  north  side  of  the  American  Falls  that 
projects  about  100  feet  beyond  the  line  shown  by  all  the  later  surveys.  Here, 
again,  Mr.  Gilbert  made  effective  use  of  a  camera  lucia  sketch  which  Basil 
Hall  made  of  this  fall  in  1827,  and  showed  conclusively  that  the  large  salient 
shown  on  Hall's  map  is  an  error. 

Using  the  crest  line  of  Hall's  map,  Spencer  calculated  the  rate  of  recession 
to  be  6.6  foot  a  year.  After  making  the  correction  on  Hall's  map,  Gilbert  cal- 
culateil  that  the  rate  was  probal)ly  as  sniiill  as  0.2  foot  a  year.  But  even  that 
rate  may  be  much  too  large.  The  deepest  water  passing  over  the  Ameiican 
Falls  is  only  3.5  feet  deep,  and  the  average  is  less  than  1.5  feet. 


266      DR'ERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  crest  line  is  nearly  1,000  feet  long,  and  is  an  almost  even  continuation 
of  the  cliff  line  on  either  side  of  it.  In  fact,  the  deepest  water  on  this  fall 
passes  over  the  ledge  near  Prospect  Point,  a  part  of  which  protrudes  slightly 
beyond  the  general  cliff  line.  The  fall  is  nearly  168  feet  high,  but  the  water 
strikes  upon  great  blocks  and  bowlders  which  rest,  in  part,  upon  limestone 
ledges  of  the  Clinton  formation.  The  blocks  are  simply  the  coarser  materials 
of  the  talus.  In  all  the  time  that  it  has  existed — probably  600  to  800  years — • 
the  fall  has  not  been  able  to  remove  the  blocks  or  to  make  a  measurable  begin- 
ning of  a  gorge.  It  has  removed  the  fine  material  of  the  talus  and  has  prob- 
ably steepened  the  base  of  the  cliff  somewhat,  but  has  doue  little  more.  In 
short,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  crest  line  of  the  American  l-'alls  has  receded 
more  than  may  be  fairly  ascribed  to  normal  cliff  recession  due  to  weathering. 
If  the  slight  reentrant  in  the  central  part  of  the  crest  line  is  due  to  recession 
produced  by  the  fall,  it  must  be  a  very  old  feature,  for  the  water  sheet  is  now 
thinner  there  than  north  of  it.  Moreover,  the  crest  lines,  as  mapped  by  the  sev- 
eral surveys,  are  more  nearly  in  agreement  in  this  reentrant  than  in  mr)st  other 
places,  and  the  reentrant  is  no  greater  than  many  others  along  the  cliff  where 
no  side  fall  ever  existed. 

It  would  appear  from  this  that  the  American  Falls  shares  none  of 
the  suicidal  tendencies  of  its  larger  neighbor  and,  as  far  as  the  oper- 
ation of  natural  forces  goes,  it  is  destined  to  remain  in  practically 
its  present  condition  for  half  a  thousand  years  or  so,  when  its  waters 
will  be  drained  away  by  the  encroachment  of  the  receding  Horse- 
shoe Falls  upon  the  waters  of  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  Pool. 
The  utmost  change  that  it  might  experience  would  be  the  loss  of  the 
Luna  Falls,  due  to  the  recession  of  the  Main  Falls  beyond  the  head 
of  Luna  Island,  and  this  might  not  have  occurred  in  the  time  al- 
lowed. 

Effect  of  'present  diversion. — The  various  power  companies  at  Ni- 
agara are  now  diverting  approximately  50,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
around  the  Falls  and  into  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool.  In  addition, 
the  Xew  York  State  Barge  Canal,  the  Welland  Canal,  and  the  Chi- 
cago Drainage  Canal  are  taking  some  12,000  or  13,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  which  would  otherwise  flow  over  the  Falls  and  through  the 
gorge.  In  the  near  future,  when  the  New  Welland  Canal  is  put  in 
operation  and  the  plants  now  under  construction  at  the  Falls  are  fin- 
ished, the  total  diversion  affecting  the  Falls  will  be  very  nearly 
70.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Has  the  existing  diversion  of  62.000 
from  the  Falls  and  12,000  from  the  gorge  done  real  and  perceptible 
injury  to  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  rapids?  This  question 
of  the  amount  of  damage  that  has  resulted  from  existing  diversions 
has  been  the  center  of  much  controversy,  often  generating  more  heat 
than  light.  It  is  worth  while,  therefore,  to  analyze  the  problem 
which  it  presents  and  expose  some  of  the  fallacies  that  have  often 
been  repeated. 

Tlie  real  crux  of  the  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  increase  in  di- 
version has  been  gradual  and  continuous,  and  the  change  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Falls  has  been  correspondingly  so.  At  the  same 
time,  large  oscillating  changes  in  the  appearance  are  continually  oc- 
curring, due  to  the  varying  stage  of  Lake  Erie.  Attempts  to  esti- 
mate the  change  by  personal  observation  are  therefore  of  little  value. 
Even  if  the  uninformed  observer  can  make  a  successful  mental  com- 
parison Ijetween  what  he  sees  to-day  and  his  memory  of  what  he  saw 
30  years  ago,  he  is  quite  unable  to  tell  how  much  of  the  change  is  the 
effect  of  diversions  and  how  much  is  due  to  a  difference  in  the  stage 
of  Lake  Erie. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     267 

It  frequently  happens  that  some  distinguished  man  whose  pi'o- 
nouncements  bear  weight  Avith  the  public  visits  Nia<5ara  and  alter- 
wards  tells  the  reporters  that  he  is  certain  that  the  Falls  are  to-day 
as  great  and  glorious  a  spectacle  as  ever;  he  is  distinctly  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  they  have  not  been  diminished  a  particle  since  he 
first  saw  them  when  on  his  honeymoon  in  1889.  Or  his  statement 
may  be  that  the  vandalism  of  the  power  companies  is  ruining  the 
Falls;  he  recalls  clearly  that  in  his  boyhood  days  they  were  incom- 
parably finer  than  at  present.  For  the  reasons  given  above  these  im- 
pressions are  of  no  value  whatever,  nevertheless  they  are  often  seized 
upon  and  given  wide  publicity  by  those  whose  side  in  the  contro- 
versy they  favor.  ... 

The  error  which  fluctuations  in  stage  introduce  into  individual 
judgment  of  the  scenic  changes  caused  by  the  diversions  tends  to  be 
usually  in  one  direction ;  the  change  of  stage  diminishes  the  effect  of 
the  diversion  more  often  than  it  exaggerates  it.  Diversion  on  a  large 
scale  began  in  1895;  the  years  immediately  preceding  this  date  are 
naturally  selected  as  a  basis  of  comparison  with  present  conditions. 
Unfortunately  the  years  from  1890  to  1895  are  notable  for  having 
been  years  of  very  low  water  on  all  the  lakes.  The  mean  stage  of 
Lake  Erie  for  the  year  1895  itself  is  the  lowest  recorded  in  60  years. 
On  the  contrary,  during  the  period  from  1913  to  1918  the  stage  of 
Lake  Erie  has  been  unusually  high,  the  year  1913  being  the  highest 
recorded  since  1890.  These  high  and  low  stages  were  due  to  various 
meteorological  and  other  conditions  entirely  independent  of  any- 
thing occurring  at  Niagara  Falls.  As  a  result  of  these  conditions  a 
comparison  of  the  appearance  of  the  Falls  before  and  after  the  di- 
versions took  place  is  very  likely  to  be  a  comparison  of  the  Falls  with 
almost  no  diversion  and  a  low  stage  of  Lake  Erie  against  the  Falls 
with  large  diversions  and  a  high  stage  of  the  lake.  The  effect  of 
the  higher  stage  is  the  opposite  of  the  effect  of  the  larger  diversion 
and  tends  to  conceal  the  latter. 

Despite  the  difficulties  it  is  quite  possible  to  obtain  ample  and  de- 
cisive evidence  of  the  effect  of  diversions  upon  the  beauty  of  the 
Falls.  The  very  changes  in  stage  which  deprive  ordinary  observa- 
tions of  their  value  can  be  made  the  instrument  of  a  very  exact  solu- 
tion of  the  problem.  The  effect  of  changing  the  flow  over  the  Falls 
by  50,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  much  the  same  whether  this  change 
was  due  to  the  operation  of  power  companies  or  to  the  oscillations  of 
Lake  Erie.  If  a  man  should  view  the  Falls  daily  for  two  or  three 
years,  taking  special  note  of  conditions  during  heavy  gales,  he  would 
see  that  the  appearance  varied  widely  from  time  to  time.  The  high- 
est stages  that  he  saw  would  represent  very  fairly  what  conditions 
would  be  on  average  days  if  there  had  been  no  diversions  and  the 
difference  between  what  ho  saw  on  average  days  and  what  he  saw  on 
the  days  of  highest  stage  would  be  a  pretty  good  measure  of  the 
effect  of  the  diversion  upon  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls.  Similarly, 
the  difference  in  appearance  on  average  days  and  on  days  of  ex- 
tremely low  water  would  give  him  a  measure  of  the  same  thing  at 
lower  stages. 

By  substituting  the  lens  of  the  photographic  camera  for  the  eye 
of  a  human  observer  we  are  able  to  present  a  graphic  and  indisput- 
able record  of  the  facts.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  during  the  period 
of  six  weeks  during  which  the  photographer  was  prepared  to  take 


268      DR-ERSIOX   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAG.VRA  RIVER. 

these  pictures,  no  very  low  stage  occurred  in  weather  which  permit- 
ted photographs  to  be  taken.  However,  a  fairly  satisfactory  series 
at  high  and  medium  stages  was  obtained.  These  pirtures  are  shown 
on  photographs  Xos.  74  to  127  and  have  already  been  descriljed. 
Each  picture  showing  the  Falls  or  rapids  above  the  Falls  is  marked 
with  the  approximate  flow  of  water  over  the  Falls  in  cubic  feet  per 
second.  In  these  the  effect  of  certain  changes  in  discharge  can  be 
directly  observed  and  the  eifect  of  other  changes  can  be  e^isily  esti- 
mated. 

In  the  American  and  Canadian  Rapids  above  the  Falls  the  pictures 
show  the  effects  of  a  change  of  85.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  These 
are  noticeable,  although  not  of  great  importance.  The  present  di- 
versions, of  course,  have  an  effect  about  three-quarters  as  great  as 
this. 

At  the  American  Falls  photographs  Nos.  83  and  84  show  the  effect 
of  a  change  of  65.000  approximately  equal  to  the  present  total  di- 
versions, on  the  view  from  the  Canadian  side.  Photographs  Xos.  88 
and  89  show  views  fi'oni  Goat  Island  with  a  difference  of  90.000. 
The  better  photographic  conditions  in  the  loAv-stage  ])ictures  tend  to 
obscure  the  result,  but  a  careful  study  will  show  real  diff'erences  in 
faAor  of  the  high  stage,  particularly  the  greater  depth  of  water  and 
smoother  curve  over  the  crest. 

The  effect  on  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  the  most  striking.  This  falls 
is  shown  from  five  different  viewpoints  in  photographs  Nos.  91  to 
104,  and  in  each  the  superiority  of  the  pictures  with  the  larger 
flows  is  incontestable.  Xos.  98  and  99  show  excellently  the  effect  on 
the  Goat  Island  end  of  the  Horseshoe  of  a  reduction  of  65.0(^0.  This 
is  a  real  measure  of  the  results  of  the  present  diversions  on  this  end 
of  the  falls.  In  the  face  of  these  photographs  any  contention  that 
the  beauty  of  the  cataract  has  not  been  seriously  affected  becomes 
supremely  ridiculous.  Photographs  Nos.  100  and  101,  103  and  104, 
especially  the  latter  pair,  show  the  result  of  slightly  greater  changes 
at  the  same  place  but  taken  from  other  view^points.  Bear  in  mind 
that  an  effect  equal  to  three-quarters  of  the  difference  betAveen  103 
and  104  has  already  taken  place.  Xos.  95  and  96  show  the  Canadian 
end  of  the  Horseshoe  with  a  flow  of  165.000  and  1J25.000.  respectively, 
a  difference  of  60.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Again  the  proof  of  real 
damage  already  done  is  incontestable.  Xo.  95  w^as  taken  at  3.20 
p.  m.  Xovember  7.  1917.  If  no  water  had  ever  been  diverted  from 
the  Xiagara  River  a  picture  taken  on  that  day  and  hour  would  have 
been  hardly  distinjruishnble  from  photograph  Xo.  96.  These  bare 
ledges  of  unsiglitly  rock  would  have  been  covered  with  a  flood  of 
rushing  water  and  the  thin  and  l)roken  streams  trickling  o\er  the 
edge  of  the  cliff  would  have  given  ])lace  to  a  leaping  cataract  but 
little  inferior  to  that  shoAvn  in  ]ihotogra])h  Xo.  96. 

In  tlio  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool,  the  Gorge,  and  the  Whirlpool  the 
present  diversion  is  only  12.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  A  number  of 
the  photographs  show^  the  result  of  sucii  diversions.  On  the  wliole 
the  ra]nds  make  a  finer  showing  with  this  water  diverted  than  they 
did  l)efore.    The  difference,  how^ever.  is  very  slight. 

To  sum  up,  the  present  diversions  have  done  a  slight  auionnt  of 
damagf  to  the  rapids  aliove  tlie  falls  and  a  somewhat  greater  amount 
to  the  American  Falls.    Both  ends  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  liave  l>een 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     269 

serioiislv  injured  and  this  injury  will  be  increased  by  any  further 
diversions.  "  The  diversions  have  had  very  little  etFect  on  the  lower 
river  and  this  mostly  of  a  favorable  nature.  The  damage  that  has 
been  done  should  be  repaired  if  possible  and  no  further  diversions 
should  be  permitted  unless  steps  are  taken  to  neutralize  the  damage 

that  thev  will  do.  ,  i         i  • 

Provosed  remedial  measures.— li  has  been  shown  that  the  scenic 
beauty  of  Niagara  Falls  has  been  appreciably  damaged  both  by  the 
recent  recession  of  the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  and  by  the  di- 
version of  water  for  power  and  for  other  purposes.  The  recession 
of  the  apex  is  progressing  at  an  increasing  rate  and  further  power 
diversions  are  urgently  desired  and  would  be  of  great  value  to  this 
country  and  to  Canada.  On  the  other  hand  the  destructions  or  serious 
impairment  of  the  beauty  of  this  famous  cataract  will  not  be  tol- 
erated by  the  people  of  the  United  States  and  would  provoke  the 
expostulations  of  the  whole  civilized  world.  Under  these  concbtions 
the  question  naturally  arises,  can  not  something  be  done  which  vnll 
repair  the  damage  already  done,  prevent  the  self-destruction  of  the 
Horseshoe,  and  allow  increased  diversions  without  noticeable  damage  ? 
Such  a  possibility  Avas  seen  as  long  ago  as  1906  and  was  pointed 
out  in  a  report  to  the  Chief  of  Engineers  in  1908,  as  follows : 

*  *  -  the  damage  already  done,  and  that  which  may  be  anticipated  from 
further  diversions  *  *  *,  may  be  largely,  if  not  entirely  remedied  by  a  sub- 
merged dam  placed  in  the  bed  of  the  river  inmiediately  above  the  Horseshoe 
Falls.  The  dam,  if  properlv  planned,  would  serve  to  change  the  direction  of 
flow,  so  as  to  increase  the  streams  that  feed  the  falls  at  Terrapin  Point  and  at 
the  Canadian  shore.  The  decrease  in  the  mighty  volume  that  overflows  the 
center  or  apex  of  the  Horseshoe  would  not  be  noticeable.  *  *  *  A  very  direct 
result  of  the  construction  of  this  submerged  dam  would  be  a  dimunition  in  the 
rate  of  recession  of  the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe.  This  in  itself  is  extremely  de- 
sirable.    (S.  Doc.  No.  105,  62d  Cong.  1st  sess.  p.  15.) 

The  underlving  principle  of  the  design  of  such  works  is  pointed 
out  bv  the  fact  that  while  the  American  Falls  carries  but  one-six- 
teenth of  the  floAv  over  the  Falls,  it  probably  furnishes  one-half  of 
the  spectacle.  The  American  Falls  is  easily  approached  from  either 
end  and  from  below  and  a  fine  view  of  its  full  face  is  obtained  fpom 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Gorge.  On  the  other  hand,  the  approachable 
ends  of  the  Horseshoe  are  greatly  inferior  to  the  American  Falls, 
while  the  irreat  fall  of  water'^into  the  notch  can  not  be  observed  from 
any  pointr  As  matters  now  stand,  there  flows  over  the  central  600 
feet  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  a  volume  of  approximately  80,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  Avhich  not  only  is  entirely  wasted  in  that  it  creates 
neither  scenery  nor  power  but  which  is  actually  a  detriment  in  that 
it  is  the  cause 'of  the  destructive  erosion  described  above. 

Photographs  Nos.  72  and  73  are  pictures  taken  with  the  intent  of 
showing  the  whole  Falls  at  their  best.  Note  in  each  instance  the 
marked  superiority  of  the  American  Falls,  The  cloud  of  mist  which 
shuts  out  so  much  of  the  Horseshoe  is  a  feature  which  is  always 
present. 

The  average  flow  over  the  American  Falls  is  about  9  cubic  feet  per 
second  over  each  linear  foot  of  crest.  This  iiroduces  a  waterfall 
whose  beauty  and  grandeur  is  admittedly  unsurpassed.  Over  the 
Horseshoe  the  average  flow  per  foot  is  about  57  cubic  feet  per  second 
over  each  linear  foot  of  crest,  or  more  than  six  times  as  much  as  the 


270      DRTRSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  XIAGAEA  RIVER. 

American,  but  it  is  unevenly  distributed.  The  whole  eastern  end  of 
the  crest,  out  as  far  as  a  point  200  feet  beyond  where  the  crest  crosses 
the  international  boundary,  has  a  mean  flow  of  4  cubic  feet  per  foot, 
or  less  than  half  as  much  as  the  American  Falls;  in  much  of  the 
len<rth  the  intensity  of  flow  is  much  less  than  this.  While  the  most 
conspicuous  part  of  the  crest  has  this  nieaoer  flow,  in  the  apex  of  the 
notch,  hidden  from  view  by  walls  of  rock  and  curtains  of  Avater  and 
mist,  there  is  a  flow^  of  perhaps  200  cubic  feet  per  second  over  each 
foot  of  crest,  or  twenty-two  times  as  much  as  at  the  American  Falls. 

If  125.000  cubic  feet  per  second  out  of  the  150.000  usually  flowin^: 
over  the  Horseshoe  Falls  were  diverted  for  power  development,  and 
the  remaininof  25.000  w^ere  distributed  uniformly  over  the  2.600  feet 
of  crest  line  the  whole  len<rth  of  the  Horseshoe  would  have  an  ap- 
peiirance  similar  to  that  which  the  American  Falls  now  has.  The 
cloud  of  mist  would  be  g-reatly  reduced  and  much  more  of  the  Horse- 
shoe would  be  visible.  A  glance  at  photo^rraphs  Xos.  72  and  73  will 
show  how  much  the  effect  of  the  whole  would  be  enhanced.  At  the 
same  time,  the  recession  of  the  Falls  would  be  very  <n'eatly  reduced. 
TTltimately  the  rate  of  recession  would  not  be  much  greater  than  that 
of  the  American  Falls. 

For  various  reasons  so  great  a  diversion  as  125,000  is  neither  pos- 
sible nor  desirable,  but  by  action  along  the  lines  indicated  it  will 
be  possible  to  increase  the  beauty  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  reduce  the 
cloud  of  mist,  check  the  recession  which  is  now  destroying  the  Falls, 
and  develop  much  more  power  than  is  now  generated.  At  the  same 
time  the  flow  OA-er  the  American  Falls  could  be  somewhat  increased 
and  conditions  there  restored  to  what  they  were  in  1890.  The  ques- 
tions of  the  allowable  diversion  and  of  the  design  of  the  remedial 
works  are  taken  up  in  subsequent  sections  of  this  report. 

2.    ALLOWABLE  DIVERSIONS  AROTTXD  THE  FALLS. 

Flow  required  for  sluicing  ice. — In  the  winter  and  early  spring 
large  amounts  of  ice  come  down  the  Niagara  River  and  go  over  the 
Falls.  It  is  essential  that  any  scheme  shall  maintain  a  sufficient  flow 
over  the  Falls  to  carry  this  ice  and  prevent  the  formation  of  ice  jams 
in  the  rapids  above  the  Falls.  Such  ice  jams  might  cause  serious 
damage  by  floods  and  by  cutting  off  the  water  supply  to  some  of  the 
power  houses.  A  consideration  of  ice  conditions  at  the  American 
Falls  will  indicate  how  much  water  is  needed  for  this  purpose. 

On  one  or  two  occasions,  notably  in  February.  1909,  the  American 
channel  has  been  blocked  by  ice.  This  has  occurred  only  on  days  of 
extremely  low  flow.  At  ordinary  stages  the  American  channel  has 
always  been  able  to  carry  away  its  share  of  the  ice,  even  in  the  record- 
breaking  winter  of  1917-18.  The  ordinary  flow  may  be  taken  at 
9.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  although  during  many  severe  winters  the 
channel  has  been  kept  open  by  a  smaller  average  flow  than  this.  The 
cre.st  line  of  the  Falls  is  about  1.000  feet  long  and  the  width  of  the 
channel  in  its  widest  and  shallowest  part  is  about  the  same  if  the 
width  of  the  islands  be  deducted.  That  is  to  say,  a  flow  of  9  cubic 
feet  per  second  for  each  foot  of  width  has  always  been  sufficient  to 
keep  this  cliannel  open.  Allowiiiir  the  same  proportion  to  the  3,300- 
foot  Canadian  channel  would  give  a  flow  of  30,000  cubic  feet  per 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAG.U^A  RIVER.     271 

second  needed  to  keep  this  channel  open.  Of  course,  conditions  are 
not  the  same  in  the  two  channels.  It  would  seem  that  in  the  American 
channel  with  so  many  islands  they  would  be  more  severe.  However, 
to  be  decidedly  on  the  safe  side,  we  will  increase  the  amount  by  half 
and  assume  that  a  minimum  daily  mean  flow  of  45,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  must  be  retained  in  the  Canadian  channel  for  sluicing  ice. 

The  American  Falls  has  been  little  affected  by  the  existing  diver- 
sions. Making  the  best  possible  use  of  the  scanty  observations  avail- 
able it  appears  that  its  mean  flow  under  natural  conditions  was  about 
11,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  present  power  diversions  have 
reduced  this  to  about  9,000  cubic  feet.  The  effect  of  this  reduction 
upon  the  appearance  of  the  Falls  has  been  but  slight.  With  a  diver- 
sion of  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  however,  unless  some  remedial 
action  is  taken,  the  flow  would  probably  be  reduced  to  4,000  or  5,()00 
cubic  feet  per  second,  which  would  ruin  both  the  Falls  and  the  rapids 
above  it.  It  will  not  be  a  difficult  matter  to  deepen  the  channel  lead- 
ing from  Port  Day  to  the  first  cascade  of  the  American  rapids  and 
restore  a  flow  of  11,000  or  12,000  cubic  feet  in  spite  of  the  great 
diversion.  The  flow  at  the  lowest  daily  mean  stage  would  be  about 
4,500  cubic  feet.  This  is  at  least  as  great  as  the  lowest  daily  mean 
flow  of  the  past,  and  conditions  of  ice  sluicing  would  be  as  well 
satisfied  as  they  are  now. 

Minimum  flow  of  river. — The  lowest  daily  mean  flow  recorded 
since  the  installation  of  the  Buffalo  gauge  was  138,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  which  occurred  on  February  1,  1915.  The  next  lowest  was 
148,000  on  March  19,  1901.  The  flow  was  160,000  or  less  on  15  days. 
One  of  these  was  in  April,  two  were  in  March,  and  all  the  rest  were  in 
January,  February,  or  December.  On  each  day  there  was  a  moderate 
to  high  easterly  or  northwesterly  wind  and  commonly  rain  or  snow 
was  falling.  In  other  words,  these  low  stages  occur  on  days  when 
sight-seeing  is  a  disagreeable  task  and  usually  at  a  time  of  year  when 
the  various  beautiful  ice  effects  at  the  Falls  do  a  great  deal  to  afford  a 
sort  of  scenic  compensation  for  a  temporary  reduction  in  the  flow  over 
the  crest. 

The  extreme  minimum  flows  are  due  to  the  effects  of  easterly  gales 
on  Lake  Erie.  These  extreme  low  stages  of  the  Buffalo  gauge  last 
but  a  few  minutes  and  do  not  produce  their  full  effect  in  diminishing 
the  flow  over  the  Falls.  The  minimum  stage  recorded  by  the  Buffalo 
gauge  was  567.38,  on  February  1,  1915.  at  6.54  p.  m.  If  the  discharge 
formula  be  applied  to  this  reading,  it  gives  a  value  of  Q= 106,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  actual  flow  probably  never  fell  below 
110,000  or  115,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

On  the  day  when  these  minimum  flows  occurred  the  total  diA^ersion 
by  the  Erie,  Welland,  and  Chicago  Canals  probably  did  not  fall  as 
much  as  5,000  cubic  feet  per  second  below  the  amount  now  being 
taken  at  these  places.  Allowing  for  a  possible  increase  in  the  diver- 
sions the  following  assumptions  will  be  made  for  use  in  deciding  on 
future  limits  of  diversion : 

1.  The  scenic  beauties  of  the  falls  must  be  properly  maintained 
when  the  total  river  flow  is  reduced  to  150,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  daily  mean  flow  will  be  less  than  this  on  a  few  very  rare  occa- 
sions, but  these  will  usually  be  on  days  of  bad  weather  in  the  winter 
months. 


272      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKE;,  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

2.  The  ice-sliiicinfr  powers  of  the  cataract  must  be  preserved  wlien 
the  total  river  flow  is  reduced  to  a  daily  mean  of  130.000  cubic  feet 
per  second. 

3,  Rare  and  brief  reductions  of  flow  may  occur  down  to  as  little  as 
100,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  These  will  last  but  a  few  hours  and 
need  not  be  much  regarded.  If  they  should  threaten  to  cause  any 
serious  trouble,  it  should  be  possible  to  shut  off  part  of  the  power 
diversion  for  a  few  hours. 

Penaisaihle  diversions. — The  minimum  requirement  for  ice  sluic- 
inof  adopted  above  was  45.000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  the  Horseshoe 
Falls  and  4.500  for  the  American,  a  total,  in  round  nmnbers,  of 
50.000  cubic  feet  per  second;  130.000  cubic  feet  per  second  has  been 
adopted  as  the  lowest  probable  daily  mean  flow  for  which  full  ice- 
sluicinof  capacity  must  be  maintained.  The  difference  between  these 
two  ({uantities.  or  80.000  cul)ic  foot  per  second,  is  the  amount  which 
mav  l)e  diverted.  Permits  for  diverting  water  in  excess  of  that  now 
being  used  should  contain  a  clause  authorizing  the  Government's 
representatives  at  the  Falls  to  order  an  immediate  reduction  of  load 
by  70  per  cent  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  six  consecutive  hours  when- 
ever the  condition  of  iho.  river  makes  it  advisable,  but  not  oftener 
than  four  times  per  year.  Such  a  clause,  if  the  powers  it  confers  be 
intelligently  handled,  would  prevent  any  trouble  from  temporary 
extreme  low  water.  It  probably  would  not  be  necessary  to  use  these 
powers  except  at  intervals  of  several  years. 

It  must  be  thoroughly  understood  that  the  allowing  of  any  such 
diversion  as  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  absolutely  contingent  upon 
the  construction  of  remedial  works. 

Use  of  extra  water  available  at  higher  stages. — If  remedial  works 
are  constructed  and  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  are  diverted  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Falls  will  be  satisfactory  on  the  days  of  minimum 
flow ;  that  is,  days  when  the  mean  flow  of  the  river  is  130,000  cubic 
feet  per  second.^  The  gauge  records  show  that  on  997  days  out  of 
every  1.000  the  mean  flow  exceeds  160.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and 
days  when  the  flow  is  reduced  to  180.000  are  rare.  On  the  other 
hand,  flows  as  great  as  230,000  or  240,000  cubic  feet  per  second  are 
not  uncommon,  and  flows  in  excess  of  300.000  have  been  recorded. 
After  the  remedial  works  are  built  and  the  80,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond diverted,  the  excess  of  river  flow  above  180,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  contributes  little  or  nothing  to  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls 
while  it  adds  materialh^  to  the  destructive  erosion. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  appears  that  further  diversion  for  power 
development  ma}^  be  permissible  under  certain  limitations.  After 
the  full  amount  of  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  has  been  used  and 
marketed,  if  careful  observation  indicates  that  no  harmful  results 
will  follow,  plants  might  be  installed  to  divert  the  excess  above 
180.000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  total  river  discharge.  These  plants 
would  be  subject  to  occasional  shutdowns  due  to  low  stage,  and  would 
have  to  be  provided  with  a  steam  station  to  serve  as  a  "stand-by," 
or  else  develop  industries  in  which  occasional  shutdowns  could  be 
tolerated.  These  are  handicaps  to  which  the  majority  of  existing 
hydraulic  plants  in  this  country  are  subject. 

Fin/il  result. — When  these  diversions  have  been  made  and  the  re- 
medial works  constructed,  the  American  Rapids  and  Falls  will  be 
restored  to  a  condition  comparable  to  that  of  1890,  or  even  a  little 


1 


GOAT    ISLAND, 
raphs   Nos.  91-94 


o 


Photograph   No.   139.— VIEW    FROM    GOAT    ISLAND. 

Looking  toward  the  American   shore  before  the  establishment  of  the   Niagara   Reservation, 
July   15,   1885.   showing  paper  mill   on   Bath,   now  Green    Island. 


Photograph    No.    139.— VIEW     FROM     SAME     VANTAGE     POINT     ON     GOAT     ISLAND. 
Showing  conditions  as  they  are  to-day. 


NIAGARA  FALLS 


Photograph    No.    140. —  MAP    OF    NIAGARA     FALLS,    N.    Y..    IN     1853. 
Showing  proposed    Hydraulic  Canal. 


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DIVEKSIOX   OF  WATER  FKOM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     273 

better,  both  at  mean  stage  and  at  low  water.  The  upper  part  of  the 
Horseshoe  Kapids  will  be  considerably  damaged  by  the  exposure  of 
bare  spots,  especially  at  low  stage.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  layer 
of  these  might  be  transformed  into  wooded  islands,  such  as  are  now 
an  attractive  feature  of  the  American  Kapids.  Also,  at  the  low  stage 
caused  by  these  divei-sions,  new  cascades  and  breakers  will  probably 
be  formed  at  points  where  tlie  water  is  now  fairly  smooth.  The 
lower  part  of  the  Horseshoe  Eapids  will  be  improved  by  having  a 
greater  depth  on  the  shoals  in  the  northwest  corner  and  above  Ter- 
rapin Point  and  by  the  creation  of  a  new  cascade  on  a  grand  scale 
at  the  site  of  the  submerged  dam. 

The  beauty  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  which  has  been  injured  by  the 
power  diversions  and  by  the  recession  of  the  Falls,  will  be  restored 
and  added  to  until  the  Falls  takes  on  an  aspect  far  more  grand  than 
it  has  ever  had  before.  At  mean  stage  its  discharge  will  be  from 
40  to  45  cubic  feet  per  second  over  each  lineal  foot  of  crest,  or  more 
than  five  times  as  much  as  the  American  Falls  now  has.  This  condi- 
tion will  obtain  along  the  whole  crest  of  the  Falls,  including  Terra- 
pin Point  and  the  Canadian  end.  Each  of  these  places  will  become 
a  neAV  and  glorified  "  Prospect  Point,"  with  a  great  cataract  leaping 
from  the  cliff  at  the  spectators'  very  feet,  but  with  five  times  the  in- 
tensity of  the  Falls  at  Prospect  Point.  The  long  salient  crest  line 
near  Terrapin  Point,  which  the  geologists  call  the  "  Goat  Island 
Shelf,"  will  be  the  site  of  Falls  as  accessible  and  conspicuous  as  the 
American  Falls  and  five  times  as  voluminous,  while  the  now  invisible 
sides  of  the  notch  will  have  similar  falls,  and  they  will  be  visible 
much  of  the  time  because  the  mist  formation  will  be  greatly  reduced. 
The  suicidal  recession  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  will  be  checked  and  re- 
duced to  perhaps  a  tenth  of  its  former  value. 

On  days  of  ordinary  low  flow  the  discharge  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls 
per  foot  of  crest  will  be  about  30  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  will 
give  the  ends  of  the  Falls  on  days  when  their  natural  appearance 
Avould,  without  these  works,  be  much  worse  than  is  shown  on  pho- 
tographs Nos.  91.  95,  and  97,  an  intensity  of  flow  three  times  as 
great  as  the  American  Falls  usually  has. 

The  net  result  would  be  that  while  some  minor  damage  would  be 
done  to  the  Horseshoe  Eapids,  the  Falls,  taken  as  a  whole,  would  be 
vastly  improved,  the  suicidal  recession  of  the  Horseshoe  would  be 
checked,  and  the  amount  of  valuable  electric  power  available  would 
be  greatly  increased. 

3.    REMEDIAL    WORKS. 

Introduction. — The  rapids  above  the  Horseshoe  Falls  are  so  wide, 
their  volume  of  flow  is  so  large,  and  the  velocity  of  the  water  is  so 
great  that  at  first  glance  the  idea  of  building  a  dam  or  other  works 
in  the  middle  of  them  seems  impossible  and  absurd.  After  careful 
study,  however,  it  is  found  that  the  difficulties  are  not  as  great  as 
they  appear.  Over  a  very  large  part  of  their  area  the  rapids  are 
comparatively  shallow,  and  in  many  places  the  velocities  are  no 
greater  than  those  with  which  the  builders  of  the  headworkers  of  the 
Ontario  Power  Co.  and  Toronto  Power  Co.  have  successfully  con- 
tended. 

27880—21 18 


274      DH'EKSIOX   OF  WATER  FEOM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

In  1917  a  survey  of  these  rapids  was  made  in  connection  with  the 
present  investigation,  as  already  described  in  Section  D.  The  re- 
sults are  shown  in  plates  Nos.  id  and  22.  Plate  No.  19  shows  the 
directions  of  the  current  in  different  parts  of  the  rapids,  Avhile  plate 
N^o.  20  shows  the  velocities.  Plate  No.  21  shoAvs  the  depth  of  water 
at  the  time  of  the  survey  and  plate  No.  22  gives  the  elevations  of  the 
bottom  above  sea  level.  The  contours  on  this  plate  are  drawn  to  a 
vertical  interval  of  5  feet.  The  mean  discharge  of  the  Niagara  River 
on  the  days  of  the  survey  was  about  216,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  or 
about  5  per  cent  more  than  the  general  mean.  The  data  in  the  Ameri- 
can Rapids  and  east  of  Goat  Island  on  some  of  these  plates  is  taken 
from  the  work  of  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  in  1907  and  1908. 

As  to  the  accuracy  of  these  maps  it  may  be  said  that  plates  Nos.  19 
and  20  are  very  good.  Plate  No.  21  is  fair.  I*late  No.  22  is  by  no 
means  as  accurate  as  the  others.  The  elevations  shown  on  it  are 
based  upon  a  series  of  assumptions  as  to  the  probable  elevation  of 
the  water  surface  between  the  few  observed  points,  and  some  of  the 
assumptions  had  to  be  made  with  very  little  real  evidence  as  a  guide. 
As  plate  No.  19  shows,  there  are  four  areas  of  considerable  size 
through  which  no  floats  passed. 

These  draAvings  are  ample  for  giving  a  general  idea  of  the  condi- 
tions involved  and  for  making  a  tentative  design  and  estimate  of 
proposed  works  for  spreading  the  water  from  the  center  to  the  sides 
of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  Before  the  final  plans  are  made  the  power 
diversions  should  be  increased  to  the  full  amount  contemplated,  so 
as  to  reduce  the  depths  and  velocities  while  work  on  the  remedial 
works  is  in  progress.  While  the  diversion  is  being  increased  to  this 
point  automatic  water  gauges  shoidd  be  maintained  at  the  six  points 
where  there  have  been  gauges  in  the  past,  and  possibly  in  one  or  two 
new  places.  When  the  diversion  is  complete  more  extensive  surveys 
should  be  made.  The  extremely  Ioav  stage  Avhich  Avill  then  exist  in 
the  rapids  Avill  enable  a  much  greater  degree  of  accuracy  to  be  ob- 
tained. From  the  results  of  this  survey  hydraulic  models  could  be 
made.  The  final  plans  based  on  the  gauge  data  and  later  survey 
should  be  carefully  tested  on  the  models  before  being  adopted. 

Conditions  governing  the  design. — A  study  of  the  maps  brought 
out  the  following  features,  all  of  which  have*^  had  a  considerable  in- 
fluence on  the  project  presented :  The  center  of  the  crest  lies  in  a  sort 
of  cup  into  Avhich  the  rock  surface  dips  from  east.  Avest,  and  south. 
The  depth  of  this  holloAv  was  not  determined  l)ut  its  loAvest  point  is 
well  beloAv  elevation  500  and  probably  below  490.  The  ends  of  the 
crest  line  for  500  feet  on  the  Canadian  end  and  nearly  tAvice  as  far 
on  the  Goat  Island  end  are  higher,  with  elevations  ranging  from  500 
to  506.  Upstream  from  the  crest  at  the  Goat  Island  end  is  a  shoal 
with  depths  of  from  1  to  4  feet  extending  several  hundred  feet  from 
the  island.  At  the  Canadian  end  the  water  near  the  shore  is  deeper, 
l)ut  at  a  distance  of  about  300  feet  from  shore  there  is  a  very  shallow 
spot,  much  of  which  is  uncovered  at  A^ery  low  sta^-es. 

As  the  result  of  these  conditions  the  Avater  converges  into  the 
central  portion  of  the  crest  as  is  shown  A^erv  clearly  in  plate  No.  19. 
To  show  the  distribution  of  velocities  and  other  hydraulic  conditions 
along  the  crest  line,  and  for  a  hundred  feet  upstream,  the  data  given 
on  plate  No.  23  Avas  assembled.  A  section  Avas  taken  across  the 
four  maps  from  Station  W  to  Station  D.     The  central  part  of  this 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     275 

section  followed  the  curve  finally  tidopted  for  the  center  line  of  the 
remedial  weir;  the  ends  are  straffrht  lines.  This  section  was  divided 
into  11  panels  of  approximately  equal  width,  numbered  from  west 
to  east.  Through  the  panel  points  lines  were  drawn  parallel  to  the 
current  lines  of  plate  No.  19,  and  it  was  assumed  that  the  quantity 
of  water  crossing  the  section  in  any  panel  continued  to  flow  between 
the  lines  from  the  ends  of  that  panel  until  it  reached  the  crest. 
In  this  Avay  the  distribution  of  flow  upon  the  crest  line  was  approxi- 
mateh^  determined. 

The  bottom  and  water  surface  profiles  and  the  transverse  velocity 
curve  were  scaled  from  the  maps,  also  the  angle  that  the  current 
lines  made  with  the  section.  From  this  data  the  discharge  through 
each  panel  was  completed.  The  sum  of  the  11  panel  discharges  as 
thus  computed  is  167,800  cubic  feet  per  second.  Computing  the 
river  flow  from  the  mean  elevation  of  the  Buffalo  gauge  and  sub- 
tracting the  estimated  diversions,  and  flow  over  the  American  Falls, 
gives  a  value  of  157,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  a  difference  of  only 
7  per  cent.  This  is  an  excellent  check  on  the  general  accuracy  of 
the  float  survey. 

The  panel  discharges  were  corrected  in  the  ratio  of  167,800  to 
157,000  and  then  divided  by  the  length  of  crest  line  that  each  one 
serves.  This  gives  the  discharge  per  foot  of  crest  at  different  points. 
As  plate  No.  23  shows,  more  than  half  of  the  total  flow  passes 
through  panels  7,  8,  and  9,  and  flows  over  the  falls  on  a  crest  line  only 
420  feet  long  or  one-sixth  of  the  total  crest  line. 

When  the  power  diversion  has  been  increased  to  80,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  and  the  proposed  remedial  works  are  finished  the  total 
flow  over  this  fall  will  be  reduced  from  157,000  to  115,000  and  will 
be  distributed  more  uniformly  over  the  crest,  the  ideal  being  a  uni- 
form flow  of  44  cubic  feet  per  second  over  each  foot  of  crest  line. 

In  designing  the  weir  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  part  of  this 
work  must  be  clone  in  depths  as  great  at  12  or  14  feet  and  velocities 
as  high  as  20  or  22  feet  per  second.  The  bottom  is  known  to  be 
very  irregular.  When  part  of  it  was  unwatered  by  the  Toronto 
Power  Co.'s  cofferdam  it  was  found  to  consist  of  solid  rock  carved 
l)y  the  water  into  great  blocks  separated  by  cracks  often  a  food  wide 
and  several  feet  deep.  Under  the  existing  conditions  it  will  be 
difficult  to  do  much  to  level  the  bottom  under  any  proposed  con- 
struction and  the  design  should  be  such  that  very  little  preliminary 
leveling  is  needed. 

Another  necessary  feature  of  the  design  is  introduced  by  the  un- 
certainty as  to  the  exact  height  to  which  the  weir  must  be  built  at 
different  points.  The  hydraulic  problem  involved  is  so  complex 
that  the  exact  height  required  to  produce  the  desired  effect  can  not 
be  computed.  An  approximate  estimate  can  be  made,  but  the 
height  finally  adopted  must  be  determined  by  experiment. 

The  general  scheme  adopted  was  that  the  high  Canadian  end  of  the 
Falls  and  the  shoal  south  of  it  should  be  cut  down  by  excavation  in 
the  cofferdam ;  that  the  high  places  near  Terrapin  Point  and  to  the 
south  should  be  similarly  excavated  in  another  cofferdam;  that  a 
submerged  weir,  curved  in  plan,  should  be  built  across  the  central 
part  of  the  rapids  a  short  distance  upstream  from  the  "notch"  of 
the  Plorseshoe  Falls ;  and  that  the  American  channel  should  be  given 


276      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT   LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

I)  riow  of  12.0UO  cubic  feet  per  second  by  means  of  a  submerged 
compensatino;  dike  extending  from  Goat  Island  to  Cliippewa. 

Lucatiou. — As  stated  above,  the  final  location  of  the  weir  and  of 
the  excavations  at  the  eiicLs  of  the  Falls  can  only  be  determined  after 
the  diversions  have  been  made,  and  the  result  of  new  surveys  and 
model  tests  have  been  studied.  The  recession  of  the  crest  line  may 
change  conditions  decidedl}'  between  now  and  the  time  when  work  is 
attually  .-started.  In  order  to  get  an  approximation  of  the  cost  of  the 
works,  however,  a  location  was  made  as  of  present  date.  A  small 
model  of  the  rapids  in  relief  was  constructed  from  data  on  plates  Xos. 
21  and  ±2.  and  carefully  studied.  Two  perliminary  locations  were 
worked  up  in  considerable  detail  and  finally  rejected.  The  ideas 
finally  atlopted  are  shown  on  plate  No.  26. 

The  center  line  of  the  weir  as  located  is  an  arc  of  a  circle  of  540- foot 
railius :  the  length  is  1,380  feet.  I'he  depths  and  velocities  now  exist- 
ing at  the  site  of  the  weir  are  shown  on  plate  No.  23,  where  the  weir 
covers  panels  3  to  9.  inclusive.  Several  points  had  an  influence  in  de- 
termining this  location.  Because  of  the  ''  cupping "'  of  the  river  bottom 
around  the  apex  of  tlie  crest  the  structure  must  be  close  to  the  crest; 
otlierwise  after  the  water  has  been  spread  out  to  the  ends  it  would  be 
again  concentrated  in  the  center  by  the  slope  of  the  rock.  The  "  cup- 
ping" also  has  weight  in  determining  the  adoption  of  the  curved, 
rather  than  the  straight  form.  The  curved  form  is  also  made  neces- 
sary by  the  requirement  that  the  ends  of  the  weir  shall  make  sucli  an 
angle  with  the  current  as  to  deflect  it  away  from,  not  toward,  the 
center.    ^Esthetically.  the  curved  plan  is  much  more  desirable. 

The  height  of  the  weir  at  various  points  can  not  be  computed  by 
hydraulic  formulae,  as  the  problem  is  much  too  complex  for  analytical 
treatment  until  much  more  complete  data  are  available.  Before  con- 
struction starts  a  preliminary  profile  should  be  adopted,  based  on  ex- 
periments with  large  models. 

In  locating  the  end  excavation  the  first  thing  considered  Avas  the 
shoal  near  the  west  end  of  the  weir.  It  was  obvious  that  this  should  be 
removed  except  that  a  little  of  its  downstream  edge  might  be  left  to 
serve  as  an  extension  of  the  weir.  It  was  decided  to  excavate  the  area 
marked  "  L"  on  Tlate  No.  20  down  to  elevation  TjIO.  At  the  west  end 
of  the  crest  line  the  area  marked  "  GFKH  "  is  to  be  excavated,  the 
bottom  sloping  from  elevation  505  along  the  line  GH  to  501  at  K  and 
4l>b  at  F.  J'his  would  .serve  to  give  a  good  depth  of  water  at  the  ex- 
treme end  of  the  Falls  even  at  low  stages. 

At  the  east  end  it  was  determined  to  cut  two  channels  leading  from 
behind  the  weir  to  the  crest  line  along  the  "  ( ioat  Island  Shelf."  These 
are  marked  '"  NMKO  "  and  "  OSTP  "  on  plate  No.  26.  The  strip  of 
rof-k  left  behind  tliem  will  form  a  sort  of  irregular  cascade  over 
which  some  water  may  flow  from  one  channel  to  the  otlior  at  high  and 
medium  stages.  Its  purpose  is  to  give  a  more  uniform  distribution 
of  flow  on  this  end  of  the  crest.  The  bottom  of  the  upj^er  channel 
slopes  from  elevation  507  at  OP  to  503  at  KQ  and  is  level  at  this  ele- 
vation between  there  and  the  crest.  The  bottom  of  the  lower  channel 
sh)j)cs  from  elevation  508  at  NO  to  506  at  M  and  503  at  K.  The  crest 
line  along  here  is  not  touched. 

<  )f  c(»urse.  these  channels  are  not  given  a  smooth  finish,  but  are  pur- 
j>(»sely  left  rough  to  give  a  natural  appearance  to  the  rajnds  flowing 
over  them.    Steps  and  other  obstructions  might  be  left  in  them. 


DIVERSION    OF  WATER  FRO:\r  GRF.AT  LAKES  AXD   NIAGARA   RIVER.      2  /  ( 

It  would  be  (lesiralilo  if  the  channels  on  the  east  side  extended 
farther  south  at  their  ui)stream  end.  The  reason  that  they  are  not 
so  shown  is  that  just  south  of  NO  the  swiftest  currents  in  the  whole 
rapids  are  found  and  it  was  thought  undesirable  to  extend  the 
cofferdam  any  further  in  this  direction.  If  it  is  found  possible, 
without  undue  expense,  to  build  this  cofferdam  farther  south  than  the 
position  shown  on  the  map,  it  would  be  well  to  extend  these  channels. 

Plate  No.  27  shows  bottom  and  w^ater  surface  profiles,  transverse 
velocity  curve  and  other  hvdraulic  data  at  mean  stage  after  the  con- 
struction of  the  proposed  works.  The  section  is  from  Station  W  to 
the  weir,  along  the  weir,  and  then  to  Station  D.  This  is  the  same 
section  as  is  shown  in  plate  No.  23,  and  plates  Nos.  23  and  27  should 
be  compared  to  show  the  results  of  the  proposed  works.  This  plate 
makes  no  pretensions  to  accuracy  but  is  based  on  the  l)est  data  and 
engineering  judgment  available.  The  required  height  of  the  weir  at 
each  point  and  the  height  to  Avhich  the  water  will  rise  behind  it  can 
only  be  determined  by  trial.  The  high  point  in  the  water  surface 
profile  near  panel  8  is  due  to  the  very  high  velocity  which  will  still 
exist  upstream  from  this  point,  which,  being  checked  by  the  weir, 
raises  the  elevation  of  the  water  surface  according  to  the  w-ell-known 
pitot  tube  law.  The  smaller  rise  in  panels  3  and  4  is  due  to  a  similar 
cause.  Of  course,  no  such  perfect  uniformity  of  flow  over  the  crest 
of  the  Falls  as  this  plate  shows  can  be  obtained.  The  data  on  the 
plate  gives  the  ideal  results  desired;  in  practice  they  can  be  but  ap- 
proximately realized. 

Work  in  the  American  Channel. — Before  the  power  diversions 
began  the  mean  flow  in  the  American  Channel  was  a  little  more  than 
11.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  present  diversions  have  reduced 
this  to  about  9,000  with  a  very  slight  diminution  of  the  beauty  of 
the  American  Falls.  If  the  diversion  be  increased  to  80,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  and  this  all  diverted  above  the  first  cascade,  the  flow 
in  this  channel  wdll  be  reduced  to  but  little  more  than  4,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  unless  some  rem.edy  be  provided.  With  a  mean 
flow  as  small  as  this,  the  appearance  of  the  Falls  would  be  very 
greatly  damaged,  at  mean  stage  and  at  low  stage  the  Falls  Avould  be 
nearly  dry. 

In  Section  G-3  of  this  report  is  outlined  a  plan  for  compensating 
the  levels  of  the  Niagara  River  for  the  lowering  caused  by  the  power 
diversions  and  other  diversions  of  the  water  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
This  plan  consists  of  dumping  the  excavated  rock  obtained  in  the 
construction  of  the  new  power  plants  in  such  a  way  that  it  will 
serve  as  a  submerged  weir  to  raise  the  level  of  the  Chippawa-Grass 
Island  Pool.  This  would  form  a  convenient  and  not  unduly  ex- 
pensive method  of  disposing  of  this  waste  rock  and  it  is  understood 
that  the  power  companies  are  ready  to  do  it  without  expense  to  the 
Government.  In  fact  two  companies  are  now  placing  spoil  in  the 
desired  location  and  considerable  compensating  effect  has  already 
been  obtained. 

The  dumping  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  spoil  in  the  river  below 
the  line  from  Port  Day  to  Hog  Island  will  restore  the  Chippawa- 
Grass  Island  Pool  to  the  elevation  which  it  had  before  diversion  of 
water  from  the  Great  Lakes  commenced.  The  spoil  should  be 
dumped  chiefly  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  river  so  that  no  shoals 
will  be  formed  which  might  be  obstructions  to  the  free  passage  of 


278      DR-ERSIOX    OF   WATER   FROM    GREAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

ice  and  ilrift.  To  maintain  the  full  discharoe  of  the  American 
Falls  no  rock  should  be  dumped  within  1,500  feet  of  Port  Day. 
From  the  northern  end  of  this  spoil  bank  a  similar  obstruction 
should  extend  westward  to  the  head  of  Goat  Island.  This  will  pre- 
vent too  much  water  sweopinc:  around  the  American  end  of  the  weir 
and  then  turning  south  into  the  Horseshoe  channel  a<>ain.  This 
part  of  the  work  lies  in  shallow  water  of  moderate  velocity,  where 
the  spoil  can  be  easilj'  placed  from  a  trestle  or  cabloway.  For  the 
other  part,  in  deeper  water,  dumping  from  scows  is  now  being  em- 
I)lovea. 

"the  exact  quantity  of  material  which  must  be  placed  to  produce 
the  effect  required  can  not  be  figured  in  advance.  If  the  work  of 
depositing  it  proceeds  systematically  with  careful  comparison  of 
the  gages  at  Buffalo,  Chippawa,  Port  Day,  and  Wing'  Dam  the 
desired  condition  can  l)e  produced.  The  flow  over  the  American 
Falls  should  be  made  12.000  cubic  feet  per  second  at  mean  stage. 
This  is  slightly  greater  than  its  natural  flow  and  ensures  a  satisfac- 
tory spectacle  at  all  seasons  and  all  ordinary  stages. 

4.    ALLOWABLE  DIVERSIOX  AROUXD  THE  RAPIDS. 

Pt'ohlem  soniewhut  different  from  that  in  Section  E-2. — The  ques- 
tion of  the  permissible  diversion  around  the  Whirlpool  Rapids  and 
Lower  Rapids  rests  on  a  somewhat  different  basis  than  the  question 
of  diversion  around  the  Falls.  The  photographs  give  no  informa- 
tion about  extreme  low  stages  and  there  is  nothing  to  afforel  a  meas- 
ure of  the  quantity  required  for  ice  sluicing,  as  the  American  Falls 
did  in  the  other  problem.  All  the  available  records  of  soundings  and 
velocities  in  the  Gorge  have  been  collected,  compared,  and  carefully 
studied.  The  records  of  gauges  maintained  on  the  loAver  river  by 
the  United  States  Lake  Survey  and  by  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co. 
were  studied  and  other  gauges  were  installed  and  maintained  during 
this  investigation.  Some  of  the  engineers  employed  had  been 
students  of  the  hydraulic  conditions  of  the  Niagara  River  for  years, 
and  no  endeavor  was  spared  to  observe  the  rapids  under  unusual 
conditions  and  to  discuss  them  with  others  who  had  done  so. 

Limiting  conditions. — The  mean  and  extreme  conditions  to  be  pro- 
vided for  here  are  the  same  as  on  the  upper  river ;  that  is — 

1.  Scenic  beauty  must  be  protected  down  to  minimum  flows  of 
150.000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

2.  Ice-sluicing  capacity  must  be  protected  down  to  i;5().000  cubic 
feet  per  second  of  daily  mean  flow,  and 

3.  Down  to  100,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  temporary  extreme 
stages  of  only  a  few  hours'  duration. 

The  scenic  requirements  are  that  in  general  there  shall  be  no 
noticeably  shoal  spots  of  any  size.  A  few  isolated  bowlders  against 
which  the  waters  dash  are  not  objectionable.  The  volume  and 
velocity  of  the  stream  must  l)e  such  that  its  impact  upon  the  sub- 
merged rocks  breaks  it  up  into  spray,  breakers,  standing  waves,  and 
white  water.  A  moderate  reduction  of  floAv  will  certainly  increase 
these  features,  as  they  are  now  noticeably  more  conspicuous  at  low 
stages  than   at  high. 

The  steeper  portions  of  the  rapids  seem  able  to  take  care  of  all 
their  ice  difficulties  with  little  trouble.    The  most  critical  point  is  at 


DIVERSION   OF  WATlUt   FKOM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     279 

the  head  of  the  Whirlpool  Kapicls  near  the  railroad  bridj2:es.  The 
annual  ice  brido-e  tliat  forms  in  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  above  the 
upper  highway  brid<ro  sometimes  breaks  loose  and  comes  down 
stream  in  large  masses.  These  jam  into  the  narrowing  gorge  at  this 
point  and  the  riA'er  must  be  left  with  sufficient  power  to  break  up 
these  masses  and  carry  them  down  into  the  rapids.  At  a  greatly 
reduced  stage  a  similar  condition  might  conceivably  arise  at  the  exit 
of  tlie  Whirlpool  or  at  the  head  of  Foster  Flats  but  it  is  believed 
that  the  foot  of  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  will  always  be  the  critical 
point.  Permits  should  be  so  worded  that  it  is  possible  to  stop  all 
diversions  for  a  short  time  to  prevent  the  formation  of  impending 
ice  jams.  In  1908  an  ice  jam  did  form  at  this  place  during  rather 
unusual  conditions.  The  rising  water  did  considerable  damage  at 
the  Ontario  Power  Co.'s  plant  because  their  building  was  not  de- 
signed for  such  a  high  stage  of  the  pool.  This  defect  has  since  been 
corrected  and  a  similar  rise  would  now  do  no  harm.  The  other 
poAver  houses  in  the  Gorge  were  not  seriously  damaged. 

AUomable  diversum. — The  most  careful  consideration  of  all  the 
available  evidence  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  40,000  cubic  feet  of 
water  per  second  may  be  diverted  around  the  rapids  at  all  times  except 
possibly  when  an  unusual  combination  of  extreme  low  stage  and  ex- 
treme cold  threatens  the  formation  of  a  dangerous  ice  jam.  Such  a 
diversion  will  leave  a  flow  of  167,000  cubic  feet  per  second  through  the 
rapids  at  mean  stage  and  it  is  expected  that  with  this  flow  the  scenic 
beauty  of  the  rapids  will  be  greater  than  at  the  present  daily  mean. 
At  ordinary  low  stage  the  flow  through  the  rapids  will  be  110,0d0,which 
is  sufficient  as  far  as  scenic  effects  are  concerned.  At  the  extreme 
low  stages  that  occur  for  but  a  few  hours  in  many  years  the  flow 
would  be  reduced  to  90,000  cubic  feet  per  second ;  this  is  satisfactory 
as  a  minimum,  but  if  intense  cold  weather  should  occur  at  the  same 
time  it  might  be  desirable  to  reduce  the  diversion  for  a  few  hours. 

This  limit  of  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  the  diversion  around 
the  rapids  is  not  necessarily  permanent.  After  plants  have  been 
operating  with  such  a  diversion  for  some  years  observation  may 
show  that  considerable  increase  in  the  diversion  is  allowable  and 
desirable. 

Power  output  of  7^ecomm.ended  diversions. — New  plants  designed 
on  modern  lines  ought  to  give  an  output  of  at  least  29^  horsepower 
per  cubic  foot  per  second  if  using  diversions  around  the  Falls  and 
rapids  both,  and  about  21  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per  second  if 
using  diversions  around  the  Falls  only.  With  the  permissible  di- 
versions of  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  around  the  Falls,  and  40,000 
around  the  rapids,  the  total  power  output  would  be  just  over 
2,000,000  horsepower  if  the  water  were  all  used  in  new  plants.  If 
the  present  plants  were  retained  the  total  output  would  be  about 
1,660,000  horsepower.  Plans  are  now  under  way  for  replacing  the 
inefficient  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  plant  and  station  2  of  the  Hy- 
draulic Power  Co.  As  the  demand  for  power  grows  and  it  becomes 
important  to  get  the  greatest  possible  output  from  every  drop  of 
water  diverted  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  inefficient  plants 
on  the  Canadian  side  will  also  be  replaced  by  better  ones,  and  the 
output  of  2,000,000  horsepower  would  ultimately  be  obtained. 


280      Dn^ERSlOX    OF   WATER    FROM    CREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER. 
.-..    KIVISIOX    OF   PKOPOSED   DlVEHSUtN    AND    OF    COST    OF    REMEDIAL    WORKS. 

L'icis'ion  of  (/h'ers^ion  aUowed  under  present  trvatij. — The  treat}- 
between  the  United  States  and  (iieat  Britain.  si<j;ned  January  1.  1909, 
allows  the  diversion  of  the  waters  of  the  Nia«5ara  River  above  the 
Falls  to  the  extent  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  on  the  American 
side  and  36.000  cubic  feet  j^er  second  on  the  Canadian  side.  The  rea- 
sons which  led  the  commissioners  to  decide  upon  these  particular 
limits  are  unfortunately  not  matters  of  record.  A  significant  clause 
in  the  treaty  states  that  it  is  the  desire  of  both  i)arties  to  limit  the 
diversion  of  water  from  the  Niagara  River  "  Avith  the  least  possible 
injury  to  investments  Avhich  have  already  been  made  in  the  construc- 
tion of  power  plants.*"  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  limits  set  b}'  the 
treaty  are  ver}'  slightly  greater  than  the  total  rights  claimed  by  the 
companies  wliich  were  actually  diverting  water  at  the  time  when  the 
treaty  was  signed,  if  it  be  assumed  that  the  right  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Co.  to  double  its  present  plant  had  expired  from  nonuse. 

Considering  all  the  evidence  which  is  known  to  have  been  placed 
before  the  treaty  commissioners,  it  appears  probable  that  the  limits 
set  were  based  u])on  the  projects  of  the  companies  which  were  then 
diverting  water  and  not  on  any  abstract  opinions  as  to  the  respective 
rights  of  the  two  countries.  As  the  object  of  the  treat}-  was  to  pre- 
vent any  great  increase  of  the  diversions  without  doing  any  harm  to 
capital  already  invested,  this  method  of  dividing  the  diversion  was 
at  that  time  both  satisfactory  and  just.  The  present  question  of 
how  future  diversions  should  be  divided  between  tlie  two  countries 
rests  on  an  altogether  different  basis,  and  the  existing  treaty  there- 
fore can  hardly  be  said  to  form  a  precedent  for  determining  the 
manner  in  Avhich  it  should  be  divided  between  the  two  countries. 

(  ondltions  affecting  the  division  of  the  proposed  diversions. — 
The  Niagara  River,  and  in  fact  the  whole  Great  Lakes  system  from 
Pigeon  River  to  St.  Regis,  forms  a  water  boundary  sej^arating  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  The  large  topographical  map  accom- 
panying this  report,  plates  Nos.  13  and  1-4,  shows  the  international 
Ixiundary  line  from  Buckhorn  Island  to  Lewiston  as  it  was  located 
and  marked  by  the  International  Waterways  Commission.  It  is 
known  to  have  been  the  intention  of  the  framers  of  the  treaty  of 
Client.  Avhich  laid  down  this  boundary  line,  to  divide  the  boundary 
rivers  between  the  two  countries  with  approximate  equality.  Of 
course,  the  men  Avho  framed  this  treaty  were  interested  in  the  di- 
vision of  the  water  surface  rather  than  of  the  flow.  In  general,  the 
boundary  line  divides  the  flow  between  the  two  countries  with  ap- 
proximate equality,  but  in  a  few  places  the  division  is  very  une(iual. 
The  greatest  inetiuality  is  found  near  the  head  of  Fosters  Flats, 
where  more  than  SO  ])er  cent  of  the  flow  is  on  the  Ignited  States  side 
of  the  boundary,  and  at  the  crest  of  the  Falls,  where  only  about  6 
or  7  per  cent  of  the  flow  in  the  river  is  on  the  United  States"  side. 

It  is  evident  that  the  diversion  can  not  fairly  be  divided  upon  the 
l)asis  of  the  division  of  the  flowing  water  by  the  boundary  line.  The 
water  is  to  be  diverted  around  a  reach  of  the  river  several  miles 
in  length.  The  diversion  can  only  Ije  divided  in  the  ratio  by  Avhich 
llie  boundary  divides  the  flow  of  the  stream  at  some  one  point,  but 
at  any  othei-  point  the  ratio  would  be  quite  different.  Moreover, 
at  the  crest  of  the  Falls  the  division  will  change  as  the  crest  recedes. 
It  is  quite  po.ssible  that  after  20  or  30  years  the  apex  notch  should 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   OREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER.      281. 

a<rain  be  on  the  American  side  of  the  houndarv.  and  ultimately  the 
L^reater  i)art  of  the  flow  over  the  crest  line  mi<rht  he  on  the  American 
side. 

Another  possible  basis  for  the  di\ision  is  found  in  ihe  ultimate 
source  of  the  water.  The  latest  studies  indicate  that  about  i')'2  per 
cent  of  the  flow  is  derived  from  rainfall  on  the  American  side  of 
the  boundary  line  and  48  per  cent  from  rainfall  on  the  Canadian 
side.  On  this  basis  the  United  States  would  be  entitled  to  a  little 
more  than  half  of  the  proposed  diversion. 

It  is  not  believed  that  either  of  the  principles  outlined  above- 
afl'ords  a  just  and  equitable  method  of  dividing;  the  diversion  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  In  fact,  if  not  in  law,  the  Niagara  River 
is  owned  and  used  jointly  by  the  tAvo  nations.  Each  has  by  treaty 
an  equal  right  of  navigation  on  both  sides  of  the  boundary.  Neither 
can  make  aii}-  appreciable  change  in  its  part  of  the  river  without  caus- 
ing some  change,  either  favorable  or  adverse,  in  the  part  belonging  to 
its  neighbor.  If  either  country  should  attempt  to  exercise  its  "  right" 
to  take  half  the  water  of  the  river  or  all  the  water  on  its  side  of  the 
boundary  at  any  point,  it  would  inflict  irreparable  damage  on  the 
other  nation.  Finally,  the  two  countries  must  be  considered  to  be 
joint  trustees  and  custodians  of  the  natural  beauties  of  the  Falls  and 
rapids. 

For  these  reasons  it  would  appear  that  the  only  just  and  impartial 
method  of  dividing  the  proposed  diversions  is  to  award  half  of  each. 
giving  each  the  right  to  divert  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  around 
the  lower  rapids  and  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second  around  the  Falls. 
If  experience  shows  that  greater  diversions  are  permissible  at  either 
place,  these  should  also  be  divided  equally. 

Dividing  cost  of  works. — There  can  be  no  question  but  that  the 
cost  of  these  remedial  works  should  be  divided  equally  between  the 
two  countries.  The  benefits  are  received  by  both  sides.  The  preser- 
vation of  the  beauty  of  the  Falls  is  to  the  joint  benefit  of  both  sides 
and  can  not  be  divided.  If  the  diversions  are  divided  equally  the 
advantage  to  the  two  nations  will  depend  only  on  the  use  which 
each  makes  of  its  respective  share.  The  construction,  of  course., 
must  be  under  the  joint  supervision  of  both. 

Albert  B.  Jones, 
First  Lieutenant,  Engineers,  United  States  Army. 


Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Maij  19, 1920. 
From :  Albert  B.  Jones,  junior  engineer. 
To  :  The  Division  Engineer  Lakes  Division,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Subject :  Supplementary  report  on  preservation  of  scenic  beauty  of 

Niagara  Falls  and  of  the  rapids  of  Niagara  River. 

1.  In  my  report  on  Preservation  of  Scenic  Beauty  of  Niagara 
Falls  and  of  the  Rapids  of  Niagara  River,  submitted  August  30,  1919, 
were  numerous  photographs  showing  the  appearance  of  the  Falls  and 
rapids  under  various  conditions  of  high  and  low  water.  These  photo- 
graphs were  taken  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Richmond,  assistant  engineer,  in 
October.  November,  and  December.  19 IT.  It  w^as  the  original  inten- 
tion to  take  three  series  of  photographs  illustrating  conditions  at 
high,  mean,  and  low  stage  of  the  river.  Excellent  pictures  were 
obtained  at  high  and  at  mean  stage,  but  weather  conditions  were  such 


282      DH'ERSIOX  OF  WATER   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

that  no  extremely  low-staofe  photographs  couKl  be  obtained,  and  the 
"  low-sta«re  "  series  differed  but  very  sligrhtly  from  the  pictures  taken 
at  mean  statre. 

•J.  In  the  sprinof  of  1920  an  extremely  low  stage  of  Lake  Erie  pre- 
vailed for  several  montlis.  and  during  the  third  week  of  April  a 
continuance  of  easterly  winds  reduced  the  flow  of  the  Niagara  River 
to  an  extremely  small  amount,  smaller  than  had  been  observed  for 
several  years.  On  April  '22  it  Avas  possible  to  get  an  excellent  series 
of  low-water  conditions  at  the  Falls.  On  the  following  day  a  west- 
erly gale  caused  a  decided  rise  in  stage,  and  it  has  not  since  been  pos- 
sible to  get  photographs  of  low- water  conditions  in  the  Niagara 
Gorge. 

3.  The  earlier  pictures  are  published  as  photographs  Nos.  73  to 
104.  inclusive,  in  the  division  engineer's  report  on  Investigation  of 
Water  Diversion  From  the  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  River,  Appen- 
dix C.  They  are  referred  to  hereafter  in  this  report  as  ''  photographs 
of  the  old  series."  These  pictures  show  11  views  of  the  Falls  and  the 
rapids  above  the  Falls,  each  view  being  represented  by  from  one  to 
five  pictures  taken  at  different  stages.  The  amount  of  water  flowing 
over  the  Falls  in  these  pictures  is  as  follows : 

"  High  stage.*'  220.000  to  250,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

"  Mean  stage,"  160.000  to  165,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

"  Low  stage,"'  155,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

In  the  series  taken  on  April  22,  1920.  it  was  possible  to  get  pictures 
of  nine  of  these  views.  Two  of  the  A'iews — namely.  "  Canadian  Rap- 
ids from  Canadian  side,  looking  upstream."  and  "  East  end  of  Can- 
adian Falls  from  the  Canadian  end,"  could  not  be  photographed  be- 
cause of  heavy  mist.  The  water  flowing  over  the  Falls  when  these 
pictures  were  taken  varied  from  125,000  to  140,000  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

4.  Photograph  No.  130  is  a  panorama  of  the  Falls  taken  from  "  Falls 
View,"  with  180.000  cubic  feet  per  second  flowing  in  the  river  and 
135.000  cubic  feet  per  second  flowing  over  the  Falls.  It  should  be 
compared  with  photograph  No.  73  of  the  old  series,  which  shows  the 
river  slightly  above  mean  stage,  the  flow  over  the  Falls  being  165,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  most  noticeable  differences  at  the  low 
stage  are  the  bowlder  shoals  and  isolated  bowlders  uncovered  near 
each  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  and  in  the  Canadian  Rapids.  The 
bareness  of  the  rock  ledges  at  the  ends  of  the  Horseshoe  is  also 
shown,  but  this  is  more  clearly  illustrated  in  photographs  Nos.  6  to 
9.  It  is  apparent  tliat  even  at  this  very  low  stage  the  beauty  of  the 
American  Falls  is  but  little  affected,  especially  when  seen  from  this 
distant  viewpoint. 

5.  Photograph  No.  131  is  a  view  of  the  American  rapids  above  the 
Goat  Island  Bridge;  river  discharge,  185,000  cubic  feet  per  second; 
flow  over  Falls,  140.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  It  should  be  com- 
pared with  photographs  Nos.  74  to  77  of  the  old  series.  The  com- 
parison is  somewhat  obseured  by  the  large  amount  of  ice  in  the  new 
picture,  but  it  is  faii'ly  apparent  tliat  even  this  very  great  reduction 
in  the  fl(jw  over  the  Falls  does  very  little  damage  to  the  scenic  l)eauty 
«»f  these  rapids. 

6.  Photograpii  No.  132  shows  the  Canadian  Rapids  as  seen  from  a 
{joint  on  CJoat  Ishmd  opposite  the  power  house  of  the  Toronto  Power 
Co.     The  liver  flow  when  this  picture  was  taken  was  185,000  cubic 


T)IVEESIO]Sr   OF   WATKr.   FROIVr   r.RKAT  T.AKlvS   AND   XIACAKA   inVl'.R.      283 

feet  per  .second,  and  the  flow  over  the  Falls  was  i;^5,()0()  cubic  feet 
per  second.  This  picture  should  l)e  coni[)ared  with  photographs 
Nos.  78  to  80  of  the  old  series.  The  bowlder  beach  in  the  foreground 
and  the  numerous  bowlders  and  smnll  shoals  in  the  middle  of  the 
rapids  are  the  principal  indications  of  the  low  water. 

T.  Photograph  No.  133  is  a  view  of  the  American  Falls  from  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  (xorge;  discharge  of  river,  18r),()()()  cubic  feet  per 
second ;  flow  over  Falls,  135,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  should 
be  compared  with  photographs  Nos.  82  to  86  of  the  old  series.  The 
beauty  of  these  Falls  has  been  somewhat,  though  not  greatly,  dimin- 
ished by  the  low  stage.  This  is  chiefly  noticeable  in  the  thinness  of 
the  water  curtain  at  the  right-hand  end  of  the  main  fall,  and  also 
just  to  the  left  of  the  "  ice  mountain."  A  similar  but  lesser  effect 
was  visible  to  the  eye  at  the  left  end  of  the  Luna  Falls  or  "  Bridal 
Veil "  and  at  the  left  end  of  the  main  fall.  The  camera  failed  to  show 
this  distinctly  in  the  photograph.  A  comparison  of  photograph  No. 
4  with  photograph  No.  85  of  the  old  series  is  particularly  interest- 
ing. No.  85  was  taken  in  1906,  when  the  total  diversion  was  only 
about  15,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  No.  4  was  taken  in  1920,  when 
the  total  diversion  was  about  50,000.  The  total  river  flow  was  almost 
exactly  the  same  in  the  two  cases,  the  estimated  difference  being  less 
than  5,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  difference  between  the  two 
pictures,  therefore,  is  an  excellent  measure  of  the  effect  of  the  increase 
of  diversion  in  the  last  13|  years  upon  the  scenic  beauty  of  the 
American  Falls. 

8.  Photograph  No.  134  is  an  attempt  to  show  the  American  Falls 
from  Goat  Island.  A  heavy  shower  of  mist  was  falling  upon  the 
camera  and  the  picture  is  very  poor.  The  discharge  of  the  river  at 
this  time  was  175,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  flow  over  the 
Falls  was  125,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  picture  should  be 
compared  with  photographs  Nos.  87  to  90  of  the  old  series.  No.  90 
was  taken  in  1906  at  about  the  same  river  flow,  but  with  a  diversion 
of  only  about  15,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Unfortunately  it  was 
not  taken  from  exactly  the  same  spot.  As  far  as  this  very  inferior 
photograph  (No.  4)  indicates  anything  it  bears  out  the  conclusions 
expressed  in  paragraph  7. 

9.  Photograph  No.  135  is  a  panoramic  view  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls 
taken  from  the  head  of  the  Terrapin  Point  path  on  Goat  Island; 
river  discharge,  185,000  cubic  feet  per  second;  flow  over  Falls, 
140,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  should  be  compared  with  photo- 
graphs Nos.  91  to  94  of  the  old  series.  The  ends  of  the  Horseshoe 
Falls  are  the  places  most  seriously  affected  by  low-river  stage  or  in- 
creased diversion,  and  the  effect  on  these  points  is  well  shown  in 
these  photographs.  In  the  foreground  the  "  Goat  Island  Shelf " 
is  shown  nearly  unwatered  and  covered  with  unsightly  bowlders. 
The  flow  over  the  extreme  east  end  of  the  Falls  has  almost  vanished. 
Toward  the  Canadian  end  are  two  complete  breaks  in  the  water  cur- 
tain (directly  under  the  left  end  of  large  building  on  the  sky  line). 
These  discontinuities  are  not  noticeable  except  at  extremely  low 
stages.  The  uncovered  rock  ledge  at  the  Canadian  end  is  barely 
visible  through  the  mist,  but  is  shown  in  the  next  picture.  A  com- 
parison of  No.  6  with  No.  94  of  the  old  series,  taken  in  1906,  is  par- 
ticularly illustrative  of  the  effect  of  increased  diversion  upon  the 
scenic  beauty  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.    These  two  pictures  show  the 


284      DR-ERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

river  at  exactly  the  same  stage,  but  in  the  old  photograph  the  total 
diversion  was  onlj'  about  15.000  cubic  feet  per  second,  while  in 
the  new  one  it  is  about  55,000. 

10.  Photograph  No.  136  is  a  picture  of  the  Canadian  end  of  the 
Horseshoe  Falls ;  river  discharge.  180,000  cubic  feet  per  second ;  flow 
over  Falls.  135.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  It  should  be  compared  with 
photographs  ^''os.  95  and  96  of  the  old  series.  The  contrast  with 
the  appearance  at  a  very  high  stage  as  shown  in  Xo.  96  is  especially 
striking.  The  white  patches  in  the  immediate  foreground  of  this 
picture  are  neither  ice  nor  water,  but  are  a  peculiar  effect  caused  by 
the  reflection  of  the  sky  on  the  wet  rocks. 

11.  Photograph  Xo.  137  show.s  the  east  end  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls, 
as  seen  from  in  front  of  the  "  Refractory,"  on  the  Canadian  side.  The 
river  discharge  was  180.000  cubic  feet  per  secoiid  and  the  flow  over 
the  Falls  was  135,000  cubic  feet  per  seajnd.  This  picture  should  be 
compared  with  photographs  Xos.  97  to  99  of  the  old  series.  It  shows 
very  plainly  the  effect  of  diversion  or  h^w  stage  in  denuding  this  end 
of  the  Horseshoe. 

12.  Photograph  Xo.  138  is  another  view  of  the  east  end  of  the  Horse- 
shoe Falls  taken  from  tlie  edge  of  the  cliff  on  Goat  Island;  river 
discharge,  185,000  cubic  feet  per  second;  flow  over  Falls,  135.000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  It  should  be  compared  with  photographs  Xos. 
102  to  104  of  the  old  series.  This  illustrates  in  a  most  dramatic  man- 
ner the  effects  already  shown  in  photographs  Xos.  6  and  8. 

13.  The  nature  and  causes  of  the  damage  to  the  scenic  beauty  of 
Xiagara  Falls  shown  in  this  series  of  photographs  have  been  de- 
scribed and  explained  at  length  in  my  report  on  the  "  Preservation 
of  the  Scenic  Beauties  of  Xiagara  Falls  and  of  the  Rapids  of  the 
Xiagai'a  River,"  dated  August  30.  1919.  That  report  also  states  that 
these  evils  can  be  cured,  and  outlines  a  method  of  restoring  the 
original  beauty  of  the  famous  cataract,  while  allowing  a  much-needed 
increase  in  the  amount  of  water  used  for  power  development.  Xoth- 
ing  is  brought  out  by  these  photographs  tending  to  modify  an}^  of 
the  conclusions  of  that  report. 

14.  During  the  period  of  low  water  it  was  impracticable  to  obtain 
photographs  of  conditions  in  the  rapids  of  the  Xiagara  Gorge. 
However,  in  the  late  afternoon  of  April  22  a  hasty  reconnoissance 
from  the  Falls  to  Lewiston  was  made  on  a  Gorge  Route  electric  car. 
The  effects  of  the  extreme  low  stage  upon  the  scenic  beauty  of  the 
rapids  Avas  carefully  observed  b}^  comparing  the  appearance  of  the 
rapids  with  the  series  of  photographs  taken  in  1917.  In  some  places 
the  size  and  whiteness  of  breakers  were  reduced.  In  others  new 
breakers  and  white  water  appeared  where  comparatively  smooth 
rollers  existed  at  ordinary  stages.  In  many  places  no  considerable 
change  was  noticeable.  At  one  point,  just  below  Fosters  Flats,  large 
rocks  projected  above  the  Avater.  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  channel, 
where  no  indication  of  their  presence  was  shown  in  the  photographs. 
On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  scenic  beauty  of  these  rapids 
was  neither  materially  increased  or  decreased  when  the  river  flow 
was  reduced  to  about  175.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Xothing  was 
observed  tending  to  modify  any  of  the  conclusions  expressed  in  the 
report  of  August  30, 1919.  ' 

Albekt  B.  Jones, 

Junior  Engineer. 


Appendix  D, 

PROPOSITIONS    FOR     UTILIZINC;     DIVERSIONS     WITH 
GREATER  ECONOMY. 


[Section  F  of  Mr.  Richmond's  report.] 
1.    GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

The  localities  where  diversions  of  water  from  the  Great  Lakes 
system  occur,  and  the  character  of  the  diversions,  have  been  de- 
scribed already  in  sections  A,  B,  and  C  of  this  report,  the  quantity 
of  water  diverted  being  stated  for  each  case.  These  descriptions 
show  that  many  of  the  diversions  are  not  used  as  efficiently  as  they 
might  be.  There  are  also  many  places  where  diversions  could  be 
used  very  efficiently  for  navigation,  sanitation,  or  poAver  purposes, 
but  where  no  water  is  now  diverted. 

The  total  amount  of  w^ater  diverted  for  navigation  purposes  is 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  that  diverted  for  sanitary  uses  and 
power  development.  Any  possible  increase  in  the  efficiency  of  its  use 
for  navigation  would  result  in  a  totally  imperceptible  net  gain,  there- 
fore this  phase  of  the  subject  will  not  be  considered  further  in  this 
report. 

With  the  exception  of  the  diversions  of  the  Sanitary  District  of 
Chicago,  the  same  conditions  obtains  with  respect  to  diversions  for 
sanitary  uses.  In  every  other  case  of  a  diversion  for  sanitary  pur- 
poses the  water  is  returned  to  the  Great  Lakes  Basin  within  a  com- 
paratively short  distance  and  no  serious  injury  to  any  interests  re- 
sults. The  quantity  of  water  pumped  for  water  supply  by  the  Chi- 
cago city  waterworks  in  1918  averaged  1,050  cubic  feet  per  second, 
the  maximum  pumpage  at  any  time  being  1,315  cubic  feet  per 
second.  This  is  much  more  than  is  used  by  any  other  city  on  the 
Lakes.  Detroit  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  the  Great  Lakes  region, 
and  its  average  daily  pumpage  by  the  city  waterworks  is  220  cubic 
feet  per  second.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  consider  here  what  might 
be  done  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  these  diversions.  The  possibility 
of  increased  efficiency  in  the  use  for  sanitary  purposes  of  the  diver- 
sions of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  has  already  been  treated  in 
Section  B  of  this  report. 

In  the  matter  of  diversions  for  water  power  great  increase  in  effi- 
ciency is  possible.  The  diversion  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago 
could  be  made  to  yield  much  more  power  per  cubic  foot  per  second  than 
at  present.  This  has  already  been  discussed  in  Section  C.  At  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  while  the  present  plants  are  not  particularly  efficient,  it 
appears  that  there  is  very  little  opportunity  for  increasing  the  effi- 
ciency economically.    Along  the  St.  Lawrence  Ri^^er  there  are  several 

285 


286    DnTRsiox  of  water  from  great  lakes  and  niagaea  river. 

places  where  considerable  amounts  of  power  could  be  obtained  by 
13roper  development  without  serious  damage  to  navigation  or  riparian 
interests.  Small  developments  exist  at  most  of  these  localities,  but 
the  only  large-scale  development  along  that  portion  of  the  river 
bordering  United  States  territory  is  the  one  owned  by  the  Aluminum 
Co.  of  America  and  its  subsidiaries  at  Massena,  N.  Y.  This  is  de- 
scribed in  Section  C.  The  water  used  in  and  along  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal  and  the  Welland  Canal  could  proliably  be  made 
to  yield  more  power  than  it  does  at  present.  At  Niagara  V-<\\\s  the 
greatest  apportunity  for  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  use  of  diver- 
sions exists.  It  is  toward  this  opportunity  that  the  work  of  this  inves- 
tigation has  been  especially  directed.  The  remainder  of  Section  F 
will  be  devoted  to  the  present  and  prospective  power  development  at 
Niagara  Falls.  Eeference  is  here  made  to  the  description  of  Niagara 
River  given  in  Section  A,  and  to  the  map  and  profile  on  plates  11, 
13.  and  14. 

The  total  head  available  at  Niagara  Falls  depends  on  the  location 
of  the  works  utilizing  it.  From  La  Salle  to  Lewiston  the  fall  is 
about  317|  feet  and  from  Port  Day  to  the  Devils  Hole  it  is  803  feet. 
Any  reasonably  efficient  scheme  must  lie  within  these  limits.  The 
most  economical  propositions  develop  about  313  feet.  The  Maid-of- 
the-Mist  Pool  below  the  Falls  offers  an  opportunity  to  divide  this 
head  into  two  stages.  The  upper  stage  affords  a  head  of  from  ^23^ 
to  218i  feet,  the  lower  one  from  97  to  81^  feet.  The  aljove  figures 
are  taken  at  mean  stage. 

On  the  Canadian  side  three  companies  are  developing  the  upper 
stage.  One  is  fairly  efficient,  the  other  two  are  not.  In  addition, 
two  small  plants  use  a  small  amount  of  water  under  a  fraction  of 
the  head.  Another  ])lant  to  utilize  the  full  head  is  now  under  con- 
struction. On  the  American  side  there  are  two  separate  develop- 
ments of  the  upper  stage.  One  is  very  inefficient,  not  altogether 
through  the  fault  of  those  responsible  for  the  development;  the 
other  is  the  most  efficient  plant  of  all,  and  is  now  being  extended  to 
increase  its  capacity  considerably,  at  the  same  time  slightly  improv- 
ing its  average  efficiency. 

With  the  Canadian  plants,  except  as  to  their  total  diversion  of 
water  and  expoj-tation  of  electrical  energy,  the  United  States  has 
nothing  to  do.  A  general  description  of  them  has  been  given  pre- 
viously in  section  C  of  this  report.  On  the  United  States  side  the 
pre.sent  diversion  allowed  by  treaty  is  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
Various  methods  of  using  this  water  will  be  considered  and  the  mat- 
ter of  using  any  greater  diversions  Avhich  may  be  permitted  in  the 
future  will  be  taken  up. 

Since  the  inception  of  the  Hydraulic  Canal  project  some  To  years 
ago.  scores  of  i)ropositions  for  the  development  of  Niagara  power 
on  ii  large  scale  have  been  advanced.  Some  were  based  on  sound 
engineering  knowledge  and  a  broad  grasp  of  the  situation,  and 
others  were  freakish  and  grotesque  in  the  extreme.  Several  of  the 
best  scheme.s  have  been  worked  out  rather  completely  during  the 
course  of  this  investigation,  outline  plans  have  been  prepared,  and 
estimates  of  the  cost  and  the  power  out])ut  have  been  made.  More 
than  20  other  projects  have  been  studied  in  more  or  less  detail.  The 
latter  arc  lucntioiUM]   in  the  report  to  the  extent  that  their  impor- 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGAHA  RIVER.     287 

tance  seemed  to  justify  in  each  case.  The  plans  and  estimates  were 
based  on  a  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  of  Avater  per  second  and 
a  stage  of  water  surface  in  the  river  coincident  Avith  the  mean 
stage  for  the  51  years  ending  1910.  The  Niagara  River  profile 
compiled  by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  in  1912  was  used.  Avith 
corrections  to  the  loAver  river  ])r()file  obtained  in  1917.  (See  pi. 
No.  11.)  Distances,  elevations  of  the  ground  surface,  and  depths 
of  Avater  in  the  river  were  obtained  chiefly  from  the  surveys  made 
for  this  investigation  and  from  Lake  SurA-ey  manuscript  charts. 
The  published  charts  of  the  Lake  SurA^ey  and  Geological  Survey 
and  other  maps  Avere  also  used.  Elevations  of  the  rock  surface 
Avere  derived  from  rock  soundings  made  for  this  investigation  and 
from  those  made  by  the  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  WaterAvays. 

A  great  deal  of  time  was  spent  in  determining  the  proper  unit 
costs  to  be  used.  Manufacturers  of  hydraulic  and  electrical  ma- 
chinery submitted  estimates  of  the  cost  of  the  various  mechanical 
installations.  The  experience  of  engineers  of  various  poAver  com- 
panies, the  city  engineer  of  Niagara  Falls,  and  other  engineers  and 
contractors  accustomed  to  dredging,  excavating,  tunneling,  or  build- 
ing along  the  Niagara  frontier  Avas  drawn  upon.  A  detailed  analysis 
of  the  elements  entering  into  the  cost  of  various  operations  Avas 
made.  From  the  Federal  Employment  Agency  and  several  large 
emploj^ers  of  labor  data  as  to  rates  of  Avages  Avere  secured.  Current 
prices  of  materials  and  equipment  Avere  obtained  from  various 
sources.  The  United  States  Railroad  Administration  gave  freight 
rates  for  transportation  of  machinery. 

The  proper  determination  of  costs  was  greatly  complicated  by  the 
rajDid  and  almost  continuous  advance  in  price  during  the  past  few 
years  of  many  classes  of  commodities  and  of  labor.  Most  published 
engineering  cost  data  pertain  to  a  period  Avhen  common  labor  was 
paid  15  cents  an  hour,  cement  cost  $1  to  $1.40  per  barrel,  and  steel 
shapes  cost  approximately  $1.75  per  hundred  pounds.  In  October, 
1918,  labor  was  scarce  at  50  cents  an  hour,  cement  cost  from  $2.50  to 
$3  per  barrel,  and  steel  shapes  cost  OA^er  $4  per  hundred.  The  prices 
of  many  important  materials  fluctuate  violently  from  month  to 
month.  The  estimates  giA^en  herein  are  based  on  conditions  as  of 
October,  1918.  Because  of  the  apparent  importance  of  speed  of 
development  most  of  the  construction  items  were  figured  on  a  basis 
of  three  8-hour  shifts  per  day.  The  unit  prices  are  the  prices  at 
which  it  is  assumed  contracts  Avould  be  let.  They  thus  include  con- 
tractors' profits,  liability  insurance,  and  expenses  of  organization 
and  administration.  To  these  haAe  been  added  10  per  cent  for  engi- 
neering, inspection,  accounting,  and  general  overhead  construction 
expenses,  and  15  per  cent  for  contingencies,  including  incomplete- 
ness of  the  design  on  which  estimates  are  based — damages,  omissions, 
losses,  labor  troubles,  delays,  and  other  unforeseen  and  unprevent- 
able  causes  of  extra  expense.  The  complete  estimates  include  cost 
of  real  estate  and  interest  during  construction,  but  do  not  include 
cost  of  promotion,  financing,  organizing,  buying  out  the  rights  of 
other  companies,  or  purchasing  and  installing  transformer  and  trans- 
mission equipment.  The  important  items  of  this  nature  are  treated 
in  Section  F  10. 

The  schedule  of  unit  prices  adopted  is  given  in  table  No.  28,  which 
is  self-explanatory  except  for  the  prices  on  tunnel  excavation.    The 


288      DIVERSION    OF   WATER    FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AXD   NIAGARA   RIVER, 

smaller  tunnels  were  of  circular  cross  section.  The  larofer  tunnels 
Tvere  of  horseshoe  cross  section,  with  the  followinjT  characteristics: 
Heif^ht  equal  to  horizontal  diameter  at  mid  hei<?ht ;  roof  arch  a  semi- 
circle of  radius  equal  to  semidiameter;  sides  tangent  to  roof  arch 
and  of  radius  equal  to  twice  the  diameter,  or  four  times  the  radius 
of  roof  arch:  invert  of  radius  twice  the  diameter.  The  thickness 
of  linin<r  was  assumed  to  varv  with  the  not  diameter  accordin<;  to 
tahle  Xo.  29. 

Table  No.  28. — Schedule  of  unit  prices  adopted. 


Class  and  description  of  work  aud  materials. 


Unit  price 
as  of  Octo- 
ber, 1918. 


"Earth  excavation: 

Small  jobs,  less  than  10,{X)0  cubic  yards Cubic  yard.. 

.Small  jobs,  less  than  10,000  cubic  yards,  in  cofferdam '• do 

Jobs  of  10,000  to  300,000  cubic  yards do 

Jobs  of  10,000  to  300,000  cubic  yards,  in  cofferdam do 

Long  canals,  very  large  yardage,  including  hardpan i do 

Backfill do 

^ock  excavation: 

Small  jobs,  less  than  10,000  cubic  yards do 

Small  jobs,  less  than  10,000  cubic  yards,  in  cofferdam do 

Jobs  of  1(),CH)0  to  3()0,0(K)  cubic  yards I do 

Jobs  of  10,(X)0  to  300,000  cubic  yards,  in  cofferdam do 

Deep  wheel  pits do 

Shafts do 


Power-house  site,  below  cliff ' do 

Power  canal  \\ith  channeled  sides,  including  channeling ' do 

Ship  canal,  200  feet  wide,  channeletl  sides,  including  chanueUng ' do 

Ship  canal,  300  feet  wide,  channeled  sides,  including  channeling do 

Ship  canal,  400  feet,  wide,  channeled  sides,  including  channeling do 

Lock  pits do 

Riprap ; do 

Dredging: 

Hardpan  in  river do 

Rock  in  river ' do 

Rock  in  hydraulic  canal do 

Cofferdams,  timber,  rock  filled,  timber  sheeted  (D=depth  of  water) Linear  foot.. 

Concrete:  I 

.Minor  jobs,  less  than  10,000  cubic  yards I  Cubic  yards . 

Power-house  substructure,  locks,"plain  walls,  and  linings,  10,000  yards    do 

or  more. 

Reinforced  arches,  columns,  beams,  1  per  cent  reinforcement do 

Ueinforced  concrete,  cost  of  reinforcement  not  included do 

Reinforcing  steel,  each  percent  per  cubic  yard  of  concrete do 

Road  pavement ". Square  yard. 

Tunnels: 

Drift  at  top,  8  feet  wide,  9  feet  high,  usually  timbered |  Cubic  yard. . 

ifealing,  lop,  do .vn  to  level  6  feet  below  drift,  usually  timbered do 

Bench,  not  timbered do 

Concrete  lining do 

Steel:  , 

Iron  and  steel,  common  or  plain  shapes,  not  fabricated i  Pound 

Racks,  penstocks,  frames,  etc.,  fabricate!  and  erected do 

Steel  castings do. 

Steel  forgings do. 


Other  metals,  bronze 

Oak  fenders,  etc.,  fabricated  and  placed 

Gates,  including  settings,  mechanisms,  and  motors,  i)er  square  foot  of  full 

opening. 
Buildings: 

Power  houses,  complete  with  cranes,  ventilating  and  heating  equipment, 

lighting  installation,  and  elevators. 
Oatehouses,etc.,withcranes,  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilating  systems. . 
Bridges: 

<  lass.V, country  roads, clear  span  58fcet, length  6.j  feet,  width  l.Sfeet 

Class  B,  main  roads  and  city  streets,  span  .■)t3 feet,  length 6') feel,  width 27 

feet. 
Class  C",  main  roads  and  city  streets,  two  trollev  tracks,  length  65  feet, 
width  60  feet. 

Class  I),  single-track  railway,  clear  span  56  feet,  length  65  feet 

Class  E,  railway  with  two  or  more  tracks,  65  feet  long,  per  track 

Class  F,  electric  railway  with  two  tracks,  length  65  feet 

Swing,  bascule,  and  fixwl  bridges  for  ship  canal,  not  given  in  detail 

Switchboards — switches,  switchboards,  busses,  connections  to  generators, 
and  mochaDlsms. 


do 

-M  feet  b.  m.. 
Square  foot . . 


.do. 


do... 

Bridge.. 
do... 

do.. 


do. 

Track.. 
Bridge. 


$1.50 
2.00 
L25 
1.75 
.65 
.45 

3.75 
4.25 
3.00 
3.50 
5.00 
12.00 
3.50 
2.25 
2.00 
1.95 
1.90 
2. 2^ 
1  00 

1.25 

6.  .50 

25.00 

D«.40 

15.00 

12.00 
25.00 
15.00 
10.00 
3.00 

15. 00 
9.00 
4.00 

14.00 

.07 
.10 
.12 
.20 
.SO 
150.00 
30.00 


15.00 

12. 00 

4,000.00 
8,000.00 

35,000.00 

20, 000.  00 
18,000.00 
18, 001. 00 


Kilowatt. 


2.25 


DIVERSION   or  WATER  FR0:M  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER.      289 

TAni.E  Xo.  28 — f!r]i('(J}i]c  of  iniil  pricr><  (idcjttvd-Coiithnicil. 

Generating  units. 

[Tncliules  (iirbines  from  i)enstock  connection  to  concrete  draft  tube,  generator  on  same  vertical  shaft,  wilh 
Kingsbury  bearing  and  individual  exciter  and  governor.] 


Head. 

Ma.\i- 

inum 

capacity. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Price  f.  0.  b  factory. 

Freight 

and 
erection 
per  unit. 

Freight 

and 
erection 

per 
horse- 
power. 

Frcifiht, 
erection. 

Case. 

Per 
horse- 
power. 

Per 
unit. 

and 
switch 
gear  per 
horse- 
power. 

1  

Feet. 

90 

90 

216 

300 

300 

Horse- 
power. 
15, 500 

125 

$16. 00 
15.50 
15.00 
14.  .50 
14.10 

$248, 000 
341, 000 
585,000 
319, 000 
550,000 

$19, 000 
26,000 
44,000 
24,000 
41,000 

$1.23 
1.18 
1.13 
1.09 
1.05 

$3.48 

2 

22,000  !           100 
39,000  1            150 
22, 000              250 
39,000              214 

3.43 

3 

3.38 

4 

3.34 

5. 

3.30 

Johnsou  valves. — Head,  100;  cost  in  i)hice,  $43,000. 
$53,000.     FTead,  300;  cost  in  place.  $63,000. 


Heud,  200 ;  cost  iu  place, 


Table  No.  29.— Thickness  of  concrete  lindng  in  funnels. 


Net 
diameter 
of  tunnel. 

Net 
thickness 
of  Uning. 

Average 
gross  thick- 
ness of 
lining. 

Feet. 
4 
8 
12 
15 
16 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
.50 

Feet. 
1.3S 
1.42 
1.46 
1.50 
1.51 
1.56 
1.63 
1.72 
1.83 
1.98 
2.20 
2.50 

Feet. 
1.88 
1.92 
1.96 
2.00 
2.01 
2.06 
2.13 
2.22 
2.33 
2.48 
2.70 
3.00 

The  average  thickness  of  concrete  assumed  as  necessary  to  line  the 
overbreak  was  one-half  foot.  Excavation  yardage  was  computed  to 
the  average  overbreak  line.  It  was  assumed  that  in  each  case  a  drift 
9  feet  high  and  8  feet  wide  would  first  be  driven  on  the  center  line 
at  the  top  of  the  excavation,  this  work  to  cost  $15  per  cubic  yard,  in- 
cluding such  timbering  as  found  necessary.  The  drift  was  to  be 
followed  by  a  heading  completing  the  excavation  down  to  a  hori- 
zontal line,  15  feet  below  top  of  drift,  and  costing  $9  per  cubic  yard, 
including  any  necessary  timbering.  The  balance  of  the  excavation 
was  taken  as  bench  work  at  $4  per  cubic  yard.  Plain  concrete  lining 
was  assumed  at  $14  per  cubic  yard.  On  these  assumptions  the  costs 
of  tunnels  per  linear  foot  were  computed  to  be  as  given  in  Table 
No.  30. 


27880—21- 


-19 


290      DI^•EES10N   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  :^IAGARA  RIVER. 
Table  No.  30. — Estimated  cost  of  tunnels  per  linear  foot. 


Section. 

Net 
diameter. 

Cost. 

Section. 

Net 
diameter. 

Cost. 

Circular 

Feet. 
4 
8 
12 
16 
20 
15 
20 

$44 
84 
127 
169 
213 
167 
225 

Fed. 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 

293 

Do 

Do 

365 

Do 

Do 

450 

Do 

Do... 

545 

Do 

Do 

660 

Horsc-^hoe 

Do 

794 

Do 

Costs  for  intermediate  diameters  were  interpolated.  In  the  case 
of  tapering  sections  of  tunnel.  10  per  cent  was  added  to  tabulated  cost 
for  moan  diameter.  For  circular  tunnels  of  steep  slope,  when  more 
than  20  feet  in  diameter,  or  for  vertical  circular  risers  of  similar  size 
and  thickness  of  lining,  the  price  taken  was  150  per  cent  of  the  tabu- 
lated cosi  of  horseshoe  tunnels  of  equal  net  diameters. 

In  arriving  at  the  construction  costs  given  in  subsequent  ])arts  of 
this  section  it  was  necessary  in  each  case  to  assume  a  fixed  set  of 
conditions.  The  conditions  peculiar  to  each  case  are,  for  the  most 
])art,  embodied  in  the  outline  designs,  which  define  in  a  general  way 
the  required  construction,  materials,  and  equipment,  the  fundamental 
assumptions  common  to  all  the  projects,  in  addition  to  the  unit  costs 
and  tunnel  characteristics  already  explained,  are  as  follows:  (1)  That 
each  project  should  provide  for  the  utilization  of  20,000  cubic  feet 
of  water  per  second  in  approximately  the  most  economical  manner 
consistent  with  requirements  of  the  project.  (2)  That  economic  de- 
sign sliould  be  based  on  an  assumed  value  of  electric  energ}-  on  the 
bus  bars  of  $15  per  horsepower  supplied  continuous^  for  one  year. 
In  this  connection  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cost  factors 
omitted,  namely,  promotion,  financing,  organizing,  purchase  of 
rights,  and  purchasing  and  installing  transformer  and  transmission 
e(piipment,  Avould  add  considerably  to  this  figure,  making  the  cost  at 
any  customer's  premises  $1C  to  $20  under  very  favorable  circum- 
stances. (3)  That  sufficient  funds  could  be  secured  at  an  interest 
rate  of  5^  per  cent  per  annum.  (4)  That  a  depreciation  allowance 
of  2i  per  cent  of  the  entire  construction  cost  to  date  would  be  set 
aside  annually  in  a  depreciation  reserve.  (5)  That  the  annual 
taxes  and  insurance  charges  against  the  productive  portion  of  the 
l>lant  would  be  2  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  such  pro<luctive  porti(ms. 
(G)  That  the  assumed  prices  of  pai'cels  of  land  and  of  rights  of  wa}'' 
were  sufficient  to  co\er  agents'  and  lawyers'  fees  and  costs  of  any 
necessary  condemnation  proceedings.  (7)  That  no  taxes  would  be 
assessed  against  incomplete  or  nonproductive  works,  and  any  taxes 
assessed  against  nonproductive  lands  would  be  charged  to  contingen- 
cies. (8)  That  machinery  installed  in  the  power  houses  would  be 
of  sufficient  capacity'  to  cany  full  load  in  each  power  house  with  one 
unit  shut  down,  tlie  generators  being  able  to  carry  full  tui-bine  load 
at  90  per  cent  power  factor.  (9)  That  the  over-all  efficiency  of 
turbine  and  generator  combined  would  be  SG  per  cent,  including 
excitation  and  all  hydraulic  losses  from  lower  end  of  penstock  to 
tail-water  beyond  draft  tube.  (10)  That  construction  would  be 
rushed,  most  of  the  work  being  done  in  three  S-hour  shifts  per  day. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     291 

(11)   That  the  market  for  power  would  build  up  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  absorb  all  the  power  as  soon  as  it  could  be  produced. 

In  the  hydraulic  computations  the  Kutter  foiinula  was  used,  the 
value  of  "■  N  "  being  taken  at  O.OIH  for  tunnels  lined  with  concrete, 
0.028  for  canals  in  rock  Avith  channeled  sides  exca^'ated  in  the  dry, 
and  0.050  for  the  Hydi-aulic  Canal  deepened  by  dredging. 

The  stated  power  outputs  of  the  Aai'ious  plants  are  for  electric 
energy  at  the  bus  bars,  the  characteristics  being  12,000  volts,  3  phase, 
25  cycles  per  second.  Power  is  based  on  continuous  operation  of  the 
plant  in  good  condition  and  at  best  efficiency.  The  full  diversion  of 
20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  is  assumed  to  be  used  and  mean 
river  stage  to  prevail,  as  previously  stated.  The  fact  should  not  be 
ignored  that  the  extreme  range  of  river  stage  at  Port  Day  is  from 
about  559  to  about  566,  the  mean  being  562.  The  range  in  the  Maid 
of  the  Mist  Pool  is  about  four  times  as  great,  and  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. At  the  site  of  proposed  power  houses  in  the  lower  gorge  the 
fluctuation  is  about  two  and  one-half  times  what  it  is  at  Port  Day. 
All  elevations  given  in  this  report  are  in  feet  above  United  States 
standard  datum,  the  zero  of  which  refers  to  elevation  of  mean  tide 
at  New  York,  and  they  are  based  on  the  adjustment  of  this  datum 
made  in  1903, 

In  regard  to  the  scliemes  which  have  been  worked  out  rather  com- 
pletely it  should  be  stated  that  the  intent  was  to  prepare  outline 
layouts  and  designs  in  sufficient  detail  to  give  in  each  case  a  definite 
basis  for  a  fair  estimate  of  the  construction  cost.  Great  pains  were 
taken  that  all  essential  major  details  should  be  in  accord  with  sound 
engineering  principles  and  should  be  thoroughly  practical.  Beyond 
this  it  was  not  intended  to  go.  The  plans  described  and  ilhistratecl 
are  not  final  designs.  All  minor  details  are  omitted.  The  outline 
designs  are  made  angular  to  simplify  computation  of  quantities. 
In  case  any  one  of  these  projects  should  be  adopted  it  would  be 
necessary  to  design  carefully  and  in  detail  each  essential  feature. 
What  seemed  to  be  the  best  ideas  and  suggestions  from  whatever 
source  were  utilized.  Acknowledgments  in  detail  are  considered  out 
of  place  in  the  main  portion  of  such  a  report,  but  are  given  in  general 
terms  in  Appendix  K.  The  outline  drawings  are  best  designated 
as  sketches  and  are  intended  only  to  illustrate  the  main  features  of 
each  scheme  for  which  an  estimate  of  cost  was  prepared. 

In  determining  the  most  economical  size  of  tunnel,  canal,  or  other 
structure  of  prime  importance  the  principle  followed  was  that 
greatest  economy  was  secured  by  using  the  size  which  made  the  sum 
of  the  annual  fixed  charges  upon  it  and  the  annual  value  of  power 
lost  because  of  it  a  minimum.  Economical  sizes  were  not  determined 
with  great  exactness;  partly  because  it  was  believed  that  tunnels  and 
canals  at  Niagara  Falls  should  be  made  a  little  larger  than  present 
economy  demands,  both  to  provide  more  power,  even  if  at  a  slightly 
higher  rate,  and  to  anticipate  improvements  in  the  shorter  lived 
generating  machinery;  partly  because  best  economy  was  dependent 
not  only  on  the  estimated  construction  costs  and  fixed  charges,  but 
also  on  the  assumed  selling  price  of  electrical  energy,  and  partly 
because  preliminary  computations  on  the  estimates  had  in  some 
cases  progressed  beyond  the  point  of  fixing  economical  sizes  before 
the  final  unit  prices  and  percentage  fixed  charges  had  been  adopted 
and  recomputation  was  deemed  an  unwarranted  refinement. 


2y2    MVERsiox  or  water  from  great  lakes  axd  niagaka  river. 

The  dili'erential  surge  tanks  provided  in  several  of  the  estimates 
were  calcuhited  to  regulate  hydraulic  conditions  involved  in  starting 
up  one  unit  at  a  time  and  in  shutting  down  the  entire  plant  sud- 
denly. Provision  was  made  to  hold  all  the  water  in  the  tank  in  the 
second  i-ase,  although  the  tank  might  be  somewhat  less  expensive  if 
designed  to  waste  a  portion  of  it. 

In  computing  time  of  completion  and  interest  during  construc- 
tion it  was  assumetl  tliat  the  machinery  and  electrical  equipment  of 
one  unit  could  be  procured,  installed,  and  made  ready  for  operation 
in  one  year,  and  the  other  units  one  every  three  months  thereafter. 
'J'his  assumption  was  based  on  statements  made  by  manufacturers. 
Other  time  estimates  were  based  on  the  progress  made  on  similar 
jobs. 

The  estimates  which  follow  are  believed  to  form  a  satisfactory  and 
reliable  basis  for  comparing  the  cost  of  the  different  propositions 
coiL^idered.  The  actual  cost  of  any  future  plants  will  depend  to  a 
very  large  extent  upon  the  future  prices  of  labor  and  materials, 
which  in  the  present  unsettled  state  of  affairs  can  not  be  forecast. 
Had  the  state  of  the  science  and  art  of  hydroelectric  practice  been 
such  that  similar  plants  could  have  been  built  in  1908  the  cost  would 
have  been  only  about  40  per  cent  of  the  cost  in  1918.  To  predict 
whether  costs  will  continue  to  rise  or  will  tend  to  approximate  the 
old  values  is,  of  course,  impossible. 

2.    PRESENT  NIAGARA  FALLS  PLANTS. 

Early  history. — The  first  recorded  use  of  the  water  power  of  the 
Niagara  River  was  in  the  j'ear  1725,  when  a  French  settler  is  said 
to  have  built  a  small  sawmill  on  the  edge  of  tlie  rajnds  just  above 
the  Falls.  During  the  centur}'  that  followed  various  simihir  installa- 
tions were  made,  until,  in  1825,  three  gristmills,  two  sawmills,  and 
a  paper  mill  were  operating  on  Niagara  Kiver  power.  These  were 
all  crude  affairs,  utilizing  but  a  few  feet  of  head  and  an  insignificant 
fraction  of  the  water  to  generate  the  power  required  to  satisfy  the 
modest  needs  of  a  frontier  village.  Mills  of  this  type  continued  to 
be  built  from  time  to  time  during  the  middle  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  the  possibility  of  power  development  on  a  grander  scale 
was  early  realized  by  farseeing  men.  De  Witt  Clinton,  the  father 
of  the  Erie  Canal,  in  1810  wrote  in  his  journal  that  Niagara  Falls 
is  "  the  best  place  for  hydraulic  works  in  the  world."  In  1853  the 
construction  of  the  Hydraulic  Canal,  the  first  large-scale  project,  was 
commenced,  and  in  1872  the  first  mill  on  this  canal  began  to  operate. 
The  year  1879  marks  the  first  use  of  Niagara  power  to  generate 
electricity.  The  construction  of  the  first  large,  modern  electric  sta- 
tion was  begun  in  1890  and  was  completed  in  1895.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  two  more  stations,  and  in  1914  the  American  ])ower  phmts 
reached  their  present  state  of  develo]jment.  Photograph  No.  139  is 
of  one  of  the  earlier  developments.  It  shows  in  the  upper  view  the 
paper  mill  on  Green  Island  as  it  existed  in  1885,  and  in  the  lower 
view  the  appearance  of  the  same  site  after  restoration  of  the  natural 
scenery  by  tlie  park  commission.  Photograph  No.  140  is  a  reproduc- 
tion of  an  old  map  of  Niagara  Falls,  showincr  the  location  of  power 
developments  then  existing  and  the  proposed  location  of  the  Hydrau- 
lic Canal 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER.     293 

Hi  star  1/  of  the  HydrauJic  Poorer  Co. — The  eiirliesl  sup-<>festion  of 
what  was  afterAvards  known  as  the  Hydraulic  Canal  seems  to  have 
come  from  Auf^istus  Porter  in  1842.  Five  years  later  he  and  Peter 
Emslie.  a  civil  engineer,  published  a  plan  for  such  a  work.  On  March 
22.  1853,  the  Nia<jara  Falls  Hydraulic  Co.  was  incorporated.  Its 
paid-up  capital  stock  was  $500,000,  which  it  Avas  authorized  to  in- 
crease to  $5,000,000.  Its  president  was  Calel)  S.  Woodhull,  ex-mayor 
of  New  York  Cit}^  but  Horace  II.  Day  soon  became  the  movinpr 
spirit  of  the  concern,  and  the  completion  of  the  canal  was  laro-dy 
due  to  his  enerjiv  and  persistence.  The  project  comprised  a  canal 
70  feet  wide  and  10  feet  deep,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  Ions:. 
The  canal  was  to  start  from  a  point  about  1  mile  above  the  Falls  and 
terminate  in  a  basin  near  the  edge  of  the  Gorge  about  half  a  mile 
below  the  Falls.  The  basin  was  to  be  about  half  a  mile  long,  and 
between  it  and  the  edge  of  the  cliff  were  the  mill  sites,  where  the 
water  was  to  be  used  under  moderate  heads  and  then  spilled  over 
the  cliff.  The  estimated  capacity  of  the  canal  was  2.436  cubic  feet 
per  second.  The  works  projected,  including  the  route  of  the  canal 
as  finally  constructed,  are  shown  on  photograph  No.  140. 

The  compan}^  acquired  a  lOO-foot  right  of  way  for  the  canal  from 
the  Porter  family  and  about  80  acres  of  land  for  mill  sites.  The 
route  was  surveyed  by  E.  E.  Blackwell,  civil  engineer,  of  Buffalo,  and 
a  contract  for  the  excavation  was  let  to  Latham,  Gage  &  Halves  for 
the  sum  of  $136,000.  Construction  began  on  April  20,  1853.  Water 
was  admitted  in  1856,  and  the  canal  was  considered  complete  in  1861. 
As  actually  constructed,  it  was  only  36  feet  wide  and  8  feet  deep. 
The  official  opening  of  the  canal  in  1857  was  the  occasion  of  a  popular 
celebration,  three  small  steamers  formally  opening  navigation  from 
the  upper  Niagara  River  to  Port  Day,  at  the  head  of  the  canal. 
There  the  enterprise  came  to  a  standstill.  During  the  next  16  years 
only  one  small  tenant  was  obtained  to  utilize  the  company's  power. 
This  was  a  small  flour  mill,  developing  150  horsepower  under  25  feet 
head,  which  was  built  in  1872  by  C.  B.  Gaskill.  It  is  now  owned  and 
operated  by  the  Cataract  City  Milling  Co.  Lack  of  market  for  the 
power  bankrupted  the  company,  and  the  stockholders'  investment, 
about  $1,000,000,  was  practically  a  total  loss. 

In  1877  Jacob  ¥.  Schoellkop'f.  of  Buffalo,  and  A.  M.  Chesbrough 
bought  the  rights  and  property  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Co. 
at  a  very  low  figure.  The  following  year  Schoellkopf  bought  up 
Chesbrough's  interest  and  organized  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic 
Power  &  Manufacturing  Co.  with  a  capital  of  $10,000.  An  important 
part  of  the  consideration  that  Chesbrough  received  for  his  interest 
was  a  mill  site  between  the  basin  and  the  cliff  and  the  right  to  draw 
from  the  basin  an  amount  of  water  "  equal  to  900  horsepower  under 
a  head  of  50  feet."  Two  daj^s  later  Chesbrough  sold  this  land  and 
Avater  right  to  Capt.  Charles  B.  Gaskill.  Gaskill  built  a  grist  mill 
on  his  new  property.  From  this  grant  the  Pettebone-Cataract  Paper 
Co.  deriA-es  most  of  its  present  rights. 

Not  long  afterwards  the  Schoellkopf  interests  built  a  flour  mill, 
Avhich  is  still  operating  and  is  known  as  the  Schoellkopf  &.  Matthews 
Mill.  In  1880  a  paper  mill  leased  land  and  water  power,  and  from 
that  time  on  the  number  of  tenant  companies  and  the  amount  of 
power  developed  increased  rapidly.  The  first  water  Avheel  had  been 
installed  under  a  25-foot  head,  but  as  the  design  of  wheels  improved 


294      DR'ERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

the  he:ul  was  increased  to  a  maximum  of  nearly  100  feet,  and  in  some 
instances  the  tail  water  from  one  installation  was  collected  and  passed 
thi'ouirh  another  wlieel. 

In  l.ScSl  the  Xia^rara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  &  Manufacturingr  Co. 
installed  electric  generators  in  what  came  to  be  called  its  Station 
No.  1.  and  sold  electric  power  to  various  manufacturers  and  to  the 
vilhifre.  '  This  marks  the  first  commercial  development  of  electric 
power  at  Xiaofara.  although  the  Falls  and  park  had  been  illuminated 
]3y  a  small  i)rivate  electric  plant  two  years  previously.  Station  1 
contained  three  units,  operating  under  a  head  of  75  feet,  and  develop- 
ing a  total  of  1.800  horsepower.  This  plant  was  later  leased  to  the 
Cliff  Paper  Co.  During  the  eighties  and  early  nineties  a  very  con- 
sideial)le  industrial  district  was  built  up  in  the  vicinity  of  the  basin, 
consisting  chiefly  of  flour  mills,  paper  mills,  and  electroplating 
establishments. 

In  1892  the  enlargement  of  the  canal  to  a  width  of  70  feet  and  a 
depth  of  14  feet  was  commenced.  Meanwhile  the  rapid  development 
of  electrical  and  hydraulic  machinery  and  of  electrochemical  proc- 
esses and  tlie  example  set  by  the  immense  project  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co.  led  the  company  to  undertake  the  generation  of  electricity 
on  a  larger  scale.  In  1895.  the  year  when  the  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Co.  iii'.st  began  to  generate  power,  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power 
t^c  Manufacturing  Co.  began  the  construction  of  a  new  power  house, 
known  as  Station  No.  2.  This  was  the  first  installation  on  the  canal 
which  was  designed  to  use  the  total  available  head.  It  was  built  at 
the  foot  of  the  cliff  and  received  its  water  by  penstocks  from  a  fore 
bay  connected  with  the  basin  by  two  flumes.  It  contained  16  turbines, 
with  a  total  rated  capacity  of  31,250  horsepower.  These  drove  31 
generators,  with  a  total  rated  capacity  of  22,980  kilowatts.  The  tur- 
bines wei"e  owned  by  the  power  company,  but  most  of  the  generators 
Avere  the  property  of  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Co.,  which  purchased 
meclianical  power  from  the  water  ])ower  company.  This  plant  first 
deliveied  power  in  December.  1896.  and  Avas  completed  in  1901. 
Photograph  No.  141  is  of  the  fore  bay  and  photograph  No.  142  of  the 
];ower  station  of  this  develo]:)ment  while  under  construction.  As 
illustrating  one  of  the  difficulties  which  had  to  be  contended  with, 
photograph  No.  143  is  given,  showing  the  roof  of  Station  No.  2 
cruslied  in  by  ice  falling  from  the  face  of  the  cliff.  One-third  of  the 
machinery  was  covered  with  ice  and  debris.  The  company  was  put  to 
considerable  expense,  both  to  re]:)air  the  damage  and  also  to  build  a 
high  masonry  wall  for  retaining  the  ice. 

The  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  and  the  opening  years  of  the 
succeeding  century  saw  a  vast  development  of  tlie  electrochemical 
industries  which  was,  in  no  small  measure,  inspired  hy  the  large 
amounts  of  cheap  electric  power  available  at  Niagara  Falls.  The.se 
years  saw  the  invention  or  commercial  development  of  the  processes 
for  making  aluminum,  calcium  carbide,  carborundum,  artificial 
graphite,  and  other  products  which  before  had  been  either  unknown 
or  known  only  as  rare  and  expensive  curiosities.  These  new  indus- 
tries were  largely  dependent  upon  the  Niagara  electrical  de\elop- 
ments,  and  the  demand  for  power  soon  outran  the  capacity  of  the 
plants.  In  1904  a  new  power  plant,  station  3,  was  begun,  together 
with  a  further  enlargement  of  the  canal.  Station  3  followed  the 
general  plan  of  station  2,  but  had  larger  and  more  efficient  machines, 


DrVERSIQN  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     295 

and,  in  general,  embodied  the  most  recent  advances  of  hydraulic  and 
electric  eno;ineerinff.  Its  13  turbines  had  a  rated  capacity  of  i;}0,000 
horsepower.  The  first  unit  in  this  plant  be<;an  to  operate  in  Septem- 
ber. 1907,  and  the  thirteenth,  or  last,  unit  in  August,  1914.  In  the 
meantime  the  company  had  changed  its  name  to  "  Hydraulic  Power 
Co."  ^  '  . 

The  Burton  Act,  approved  Jmie  29,  1906,  and  the  permit  subse- 
quently issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  limited  the  amount  of  water 
the  company  could  divert  from  Niagara  River  to  C,500  cubic  feet  per 
second.  As  a  given  amount  of  water  would  develop  much  more 
power  in  the  new  electric  stations  than  in  the  low-head  developments 
of  the  tenant  companies,  the  latter  were  gradually  induced  to  ex- 
change their  old  water-power  rights  or  leases  for  supplies  of  electric 
power.  At  present  there  is  only  one  company,  the  Pettebone-Cata- 
ract  Paper  Co.,  which,  together  with  its  subsidiary,  the  Cataract  City 
Milling  Co.,  retains  the  right  and  continues  to  use  water  from  the 
basin  under  a  comparatively  low^  head.  The  history  and  plant  of 
this  company  will  be  described  later. 

P7'esent  flant  of  Hydraulic  Poioer  Co. — On  plate  No.  28  is  a  map 
showing  the  location  of  the  hydraulic  canal  and  basin,  the  two  power 
plants  of  the  company,  and  their  relation  to  the  Falls.  The  entrance 
of  the  canal  at  Port  Day  is  about  200  feet  wide.  This  is  diminished 
in  the  first  400  feet  to  a  width  of  100  feet  at  the  Buffalo  Avenue 
Bridge,  which  width  is  maintained  to  the  basin.  The  depth  in  the 
tapering  section  varies  from  12  to  16  feet.  The  company  is  now 
engaged  in  deepening  it.  In  the  river  outside  of  the  entrance  are 
various  piers  designed  as  anchorages  for  wooden  booms  whose  pur- 
pose is  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  ice  into  the  canal.  The  company 
is  now  replacing  these  by  more  extensive  structures  of  the  same  kind 
and  is  dredging  a  deeper  channel  from  the  canal  entrance  out  into 
deep  water.  The  depth  of  the  canal  itself  varies  considerably,  the 
mean  being  about  16  feet  at  ordinary  stages.  The  canal  was  cut 
through  a  hard  limestone  formation,  the  so-called  Lockport  dolomite. 
Its  sides  and  bottom  are  very  rough  and  uneven  as  a  result  of  suc- 
cessive enlargements  which  have  been  accomplished  by  drilling,  blast- 
ing, and  dredging  under  water.  Hydraulic  measurements  by  the 
Lake  Survey  in  1914  showed  a  value  of  "  Kutter's  N  "  of  about  0.050. 
The  length  of  the  canal  is  about  4,700  feet. 

The  basin  at  the  lower  end  of  the  canal  runs  parallel  to  the  cliff, 
spreading  out  in  both  directions  from  the  line  of  the  canal.  It  is 
about  70  feet  wide  and  800  feet  long.  On  plate  No.  29  are  shown  the 
basin,  its  connections,  and  the  power  houses.  From  the  south  end  of 
the  basin  two  covered  flumes  about  170  feet  apart  and  270  feet  long 
carry  the  water  for  station  2  to  a  fore  bay  under  the  gate  house  near 
the  edge  of  the  cliff.  Near  the  center  of  the  basin  two  covered 
flumes  carry  w^ater  to  the  wheels  of  the  Pettebone-Cataract  Co.  and 
Cataract  City  Milling  Co.  From  the  north  end  of  the  basin  a  con- 
crete-lined canal  50  feet  wide  leads  under  the  road  and  railroad,  some 
300  feet,  to  the  fore  bay  of  station  3,  at  the  edge  of  the  bluff. 

Station  2  is  a  rectangular  building  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff  below  its 
fore  bay.  It  is  about  110  feet  wide  and  165  feet  long.  From  the 
racks  and  gates  at  the  fore  bay  the  water  is  led  over  the  edge  of  the 
cliff  and  then  vertically  down  to  the  power  house  in  two  steel  pen- 
stocks 11  feet  in  diameter.    The  8-foot  penstock  which  formerly  sup- 


296      PR'ERSIOX   OF  WATER  FKO.AI   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

plied  four  wheels  in  the  north  end  of  the  power  house  has  been  re- 
moved. The  penstocks  run  horizontally  under  the  power  house  and 
terminate  near  its  western  wall,  where  they  are  supplied  with  air 
chambers  and  relief  valves.  Vertical  branches  from  the  penstocks 
rise  to  the  nine  turbines  on  the  floor  above,  five  of  which  are  fed  by 
one  penstock  and  four  by  the  other.  The  turbines  are  of  the  hori- 
zontal shaft  type  with  cylindrical  cases,  double  runners,  and  two 
draft  tubes.  They  ranjxe  in  rated  output  from  2,300  to  2,900  horse- 
power each,  with  the  total  of  23,600  horsepower. 

Each  turbine  drives  two  2:enerators.  direct-connected,  one  on  each 
side.  These  are  direct-current  machines,  with  a  total  rated  ca])acit3' 
of  15.750  kilowatts.  They  are  connected  in  parallel  and  suppl}'  cur- 
rent at  330  volts,  which  is  transmitted  to  the  top  of  the  cliff,  where 
it  is  used  in  plant  No.  2  of  the  Aluminum  Co.  of  America. 

The  50-foot  canal  from  the  north  end  of  the  basin  passes  first  under 
a  gatehouse,  southeast  of  the  railroad  track,  where  there  are  three 
large  gates  that  can  be  closed  for  unw^atering  the  fore  bay.  Then, 
passing  under  the  tracks,  it  makes  a  bend  of  about  70°  to  the  right. 
On  tlie  outside  of  this  curve  are  the  three  lO-foot  gates  of  the  ice  run. 
A  steel  girder  across  the  canal  dips  several  feet  into  the  water  and 
diverts  floating  ice  and  trash  toward  the  ice  run.  The  canal  then 
enters  the  gatehouse,  where  it  forms  a  fore  ba}''  400  feet  long,  50  feet 
wide  at  one  end  and  15  at  the  other,  and  22  feet  deep.  A  continuous  row 
of  racks  runs  along  the  west  side  of  the  fore  bay,  and  behind  them 
are  the  bell-mouthed  entrances  of  the  15  penstocks.  Each  penstock 
is  provided  with  gate,  air  vent,  b^'-pass.  and  drain.  Besides  housing 
the  fore  bay  and  its  appurtenances,  the  gatehouse  contains  a  machine 
shop,  a  small  transformer  station,  and  the  offices  of  the  company.  All 
the  buildings  are  of  a  rough-stone  masonry  that  harmonizes  with  the 
face  of  the  cliff  and  has  a  very  attractive  appearance.  A  great  wall 
of  the  same  masonry  hides  the  15  steel  penstocks  which  descend  the 
cliff  to  station  3.  Thirteen  of  these  penstocks  are  9  feet  in  diameter, 
and  the  other  two,  serving  the  exciters,  are  5  feet  each.  Station  3  is 
a  masonry  building  100  feet  wide  and  nearlj^  500  feet  long,  divided 
by  a  longitudinal  partition  into  a  turbine  room  adjacent  to  the  cliff 
and  a  generator  room  toward  the  river. 

The  turbines,  built  by  I.  P.  Morris  &  Co.,  are  of  the  horizontal 
shaft  type,  with  cast-iron  scroll  cases,  double  runners,  wicket  gates, 
double  draft  tubes,  and  bursting  plates.  There  are  13  turbines  of 
10,000  horsepower,  each  of  which  is  served  by  one  of  the  9-foot  pen- 
stocks. Together  they  total  130,000  mechanical  horsepower.  Each 
of  the  two  5-foot  penstocks  serves  a  1,000-horsepower  I.  P.  Morris 
turbine  similar  to  the  large  machines,  but  having  single,  unbalanced 
runners,  and  only  one  draft  tube  apiece.  Tliey  are  used  to  drive  the 
exciters. 

The  draft  tubes  discharge  into  tailrace  passages  18  feet  wide  and 
68  feet  long,  which  run  transversely  under  the  power  house,  each 
race  having  a  weir  at  its  outer  end  ovei"  which  the  water  from  the 
turbine  is  discharged  into  the  river,  and  by  means  of  which  the 
water  surface  in  tlie  tailrace  is  held  sufficiently^  bigh  to  seal  the  draft 
tube.  The  weirs  and  turbine  settings  were  constructed  at  such  an 
elevation  as  to  leave  about  3|  feet  of  tlie  total  available  head  unde- 
veloped under  average  conditions. 


DIVEESION    OF   WATER   FRO:\r   flRF.AT  LAKES   AXD   NIAOAEA   RIVEr..      297 

The  turbines  arc  numbered  successively  from  1  to  15,  bef^inninj^  at 
the  south  end.  Nos.  1,  2,  4,  5,  6,  7.  9,  and  10  each  have  a  sinfjle  alter- 
nator on  the  shaft  in  the  ijenerator  room.  These  arc  Allis-Clialmers 
generators  of  the  Bullock  type,  with  internal  revolving  fields,  and 
they  operate  at  a  speed  of  300  revolutions  per  minute,  delivering 
3-phase  current  at  25  cycles  and  12,000  volts.  Each  has  a  rated  ca- 
pacity of  8,500  kilovolt  am])cres.  Turbine  No.  3  drives  one  250-volt, 
3.000-ampere,  direct-current  generator  at  450  revolutions  per  minute. 
Turbine  No.  8  drives  two  fairly  similar  machines.  These  three  gen- 
erators furnish  the  exciting  current  for  the  fields  of  the  alternators. 

Turbines  Nos.  11, 12, 13,  14,  and  15  each  drive  two  General  Electric 
Co.  direct-current  generators,  direct-connected  on  the  shaft.  These 
machines,  which  are  rated  at  3,500  kilowatts  each,  operate  at  about 
650  volts  and  300  revolutions  per  minute.  They  are  operated  in 
parallel. 

Along  a  gallery  behind  the  generators  are  the  gate-control  mecha- 
nisms aud  governors.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  generator  room  are 
two  galleries  carrying  the  switchboards,  control  desks,  and  station 
instruments.  The  equipment  on  one  gallery  pertains  to  the  alter- 
nating-current generators  and  exciters,  while  that  on  the  other  per- 
tains to  the  direct-current  generators.  The  oil  switches,  reactors, 
instrument  transformers,  and  all  other  bulky  or  high-tension  acces- 
sories are  on  the  main  floor  or  in  the  basement.  Plate  No.  30  shows 
a  typical  cross-section  of  station  3. 

The  static  transformers  are  in  the  gatehouse  building.  These  are 
step-down  transformers,  as  all  transmission  is  either  at  generator 
voltage,  12,000,  or  at  a  lower  voltage.  Near  plant  No.  2  of  the 
Aluminum  Co.  is  a  substation  where  several  rotary  converters  are 
operated.  These  are  fed  from  the  alternating-current  commercial 
lines,  and  produce  direct  current  for  use  in  near-by  factories.  The 
Aluminum  Co.  also  has  a  rotary  substation  near  its  plant  No.  3, 
where  some  of  the  alternating  current  is  converted  into  direct  cur- 
rent at  650  volts  for  use  in  that  plant. 

The  Hj^draulic  Power  Co.  owned  no  electric  machinery  and  pro- 
duced no  electric  power.  It  owned  the  turbines  and  sold  mechanical 
poAver  to  the  Cliff  Electrical  Distributing  Co.  and  the  Aluminum 
Co.  of  America.  The  generators  in  station  2  belong  to  the  Aluminum 
Co.  and  are  operated  by  them,  their  output  being  used  entirely  in 
Aluminiun  plant  No.  2,  which  is  directly  above  the  power  house. 
In  like  manner  the  Aluminum  Co.  owns  and  operates  the  direct- 
current  equipment  in  station  3  and  uses  the  electric  power  at  the 
top  of  the  cliff  in  its  plant  No.  3.  The  alternating-current  machinery 
and  equipment  in  station  3  was  the  proi)erty  of  the  Cliff  Electrical 
Distributing  Co.,  which  transmitted  electrical  energy  and  sold  it  to 
many  industrial  concerns  in  and  near  the  city  of  Niagara  Falls.  The 
transmission  lines  of  this  company  were  almost  wholly  in  under- 
ground conduits,  and  the  most  distant  transmission  was  to  the 
Electro-Metallurgical  Co.,  about  3  miles. 

Station  2  was  designed  more  than  20  years  ago,  and  is  much  less 
efficient  than  a  modern  ]ilant  would  be,  although  there  are  only  two 
stations  at  Niagara  Falls  which  produce  more  horsepower  per  cubic 
foot  of  water  diverted,  namely,  station  No.  3  of  the  Hydraulic 
Power  Co.  and  the  plant  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.     The  turbiues 


298    Dn'ERSiox  of  watee  from  great  lakes  and  kiag^vea  river. 

aiitl  the  alternatinfr-cuiTcnt  machinery  in  station  3  are  very  much 
more  up  to  date.  AVliile  a  phint  Iniilt  to-day  would  contain  units  of 
two  or  tliree  times  the  capacity,  these  would  be  only  a  very  small 
percentage  more  efficient  than  the  units  in  station  3.  Tlie  direct- 
current  generators  in  station  3  are  among  the  largest  direct-current 
machines  every  built.  The  design  of  machines  of  such  large  capacity 
and  low  voltage  involves  many  difficult  problems.  Their  efficiency 
is  therefore  considerably  less  than  tliat  of  the  alternating-current 
nuichines.  The  use  of  large  direct-current  generators  will  probably 
be  avoided  in  any  future  developments. 

The  efficiencies  of  various  divisions  of  the  plant  were  obtained  in 
Xovemlier.  191-i.  by  an  elaborate  set  of  tests  conducted  under  direc- 
tion of  the  United  States  Lake  Survey.  Table  31  gives  the  re- 
sults, expressed  in  horsepower  developed  per  cubic  foot  i)er  second 
of  water  used,  and  also  as  a  percentage  of  the  total  horsepower  per 
cubic  foot  per  second  theoreticallj'  represented  by  the  overall  head 
of  219  feet,  namely,  24.85  horsepower.  The  theoretical  horsepower 
per  cubic  foot  per  second  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  at 
mean  stage  is  37.03,  the  head  being  326.35  feet. 

Table  No.  SI.— Efficiency  of  hydraulic  plavt  of  Niaf/ora  Folia  Poirrr  Co. 


Division  of  plant. 


Efficiency 

at  best  " 

load. 


Horsepower 

per  cubic 
foot  per  sec- 
ond at  best 
load. 


Direct  current  station  2 

Direct  current  station  3 

Alternating  current  station  3. 


Per  cent. 
57 


14.2 
18.6 
19.9 


Photographs  Nos.  144  to  154,  inclusive,  are  presented  as  illustra- 
tive of  the  main  features  of  this  development,  either  under  construc- 
tion or  after  completion.    Explanations  are  given  under  each  picture, 

A  brief  history  of  the  diversions  of  water  from  Niagara  River 
through  the  Hyclraulic  Canal  from  the  time  the  Secretary  of  War 
l)egan  supervising  diversions  to  date  has  been  given  in  Section  C  of 
this  report,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here,  except  to  state  that  the 
present  diversion  varies  between  7,500  and  8.500  cubic  feet  per 
second,  and  tliat  it  is  expected  that  about  9,500  will  be  utilized  soon 
through  the  use  of  machinery  now  in  process  of  fabrication  and 
installation. 

On  October  31,  1918,  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  and  its  subsidiary, 
the  Cliff  Electrical  Distributing  Co.,  merged  witli  the  old  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Co.,  forming  a  new  company  named  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co.  This  merger,  unsuccessfully  attempted  previously,  Avas 
Ijrought  about  largely  through  the  efforts  of  the  War  Department. 
At  the  time  of  the  merger  the  capital  stock  of  the  Hydraulic  Power 
Co..  issued  and  outstanding,  was  $12,000,000,  and  the  outstanding 
bonded  indebtedness  was  $6,500,000.  The  Cliff  Electrical  Distribut- 
ing Co.  stock  amounted  to  $500,000,  and  the  outstanding  bonds 
amounted  to  $1,150,000.  The  new  company  is  authorized  by  the 
State  of  New  York  to  divert  from  above  the  falls  as  much  water  as 
the  Hvdraulic  Power  Co.  and  Xiajjara  Falls  Power  Co.  together 


lilVERSIOX   OJ'   WATKR  IHIOM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER.     299 

were  permitted  to  divert  under  State  authority,  and  disrliar<re  the 
same  into  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  i)ool,  l)ut  not  farther  down  stream 
than  1,000  feet  below  present  Station  Xo.  :'>  of  the  Hydraulic  Power 
Co. 

Petteh one-Cataract  Paper  Co. — The  Pettebone-Cataract  Paper  Co. 
is  the  only  other  compan}^  that  still  retains  a  right  to  take  water 
from  the  Hydraulic  Canal.  It  has  succeeded  to  the  right  mentioned 
previously  to  draw  from  the  basin  an  amount  of  water  "  equal  to 
900  horsepower,  under  a  head  of  50  feet."  This  was  a  perpetual 
right  granted  to  C.B.  Gaskill  "  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever." 
By  an  arbitration  in  1884  it  was  decided  that  the  amount  described 
in  the  deed  was  equivalent  to  189.2  cubic  feet  per  second.  In  addi- 
tion, this  company  has  leased  from  the  Hydraulic  PoAver  Co.  the 
right  to  a  small  additional  diversion.  The  quantit}'^  now  supposedly 
used  by  the  Pettebone  Co.  is  219  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  by  the 
Cataract  City  Milling  Co.  52  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  more  north- 
erly of  the  two  covered  flumes  leads  to  the  water  wheel  of  the  Pette- 
bone-Cataract Paper  Co.,  which  operates  under  90  feet  of  head. 
Served  by  the  other  flume  is  a  second  wheel  of  the  same  company, 
and  the  wheel  of  the  Cataract  City  Milling  Co.,  each  acting  under 
86  feet  of  head.  It  is  improbable  that  these  wheels  develop  more 
than  7-|  horsepower  per  cubic  feet  per  second  which  corresponds  to 
an  over-all  efficiency  of  30  per  cent.  Photograph  No.  144  shows  the 
discharge  from  the  wheels  of  this  company,  high  up  the  gorge,  and 
gives  a  good  idea  of  the  wasteful  use  of  water  in  which  this  company 
persists. 

History  of  Niagara  Falls  Povmr  Co. — In  March,  1886,  Charles  B. 
Gaskill  and  seven  associates  organized  the  Niagara  Hydraulic  Tun- 
nel. Power  &  Sewer  Co.  wdiich  planned  to  develop  power  by  means  of 
deep  wheel  pits  and  a  tunnel.  The  capital  stock  was  $200,000.  with 
power  to  increase  it  to  $3,000,000.  The  engineer  was  Thomas  Ever- 
shed,  division  engineer  of  the  western  division  of  the  Erie  Canal. 
The  original  scheme  devised  by  Mr.  Evershed,  was  to  dig  a  series  of 
inlet  canals  at  right  angles  to  the  shore  of  the  Niagara  River  above 
Port  Day,  and  beneath  the  inner  ends  of  these  construct  a  tailrace 
tunnel  running  parallel  wdth  the  shore  and  discharging  into  the 
Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool.  Penstocks  were  to  conduct  the  water  down 
from  the  inlets  to  the  turbines  which  were  to  discharge  into  the 
tunnel.  Somewhat  later  it  was  -decided  to  have  only  two  river  con- 
nections, one  behind  Conners  Island,  and  the  other  behind  Grass 
Island,  the  inner  ends  of  these  inlets  being  connected  by  a  canal 
parallel  to  the  river  and  adjacent  to  the  south  side  of  Buffalo 
Avenue.  The  inlets  and  canal  were  to  form  a  ship  canal  or  harbor. 
The  tunnel  was  to  parallel  the  canal  along  its  south  side,  being  suffi- 
ciently below  to  provide  a  developable  head  of  water  of  140  feet. 
The  intent  was  to  plan  works  which  ultimately  might  develop 
100,000  horsepower.  Under  these  limiting  conditions,  and  with  such 
efficiencies  of  h3'draulic  turbines  as  were  then  obtained,  this  would  re- 
quire between  8,000  and  9,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  and  it 
appears  that  the  tunnel  was  designed  with  such  slopes  and  cross- 
section  as  to  discharge  8,600  cubic  feet  per  second.  A  railroad  was 
to  parallel  the  canal,  and  factory  sites  were  to  have  transportation 
facilities  both  by  water  and  by  land.    The  mills  were  to  take  water 


•T^^'       I>IVER>1()X    OF   AVATER   FROM    GREAT   LAKES   AXD   NIAGARA   RIVER. 

from  either  side  of  the  canal,  drop  it  throus-li  their  wheels,  and  dis- 
cliarL^e  it  into  tlie  tailrace  tunnel. 

A  little  later  the  idea  of  a  central  power  station,  from  which 
power  would  be  transmitted  to  factories  along  the  canal,  was  intro- 
duced. At  first  the  company  found  it  difficult  to  interest  capital  in 
the  concern,  but  by  1889,  chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Mr.  William 
B.  Eankine,  funds  had  been  procured  and  the  company  was  prepared 
to  begin  operations.  The  name  of  the  company  was  changed  to  the 
Niaofara  Falls  Power  Co.  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers  was  retained  as  con- 
sulting engineer  and  Clemens  Herschel  as  hydraulic  engineer.  An 
auxiliary  companj'' — the  Cataract  Construction  Co. — was  organized 
and  given  a  contract  for  a  wheel  pit  and  tunnel.  This  contract  was 
let  April  1,  1890,  and  work  was  begun  in  October  of  the  same  year. 
Although  work  had  started  on  the  tunnel  and  wheel  pit,  the  design 
of  the  plant  was  still  unsettled  in  many  essential  points.  Turbines 
of  unprecedented  size  and  power,  acting  under  an  unusually  high 
head,  had  to  be  designed  and  built.  Above  all,  the  method  of  dis- 
tributing the  power  was  yet  to  be  decided  upon  and  the  necessary 
apparatus  designed.  To  determine  these  important  points  an  "In- 
ternational Niagara  Commission"  was  established  in  London,  em- 
powered to  consider  competitive  plans  and  award  $22,000  in  prizes. 
The  members  of  the  commission  were :  Sir  William  Thompson  (after- 
wards Lord  Kelvin),  chairman,  English;  Prof.  Cawthorn  Unwin, 
se-retary.  English:  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers.  American:  Lieut.  Col. 
Theodore  Turrettini,  Swiss;  Prof.  E.  Mascart.  French. 

This  commission,  composed  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  engineers 
of  the  time,  made  investigations  in  England,  Switzerland,  France, 
and  Italy,  and  considered  20  competitive  plans  submitted  to  it.  Its 
studies,  which  were  devoted  mainlj^  to  the  subject  of  water  wheels 
and  their  hydraulic  accessories,  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  tur- 
bine designs  of  Messrs.  Feasch  &  Piccard,  of  Geneva.  The  turbines 
provided  in  the  accepted  design  were  of  the  Foumeyron  type,  twin 
runner  without  draft  tubes,  and  rated  at  5.500  horsepower  each. 

They  were  built  by  the  I.  P.  Morris  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  The 
method  of  transmitting  the  power  still  remained  to  be  settled.  Three 
methods  were  considered,  rope  drive,  pneumatic,  and  electric.  Nota- 
ble rope-drive  installations  were  investigated.  As  late  as  1892  the 
pneumatic  transmission  was  receiving  favorable  consideration. 
Finally  it  was  decided  to  use  electric  power,  although  electric  gen- 
erators of  the  size  required  were  quite  without  precedent.  In  1891 
the  power  company  invited  competitive  plans  and  estimates  for  the 
development  of  its  electric  power  and  for  its  transmission,  both 
locally  and  to  Buffalo.  A  very  careful  consideration  of  proposed 
installations  led  it  to  adopt  a  two-phase  alternating  current  genera- 
tor producing  electric  energy  at  about  2,000  volts,  with  a  frequency 
of  25  cycles  per  second.  This  was  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the 
pioneer  developments  involving  the  use  of  alternating  current  and 
long-distance  transmission,  and  its  adoption  involved  a  great  deal 
of  courage  in  view  of  the  criticism  of  prominent  engineers.  The 
generators  were  designed  by  Prof.  George  Forbes,  of  London,  the 
<  ompany's  electrical  engineer.  They  were  of  the  external  revolving 
field  type.  They  were  built  by  the'Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  of  Pittsburgh. 


I)IVi:r.SI()N    OF   WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA  RIYICR.      301 

By  August,  1895,  the  installation  of  three  units  had  been  com- 
ploted  and  power  was  delivered  to  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Co.,  for 
the  manufacture  of  aluminum.  A  little  more  than  a  year  later  power 
was  being  delivered  in  Buffalo.  The  construction  of  this  first  power 
house  was  continued  until  in  May,  1900,  the  tenth  unit  was  put  in 
service,  marking  the  completion  of  plant  No.  1.  Three  months  be- 
fore this,  work  had  been  commenced  on  the  construction  of  a  second 
plant  on  the  other  side  of  the  canal,  which  followed  the  general  lines 
of  No.  1.  The  turbines,  of  the  same  capacity,  were  designed  by  the 
Escher  Wyss  Co.,  of  Zurich,  and  were  built  and  installed  by  the  I.  P. 
Morris  Co.  They  were  of  the  Francis  type,  inward  flow,  with  single 
runners  and  double- draft  tubes.  The  generators  were  built  by  the 
General  Electric  Co.  Six  generators  are  of  the  same  type  as  those 
in  plant  No.  1.  The  other  five  have  internal  revolving  fields.  The 
first  unit  of  this  plant  was  put  in  operation  in  October,  1902,  and 
the  last  one  in  March,  1904.  About  the  year  1910  the  turbines  in 
plant  No.  1  were  replaced  by  new  ones  designed  by  the  company's 
engineer,  and  built  by  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.  They  are  vertical- 
shaft  Francis  turbines  with  single  runners  and  single-draft  tubes. 

Present  plant  of  Xktgara  Falls  Poiner  Co. — Plate  No.  31  shows  the 
general  layout  of  the  Niagara  P'alls  Power  Co.'s  plant.  The  canal 
makes  an  angle  of  about  125^  with  the  current  of  the  river.  It  is 
located  just  below  (irass  Island  and  is  1,200  feet  long.  Its  width 
varies  from  about  200  feet  at  the  entrance  to  120  feet  at  the  northeast 
end.  The  depth  of  water  at  ordinary  stages  is  about  12  feet.  Not 
far  lielow  the  entrance  a  branch  canal  leads  northwesterly  to  the  In- 
ternational Paper  Co.  This  tenant  of  the  power  company  has  until 
recently  received  water,  not  electric  power,  and  this  has  been  dis- 
charged through  a  branch  tunnel  into  the  main  tunnel  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  PoAver  Co.  Along  the  northeast  end  of  the  northwest  side  of 
the  canal  stands  plant  No.  1.  The  building,  designed  by  Stanford 
White,  is  a  handsome  structure  of  dark  gray  limestone,  about  75  feet 
wide  and  460  feet  long.  It  contains  ten  5,000-horsepower  units.  Plant 
No.  2  is  a  similar  structure  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  canal  about 
midway  of  its  length.  It  is  about  580  by  100  feet  and  contains  eleven 
5,000-horsepower  units.  The  w^ater  from  the  canal  enters  through 
arched  openings  in  the  front  wall  of  the  building  into  a  fore  bay 
inside.  Here  it  enters  the  penstocks,  7|  feet  in  diameter,  which  con- 
duct it  down  into  the  wheel  pit.  Each  penstock  is  provided  with  a 
motor-driven  headgate.  It  is  understood  that  the  racks  which  for- 
merly protected  the  entrance  to  the  penstocks  are  no  longer  in  use. 
The  wheel  pits  are  vertical  trenches  cut  in  the  solid  rock.  They  are 
about  1T|  feet  wide  and  177|  feet  deep.  The  wheel  pit  in  plant  No.  1 
is  424^  feet  long;  that  in  No.  2  is  461  feet.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
penstocks  the  water  makes  a  riglit-angled  turn  and  enters  the  tur- 
bines about  134  feet  below  the  powerhouse  floor.  The  speed  of  the 
turbines  is  regulated  at  250  revolutions  per  minute  by  cylinder  gates 
operated  by  oil  pressure  governors  on  the  generator  floor.  The  draft 
tubes  discharge  the  water  into  a  tailrace  formed  by  the  bottom  of 
the  wheel  pit.  From  the  bottom  of  the  northeast  end  of  each  wheel 
pit  the  water  enters  a  tailrace  tunnel.  The  tunnel  from  No.  1  inter- 
sects that  from  No.  2  at  an  angle  of  60°.  From  this  intersection  the 
length  of  tunnel  to  plant  No.  1  is  about  50  feet  and  to  No.  2  is  about 
600  feet,  each  branch  swinging  around  a  curve  through  an  angle  of 


302      DR'ERSIOX   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER^ 

almost  122°  The  tunnel  runs  in  a  straight  line  from  this  intersec- 
tion to  its  outlet  just  downstream  from  the  uppm*  steel  arch  bridge,  a 
distance  of  about  7.(X)0  feet.  It  is  of  horseshoe  shaped  cross-section 
21  feet  high  and  18  feet  10  inches  wide,  with  a  cross-sectional  area  of 
335  square  feet.  It  is  lined  with  brick.  The  bottom  of  the  tunnel 
at  the  wheel  pits  is  about  44  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river  at  the 
outfall.  The  slope  is  4  feet  per  thousand  for  the  first  one-third  of 
the  length  and  7  feet  per  1.000  from  there  to  a  point  95  feet  from  the 
outfall.  Thence  it  drops  KH  feet  in  an  ogee  curve,  and  the  open  end 
is  about  half  submerged  at  normal  stages.  This  last  85-foot  length 
of  the  tunnel  is  lined  with  steel  plates. 

The  portal  i>i  of  granite  masonry  founded  on  a  hard  sandstone 
ledge.  The  velocities  through  the  tunnel  are  extremely  high.  When 
all  machines  are  operating  at  full  load  the  velocity  is  about  30  feet 
per  second  in  the  tunnel  and  about  45  feet  per  second  at  the  outfall, 
which  latter  figure  is  equivalent  to  30  miles  per  hour  and  is  twice  as 
gi-eat  as  the  highest  velocity  in  the  rapids  above  the  crest  of  the 
Horseshoe  Falls.  About  one-third  of  the  available  energy  of  the 
water  is  used  up  in  forcing  itself  through  the  tunnel  at  this  high 
velocity,  and  this  loss  of  power  forms  the  chief  reason  for  the  low 
overall  efficiency  of  the  plant. 

The  power  developed  by  the  turbines  is  tran'^mitted  to  the  genera- 
tor floor  by  large  vertical  steel  shafts.  These  are  made  of  steel  tubing 
38  inches  in  diameter  and  three-eighths  inch  thick,  except  at  the 
bearings,  Avhere  they  are  solid  and  are  11  inches  in  diameter.  ThereL 
are  three  bearings  between  the  turbines  and  the  generator  floor,  each 
accessible  by  a  deck  in  the  pit.  The  weight  of  each  shaft  with  the 
moving  parts  of  the  turbine  and  generator  is  about  100  tons.  In 
powerhouse  No.  2  this  weight  is  partly  balanced  by  hydrostatic  pres- 
sure on  a  flange  inside  the  turbine  case.  The  rest  of  the  weight,  and 
the  full  weight  of  the  moving  part  in  Plant  1  is  supported  by  oil 
pressure  thrust  bearings  located  below  the  generators,  on  what  is 
called  the  "thrust  deck."  The  generators  are  of  the  umbrella  type 
and  are  rated  at  3,750  kilovolt-amperes  each.  The}'^  are  operated  at 
250  revolutions  per  minute,  and  generate  two-phase  alternating  cur- 
rent at  25  cycles  per  second.  2.200  volts.  There  are  four  exciters  in 
each  plant,  located  in  small  chambers  cut  in  the  rock  near  the  bottom 
of  the  wheel  pits,  and  driven  by  Pelton  wheels.  Two  main  switch- 
lioards  are  installed  in  plant  No.  1.  each  controlling  and  distributing 
the  output  of  five  generators.  The  main  generator  and  feeder 
switches  are  operated  pneumatically.  In  power  house  No.  2  the  en- 
tire output  of  the  plant  is  controlled  and  distributed  from  a  single, 
operating  switchboard,  switches  being  operated  electrically. 

Phite  No.  32  shows  a  typical  cross-section  through  powerhouse 
No.  2. 

For  the  operation  of  near-by  plants,  power  is  transmitted  at  2,200 
volts,  two  phase.  For  the  more  distant  plants  in  the  Niagara  Falls  dis- 
trict it  is  stepped  up  to  11.000  A^olts.  and  changed  to  three  phase. 
Power  is  transmitted  to  Buffalo  and  other  cities  at  22,000  volts,  three 
phase.  The  farthest  transmission  is  to  Olcott.  a  distance  of  about 
3G  miles.  The  step-up  transformer  station  is  located  directly  across 
the  canal  from  plant  No.  1.  It  contains  10  air-blast  transformers  of 
1.250  horsepower  each,  which  change  the  generated  energy  from 
2,200  volts,  two  phase,  to  22.000  volts,  three  phase;  and  16  oil-in- 


DIVERSION   OF   WATKR   FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   j; IV Kit.      803 

sulated,  water-cooled  transformers  of  2,500  horsepower  eaeh,  wliicli 
change  the  characteristics  of  the  electric  enerfry  generated  from  two 
phase,  2,200  volts,  to  three  phase  at  either  11,000  or  22,000  volts,  as 
may  be  required. 

Tests  by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  show  that  about  10.8  horse- 
power are  developed  per  cubic  foot  per  second  when  21  units  arc 
operating  at  their  rated  capacity  of  5,000  horsepower  each,  the  total 
diversion  being  9,700  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  gives  an  over-all 
efficiency  of  43]  per  cent.  With  a  smaller  load  the  tail-water  does  not 
stand  so  high  in  the  wheel  pit,  and  the  efficiency  is  greater.  'J'he  com- 
pany ordinarily  operates  21  units  to  generate  about  100,000  horse- 
power, using  9,450  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  is  10.6  horsepower 
per  cubic  foot  per  second  and  represents  an  efficiency  of  42^  per  cent. 

Photographs  Nos.  155  to  168  give  an  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the 
principal  elements  of  the  plant  during  construction  and  after  com- 
pletion.   A  brief  explanation  accompanies  each  view. 

In  regard  to  the  steep  slope  and  small  size  of  tunnel,  with  the  conse- 
quent great  loss  in  over-all  efficiency,  a  feAV  words  of  explanation  seem 
pertinent.  At  the  time  of  the  inception  of  this  project  there  were 
very  few  places  in  the  world  where  water  power  had  been  developed 
under  a  head  of  100  feet  or  more,  and  none  where  the  quantity  of  water 
used  under  such  a  head  was  large.  The  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  then 
contemplated  developments  of  only  90  to  100  feet  of  head.  The  140 
feet  provided  in  the  plans  of  this  new  development  therefore  indicated 
a  step  forward  into  almost  unknown  realms  of  engineering.  The  ulti- 
mate proposed  development  of  100,000  horsepower,  which  it  was  ex- 
pected would  be  used  night  and  daj^,  amounted  in  horsepower-hours  to 
about  five  times  the  water  power  developed  in  Lowell,  Lawrence,  and 
Holyoke  combined.  These  were  cities  of  the  first  magnitude  as  regards 
water-power  development,  and  a  project  contemplating  a  production 
of  100,000  horsepower  was  stupendous.  At  that  time  the  ultimate 
development  planned  by  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  was  20,000  horse- 
power. It  was  not  expected  that  the  100,000  horsepower  limit  would 
be  reached  for  many  years,  but,  when  it  was,  the  total  diversion 
from  Niagara  River  would  be  only  8,600  cubic  feet  per  second  or 
thereabouts,  and  this  seemed  such  an  insignificant  fraction  of  the 
river  flow  that  apparently  nobody  foresaw  a  time  when  the  supply 
would  be  limited  or  a  more  efficient  use  of  the  diversion  considered 
essential. 

As  already  noted  under  the  preceding  description  of  the  Hydraulic 
Power  Co.,  the  three  companies,  namely,  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co., 
Hydraulic  Power  Co.,  and  Cliff  Electrical  Distributing  Co.,  combined 
under  the  name  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  on  October  31,  1918. 
At  the  time  of  the  merger  the  outstanding  stock  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co.,  was  $5,757,700  and  the  outstanding  bonds  $18,226,000. 

At  the  time  of  the  merger  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  possessed 
a  right  granted  by  the  State  to  develop  200,000  horsepower.  A  brief 
history  of  Federal  legislation  in  regard  to  diversions  of  water  from 
Niagara  River  by  this  company,  and  of  permits  and  supervision  per- 
taining thereto,  as  well  as  quantities  of  diversions  thereunder,  is  given 
in  Section  C  of  this  report. 

International  Paper  Co. — The  International  Paper  Co.  buys  water 
power  from  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  Its  lease  gives  it  the  right 
to  receive  approximately  750  cubic  feet  per  second  of  water  from  the. 


304      DIVER:?lOX    or  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

power  company's  canal  and  discharge  it  into  the  tailrace  tunnel. 
Water  has  until  recently  been  taken  from  the  intake  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Co.  through  a  canal  about  30  feet  wide,  10^  feet  deep, 
and  385  feet  long.  From  the  end  of  the  canal  the  water  descended 
into  the  wheel  pit  in  a  penstock  12  feet  in  diameter,  from  which  it  was 
supplied  through  short  branch  pipes  to  six  wheels.  These  were 
Jonval  turbines  of  1,300  horsepower  each.  From  them  the  water 
went  through  a  tailrace  tunnel  of  circular  section  600  feet  long  and  T 
feet  in  diameter,  entering  the  power  company's  main  tunnel  at  an 
abrui)t  angle  835  feet  downstream  from  the  junction  of  the  two  main 
tunnel  branches.  Little  is  known  of  the  elticienc}'  of  this  installa- 
tion, but  it  was  probably  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  Xiagara 
Falls  Power  Co.  Recently  this  power  plant  has  been  dismantled 
and  removed.  It  is  understood  that  the  rights  have  been  retained 
and  that  turbines  are  under  construction  for  a  new  installation. 

3.   PROPOSED   PLANT   USING   ENTIRE   DIVERSION   AND   TOTAL   HEAD   IN    ONE 

STAGE. 

Geiural  remarks. — Three  types  of  installation  for  utilizing  in  one 
stage  the  entire  diversion  and  total  head  have  been  suggested.  The 
first  provides  for  a  power  house  somewhere  on  the  upper  river,  with 
water  wheels  installed  in  a  deep  pit,  the  water  flowing  from  the 
wheels  to  the  lower  river  through  a  tailrace  tunnel.  The  second 
proposition  calls  for  an  intake  on  the  upper  river  and  a  tunnel  from 
it  to  a  power  house  in  the  Gorge  of  the  lower  river.  The  third  is 
similar  to  the  second  except  that  the  tunnel  is  replaced  by  an  open 
canal.  Plans  providing  a  combination  of  two  of  these  ideas  are 
possible,  but  seem  to  offer  no  advantages.  Outline  plans  and  esti- 
mates have  been  made  for  each  of  these  three  projects. 

Tailrace  tunnel  proposition. — An  economic  study  of  the  location 
of  this  project  showed  that  to  get  the  greatest  return  on  the  invest- 
ment the  power  house  should  be  located  on  the  shoal  just  upstream 
from  (xrass  Island  and  that  the  outfall  of  the  tunnel  should  be  at  or 
not  far  downstream  from  the  Devils  Hole.  Plate  No.  33  shows  the 
general  layout  of  the  project  with  the  outfall  near  Riverdale  Ceme- 
etry.  The  general  design  of  the  power  house  is  shown  on  plate  No.  34. 
A  channel  COO  feet  wide  is  to  be  dredged  in  the  river  from  the  deep 
water  half  a  mile  upstream.  Along  the  face  of  the  proposed  power 
house  the  channel  is  25  feet  deep  at  lo"\v  water.  The  bottom  of  the 
channel  .slopes  transversely  so  that  the  depth  on  the  south  side  is  but 
10  feet.  For  half  a  mile  downstream  from  the  power  house  all 
shoal  spots  are  dredged  to  a  depth  of  10  feet  at  low  water.  The 
face  of  the  power  house  extends  along  the  deep  side  of  this  dredged 
cut  for  about  1,100  feet.  It  contains  34  arched  openings  each  with 
an  area  of  329  square  feet.  The  crowns  of  the  arches  are  each  11 
feet  below  low  water.  Four  feet  al)ove  the  crowns  a  concrete  shelf 
projects  5  feet  from  the  wall  along  the  whole  front.  With  this  con- 
struction it  is  expected  that  there  wnll  alwaA'S  be  a  considerable  cur- 
rent past  the  power  house  and  that  very  little  ice  will  pass  under 
the  arches. 

Each  pair  of  submerged  arches  serves  one  turbine.  Passing 
through  any  arch  the  water  enters  a  small  fore  bay.  24  by  29  feet  in 
horizontal  dimensions.  Just  inward  from  the  arcli  are  slots  in  which 
stop  logs  may  be  placed  whenever  it  is  desired  to  drain  the  fore  bay 


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Pt-.otograpn   No.  155. —  MAIN    TUNNEL,   UNDER   CONSTRUCTION.      NIAGARA    FALLS 

POWER  CO. 


Photograph   No.  158.— WHEEL    PIT  OF    POWER    HOUSE    NO.  2,   UNDER  CONSTRUC- 
TION.     NIAGARA    FAI  I  S    POWER    CO. 


Pnotograph   No.  163.— TURBI NE    IN    POWER    HOUSE    NO.  2.      NIAGARA    FALLS 

POWER    CO. 


Photograph    No.  164.-   MAIN    TUNNEL    OUTFALL.      NIAGARA     .PALLS    POWER    CO. 


Photograph   No.  165.— THRUST    BEARING.      NIAGARA     FALLS    POWER    CO. 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   tlRKAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER.      305 

for  repairs.  Beyond  these  is  a  set  of  racks  to  prevent  weeds  and 
trash  from  entering  the  penstocks.  A  traveling  crane,  running  the 
full  length  of  the  building  over  the  fore  baj^s,  provides  for  handling 
the  heavy  rakes  used  in  clearing  the  racks.  From  the  north  side  of 
each  fore  bay  the  water  flows  through  a  bellmouth  entrance  into  a 
steel  penstock,  10  feet  in  diameter.  Each  penstock  is  provided  with 
a  gate,  a  by-pass,  and  air  vent. 

The  water  wheels  and  generators  are  in  a  deep  pit.     Each  gener- 
ator rests  at  the  bottom  of  an  open  shaft,  25  feet  in  diameter,  which 
descends  to  the  generator  floor  at  elevation  292.     For  18  feet  abo\  e 
this  floor  the  shaft  is  enlarged  to  30  feet.    The  generators  are  of  the 
vertical-shaft  type  with  internal  revolving  fleld.     On  top  of  each 
one  is  a  direct-connected  exciter.    The  generators  are  rated  at  27,000 
kilowatts,  continuous  maximum  output  at  90  per  cent  power  factor, 
at  12,000  volts,  3  phase.  25  cycles  per  second.    Their  speed  is  about 
221    revolutions   per   minute.     A   longitudinal   passage   or    tunnel, 
parallel  to  the  main  wheel  pit,  at  the  elevation  of  the  generator  floor, 
is  connected  to  each  little  generator  room  by  a  short  lateral  passage. 
Each  turbine  is  fed  by  two  penstocks.    Between  each  pair  of  gen- 
erator pits  is  a  pit  containing  two  penstocks  together  with  the  electric 
conductors,  ventilating  ducts,  and  other  apparatus.     By  means  of 
this  arrangement  it  will  be  possible  to  conduct  cool  air  down  the 
penstock  pits  and  through  passages  to  the  generators — the  heated  air 
from  the  generators  rising  vertically  in  the  generator  pits.     At  the 
bottom  of  each  penstock  pit  are  two  synchronous  relief  valves,  one 
on  each  penstock.    Stairs  from  the  passage  lead  to  a  governor  room 
under  each  generator  and  from  there  passages  lead  to  the  bottom  of 
the  penstock  shafts.     The  penstocks  turn  at  right  angles  to  enter 
the  turbines,  whose  centers  are  at  elevation  265.    The  turbines  are  of 
the  vertical  shaft,  single-runner  type,   having  inward   and   down- 
ward flow,  with  double  scroll  cases,  and  single  draft  tubes.     They 
are  rated  at  37,000  horsepower  maximum.    Each  is  direct  connected 
to  its  generator,  and  the  complete  rotating  part  is  supported  on  a 
Kingsbury  thrust  bearing.     Beneath  the  turbines  is  a  tailrace  into 
which  the  draft  tubes  discharge.    The  top  of  this  tailrace  is  at  eleva- 
tion 248.     The  cross  section  is  of  horseshoe  shape,  20  feet  wide, 
20  feet  high  at  the  upstream  end,  and  48  feet  wide  and  high  at  the 
down  stream  end. 

The  building  above  the  wheel  pit  contains  a  switchboard,  oil 
switches,  busses,  cranes,  and  other  machinery  necessary  to  the  oper- 
ation of  the  plant.  Its  floor  is  at  elevation  567.  Two  elevators  con- 
nect it  with  the  passage  at  the  generator  level.  A  spur  track  connec- 
tion between  the  power  house  and  the  Niagara  Junction  Railway  is 
provided. 

The  tailrace  tunnel  is  of  horseshoe  section,  48  feet  high  and  48 
feet  wide,  with  a  cross-sectional  area  of  1,970  square  feet.  It  is  lined 
with  concrete.  Thickness  of  lining  and  cross-sectional  proportions 
are  in  accordance  with  the  standards  described  in  Part  E-1.  Start- 
ing from  the  west  end  of  the  power  house  it  makes  a  curve  of  800- 
foot  radius,  1,280  feet  long.  Thence  it  runs  straight  to  the  portal 
below  the  Riverdale  Cemetery,  except  for  a  slight  curve  near  the 
lower  end  to  prevent  it  reaching  the  river  at  too  acute  an  angle.  The 
total  length  is  26,000  feet.  For  a  considerable  distance  the  location 
27880—21 20 


306      Dn^RSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

is  wholly  or  partially  under  Seventeenth  Street.  Its  profile  is  level 
throiiofliout  with  the  inveit  at  elevation  200.  When  taking  the  full 
diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  the  mean  velocity  in  the 
tunnel  will  be  10.15  feet  per  second. 

It  is  planned  to  deposit  the  spoil  from  the  wheel  pit  and  tunnel 
alonp-  the  shore  of  Niagara  River,  between  Grass  Island  and  Con- 
nors Island,  and  south  of  Conners  Island,  as  shown  on  the  map, 
plate  No.  33.  This  will  fonn  about  210  acres  of  valuable  land  for 
far(»)rv  sites.  Adjacent  vacant  land  now  has  an  assessed  value  of 
$5,000"  per  acre. 

Taking  "  Kutter's  N  "  as  0.013,  the  loss  of  head  in  the  tunnel  will 
be  9  feet.  The  loss  of  head  at  the  intake  through  the  racks  in  the 
bellmouths  and  penstocks,  in  the  tapering  section  of  the  tunnel,  and 
at  the  tunnel  outfall  is  estimated  at  4.5  feet.  Total  loss  of  head  is 
13.5  feet.  Mean  elevation  of  headwater  is  562.5.  Mean  elevation  of 
tailwater  is  250.  Gross  head  is  the  difference  or  312.5  feet.  Net 
head  is  312.5  minus  13.5  or  299  feet.  Assuming  the  combined  effi- 
ciency of  the  turbine  and  generator  to  be  86  ])er  cent,  the  total  power 
produced  by  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  584,000  horsepower, 
which  is  29.2  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per  second.  This  is  equiva- 
lent to  an  over-all  efficiency  of  82.4  per  cent. 

Table  No.  32  is  a  summary  of  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  this  pro- 
ject. The  total  is  $52,220,000,  which  amounts  to  $89.40  per  horse- 
power. Estimated  time  of  development  is  three  years  for  first  power, 
and  five  years  for  completion. 

Table  No.  32. — Tailrace  tunnel  proposition — Summary  of  estimate  of  construc- 
tion cost. 


Item. 


Quantity. 


Unit  price. 


Amount. 


Total. 


Dredging  in  rivor,  hardpan cubio  5'ards. .        379, 40O 

Total  river  work 

CofFordam,  D-6feet linearfeet..  2,600 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards..  411,000 

Plain  concrete '.do 177, 210 

Reinforced  concrete do 4, 470 

Building: 

Main  portion squRre  feet. .  55, 800 

Over  racks  and  fore  bay do 51, 100 

R&nks pounds.  .1  1, 142,  OOC 

Stop  logs,  steel do. . . . !  149, 000 

Total  power  house I 

Turbines  and  generators horsepower. 

Erection  and  accessorie.« do. . . 

Steel  penstocks pounds. 

Penstock  gates 

Sjmchronous  relief  valves 


11.25 


$474,000.00 


629,000 

629,000 

10,419,000 

34 

34 


Total  equipment 

Tailrace  tunnel,  4S  feet  diameter linear  feet. 

Portal,  gorge  rout  e  tracks,  etc 

Tunnel  shafts,  25  feet  square cubic  yard.s. 

Total  tunnel 

Real  estate 


26,000 


31,710 


14.40 

5.00 

12.00 

25.00 

15.00 

12.00 

.10 

.10 


337.000.00 
2, 055, 000. 00 
2,127,000.00 

112, 000. 00 

837, 000. 00 

613,  COO.  00 

114,000.00 

15,000.00 


14.15 

3.30 

.10 

2,500.00 

6,000.00 


a,  900, 000. 00 

2,076,000.00 

1,042,000.00 

85,000.00 

204,000.00 


735.00   19,110,000.00 
100,000.00 

12.00  I      381,000.00 


Summation 

C^jntijigencies,  15  per  cent  of  $;i-><,326,000 

Engineering  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of 
$38,326,000 


Summation 

Construction  interest,  9  per  cent  of  $47,90.^,000. 

Construction  cost 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  5SJ,000  horsepower 


$474,  OOC.  00 


5,9io,ooaoo 


12,-307,000.00 


19, 501,  TOO.  00 
44,000.00 


38,326,000.00 
5,749,000.00 

3,833,000.00 


47,908,000.00 
4,312,000.00 


62,220,000.00 

S9.  40 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     307 

Pressure  tunnel  pToposition. — The  oconomic  location  of  this  proj- 
ect is  determined  by  the  same  factors  as  the  precedin<!^  one,  and  a 
study  of  the  limiting  conditions  leads  to  the  choice  of  the  same  loca- 
tion. The  intake  is  on  the  shoal  just  upstream  from  Grass  Island, 
and  the  power  house  is  in  the  Gorjnje  below  the  Riverdale  Cemetery. 
The  general  plan  of  this  project  is  shown  on  plate  No.  33,  and  the  de- 
tails on  plates  Nos.  35,  36,  and  37.  The  approach  channel  above 
(trass  Island  is  the  same  as  for  the  tailrace  tunnel,  and  the  arched 
Avail  of  the  intake  stands  just  where  the  arched  wall  of  the  power 
house  stands  in  the  preceding  proposition.  The  arrangement  of 
arches,  with  their  crowns  11  feet  below  the  water  surface  and  a  5 -foot 
concrete  shelf  above  them,  is  the  same  as  before,  but  the  area  of  each 
opening  is  292  square  feet,  and  there  are  30  openings.  Passing  un- 
der the  arches  the  water  enters  a  fore  bay  22  feet  Avide  and  750  feet 
long.  On  the  north  side  of  the  fore  bay  are  the  racks,  in  30  panels, 
each  21  feet  wide  and  26  feet  deep  below  low  water.  Each  panel  of 
lacks  is  set  between  concrete  piers,  4  feet  thick,  with  provision  for 
placing  stop  logs  in  front  of  the  racks.  Behind  the  racks  are  verti- 
cal steel  gates,  motor  driven,  each  capable  of  closing  the  opening 
of  one  bay,  which  is  21  feet  wide  in  the  clear  and  31  feet  high  to  the 
gatehouse  floor.  A  building,  60  feet  wide  and  800  feet  long,  covers 
the  fore  bay  and  racks  and  contains  a  crane  for  raking  and  handling 
racks.  Behind  the  rack  house  the  water  goes  between  converging 
concrete  walls  to  a  vertical  shaft,  50  feet  in  diameter,  through  which 
it  descends  into  the  tunnel.  The  bottom  between  the  concrete  walls 
has  a  curved  profile  designed  to  preserve  a  nearly  constant  velocity 
of  about  5  feet  per  second  to  prevent  freezing  in  wintertime.  The 
bottom  lining  is  to  be  bonded  to  the  underlying  rock,  which  latter 
is  to  be  grouted  in  so  far  as  necessary  to  provide  against  leakage 
and  uplift  when  the  basin  is  empty.  Provision  is  to  be  made  for 
draining  water  into  the  tunnel  from  the  south  portion  of  the  intake 
basin  when  the  gates  are  closed.  A  railroad  spur  track  will  extend 
on  a  fill  to  the  gatehouse  from  the  Niagara  Junction  Railway. 

The  tunnel  is  identical  in  cross  section  with  that  of  the  previous 
proposition.  It  is  about  25,000  feet  long,  and  at  its  upstream  end 
connects  with  the  downtake  shaft  by  a  vertical  curve.  The  eleva- 
tion of  the  tunnel  invert  at  this  end  is  400,  while  at  the  lower  end 
it  is  275.  Near  the  lower  end  of  the  tunnel  a  circular  tunnel,  43  feet 
in  diameter,  branches  off  and  rises  to  a  "  differential  surge  tank " 
located  between  the  top  of  the  cliff  and  the  railroad,  just  south  of 
the  abandoned  quarry.  The  tank  is  of  concrete,  124  feet  in  diame- 
ter, and  rises  about  90  feet  above  the  ground  surface.  The  spoil 
from  the  tunnel  is  to  be  disposed  of  the  same  as  in  the  tailrace  tun- 
nel scheme. 

The  power  house  is  a  masonry  building  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff, 
after  the  style  of  station  3  of  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  It  is  about 
870  feet  long  and  85  feet  wide.  Seventeen  circular  penstock  tun- 
nels, 12  feet  in  diameter  and  concrete  lined,  branch  off  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  tunnel  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  In  con- 
tinuation of  these,  steel  penstocks,  12  feet  in  diameter,  enter  the  sub- 
structure of  the  power  house.  A  penstock  valve  in  each  one  serves 
as  a  gate.  The  turbines  and  generators  are  identical  in  capacity 
and  other  characteristics  with  those  provided  in  the  tailrace  tunnel 


308      DR-ERSION   or  WATEB   FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

proposition,  except  that  the  scroll  cases  are  single,  and  each  one  is 
fed  by  a  single  penstock.  The  centers  of  the  turbines  are  at  eleva- 
tion 265.  The  generator  floor  is  at  elevation  280.  The  draft  tubes 
discharge  into  tailraces  leading  directly  into  the  lower  river.  The 
busses,  oil  switches,  and  other  necessary  auxiliaries,  are  located 
along  the  eastern  part  of  the  power  house. 

The  mean  elevation  of  the  headwater  and  tail-water  is  the  same  as 
for  the  tailrace  tunnel  project,  giving  a  gross  head  of  312.5  feet. 
The  tunnel  is  shorter  and  the  loss  of  head  in  it  is  estimated  at  8.5 
feet.  The  loss  in  the  intalte,  together  with  penstock  losses  and  other 
minor  losses,  is  estimated  at  2.^5  feet.  Total  loss  of  head  is  11.25 
feet.  Net  head  is  301.3  feet.  Assuming  the  combined  efficiency  of 
turbine  and  generator  as  86  per  cent,  the  total  power  produced  by 
1:0.000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  588.000  horsepower,  which  is  29.4 
horse)K)wer  per  cli])ic  foot  per  second.  This  is  equivalent  to  an 
oveiall  efficiency  of  82.9  per  cent. 

Table  No.  83  is  a  summarv  of  an  estimate  of  cost  of  this  project. 
The  total  is  $50,803,000,  which  amounts  to  $86.40  per  horsepower. 
P^stimatcd  time  of  development  is  3  years  for  first  power  and  5  years 
for  completion. 

TakT-K  No;  33. — Pr^'^^ire  tifnnel  jtroppsitinn — f^irmmary  of  c^tininfe  of  count rur- 

.    tion  eosff. 


Item. 


Quantity. 


ftlDft^ripe.      Amount. 


Total. 


Dredging  in  river,  hardpan cubic  yards . 


Total  river  work 

Cofferdiim.  T)-5  feet linear  feet 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards 

Plain  concrete „ do . . 

Reinforced  concrete ...;.'... do . . 

Racks ,...i,....,4..ili pounds 

Stop  lo?s  (steel) '.;..'. .''  f .do. . 

Gates vL  :U?qci..U-../....  v.. . 

BuildinR ........,..,.;.;_.^,,jj...j.„.^quarejeet.j. 


$1.25 


Total  intake...,  .^.  .■.:...,;.  .ji.'.'.  .v.. ;.Lti.:j-.)ii 
Downtake  shaft.  .50  feet  diamjeter; .'. . . .  .linear  feet. 

Main  tunnel,  48 feet  diameter .'. . ..... . .do. . . 

T;ipcTin,u  tujinol,  30  feet  me;m  diameter do. . . 

Prnstnck  tunnels,  12  feet  diameter dp. . . 

ShaftP,  2.")  feet  .stjuare eobic  yards . 


cohic  vards. 
ri.do.'.. 


Total  tunnels 

Rock  (•  ftivation 

I'lain  cnncrcte 

Reinforced  concrete: 

:i\  per  cent  steel ..'. 66.. . 

3'perccnt  steel 'jXi  :...:■.::.  .So..'-: 

Tunnel.  I3  feet  iliameter circular linear  (eet. 

Roof  and  incidental.... .'. .  .   .;"... 

'•  -)    •       ■    -  ,   -  {\ 

Total  snrpe  tank 

Rock  excavation cubic  vards. 

( "o(Terd:iin,  L)-1S . . .  r.^^ A .  -rfpf-V linear  feet . 

Plain  concrete . . :...'. cubic  vards . 


do. 

square  feet. 


Rdnl'ircrd  concrete. 

IiiiiMiiii,' 

KflbniMinc  trollev  tnick.. . 


Total  powerhouse [ ... .. 

Till biiii  3  iiiid  1,'oneiratQrs horsepower.. 

'    '  iccessories do 

''  -'I pounds.. 


2,200 

94,  .500 

2fi,200 

2. 320 

880,000 

102.000, 

■     -3o! 

2.'5,O00 

630 

2,3S0 

20,900 


14,300 
1,670 


10  00 

3.  .50 

12.00 

2.5.  00 

,10 

.10 

t9;OQ0.iB6: 

■^i:ifeot 

7.^^.  00 
403.  00 
125.00 


4482,000.00  ! 


22,000.00 
33^000.00 
315,000.00 
5R,  000. 00 
88,000.00 
10,000.00 
.576;  000. 00 
57^000.00 


11^000.00 

18,37.5,Or)r).00 

2.54 ,  000. 00 

298,000.00 

.  .^ijOOO.  00 


i>  [ 


.  cs. 


629,000 

fi20,000 

1,880,000 


$482,000.00 


■^        TottU'iuipni«nt...  ►'..,,('- 12, 2:50, 000.  (X) 

U<^il  fstate i  .'" 100,000.00 

,  I     ■,  !''),!  I i.  <.jL,c.i.:>iutii.  i 

ximmation I I X 37,286,000.00 


.1,970,000.00 


19,296,000.00 


725,000.00 


2,477,000.00 


DIVEESIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RlVEJl.     8(jy 


Tabll  No.  33. — Pressure  tunnal  proijosition — kiuiinuari/  of  est imat'etQf'.  const ntv- 

tion  co6f— Continued.  , 

'    fefio    jr\i:\ 


Item. 


Contiiif;encies,  15  per  cent  of  $37,286,000 .....'. 

Enginccrinfr  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of 
$37,286,000 


Qpantity.  |  Unit  p-ic-e.      Amount.; 


Total. 


.' 1 I  $.■;,  .593,000.0:) 

.1 3, 729, 000. 00 

Summation ' I  46, 608, 000. 00 

Construction  interest,  9  per  cent  of  $46,608,000 4,19.'),  000. 00 

Construction  cost t.'.i, 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  588,000  horsepower  is.,:i-.. 


jj[..J.tiaw..  iuj.i.aiui.h//..,w:;-......  50,803,000.00 

':'')m\--mi?'/u(mt'h''- -■■■'■:■■■■  ■  ^^  '^ 


On  plate  No.  33  there  is  shown  ah  altiernative  location  of  the  tunnel 
under  Sugar  Street,  Avith  a  boat-shaped  intake  near  the  middle  of 
the  river,  abreast  the  head  of  Conners  Island,  Details  of  the  outline 
design  of  this  intake  and  connection  are  shown  on  plate  No.  38.  It 
was  thought  there  was  an  advantage  in  having  the  tunnel  under 
Sugar  Street,  because  the  right  of  way  might  prove  cheaper  and 
because  a  construction  raihvay  might  be  laid  along  this  straight 
street  connecting  all  the  tunnel  shafts  with  spoil  bank  and  so  lessen 
the  cost  of  spoil  disposal.  It  seemed  to  be  advantageous  also  to  have 
the  intake  in  deeper  water  and  farther  from  shore  and  with  a  broad 
expanse  of  water  on  both  sides  of  it  moving  with  moderate  velocity 
in  order  to  insure  sufficient  freedom  from  ice  troubles.  The  disad- 
vantages are  the  greater  length  of  tunnel,  more  costly  intake,  and 
increased  amount  of  tunnel  work  under  the  river  bed.  After  some 
consideration  it  was  decided  that  the  disadvantages  probably  out- 
weighed the  advantages,  and  the  estimate  for  the  alternative  location 
was  not  completed. 

It  might  be  noted  that  it  has  been  proposed  to  place  the  head  gates 
at  the  narrow  part  of  the  intake  near  the  tunnel  entrance,  using 
onl}^  three  or  four  gates,  which  would  necessarily  be  of  large  size. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  such  a  design  might  be  somewhat  less  ex- 
pensive than  the  one  presented  and  that  the  flow  of  water  to  the 
tunnel  could  be  shut  off  more  quickly  by  such  gates. 

Power-canal  proposition. — In  designing  the  project  for  an  open 
canal  from  the  upper  river  to  the  lower  part  of  the  Gorge  very 
exten-sive  studies  were  made  to  determine  the  most  economical  loca- 
tion for  the  canal.  The  topographic  map,  which  constitutes  plates 
Nos.  13  and  14,  was  used.  This  shows  land  contours  with  2-foot 
interval  over  the  whole  area  between  Sugar  Street  and  Military 
Road,  as  well  as  along  Bloody  Run.  and  also  shows  about  120  rock 
soundings  in  this  area.  On  this  map  36  routes  were  laid  out.  Pro- 
files were  drawn  and  the  relative  economy  of  the  different  routes 
determined.  The  cost  of  bridges  and  real  estate  and  the  annual  value 
of  the  power  lost  were  included  in  the  study,  as  well  jvi  the  cost  of 
rock  excavation,  earth  excavation,  and  concrete.  The  3^  routes  were 
well  spaced  over  the  whole  area  between  Sugar  Street  and  Military 
Road  and  involved  intakes  at  five  different  points  between  Gill 
Island  and  the  head  of  the  Little  River  behind  Cayuga  Island,  as 
well  as  three  power-house  sites  in  the  Gorge,  namely,  at  the  Devil's 
Hole,  Riverdale  Cemeter}'',  and  just  above  Fish  Creek. 

The  adopted  location  starts  from  an  intake  in  the  river  just  south 
of  Conners  Island  and  runs  due  north   (along  the  meridian  of  79 "^ 


310      PIVERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKEvS  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

01'  W.  longitude).  As  it  nears  the  Lockport  branch  of  the  New 
York  Central  Railroad  it  bends  to  the  west  on  a  curve  of  about  2,000 
feet  radius  and  crosses  the  tracks  just  east  of  the  railroad  yard. 
Thence  it  runs  approximately  north  30°  west  to  a  fore  bay  at  the  top 
of  the  clitf  north  of  the  Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  Power  Co.'s 
transmission  line  and  west  of  the  Rome.  Watertown  &  Ogdensburg 
branch  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad.  The  canal  begins  at  the 
north  end  of  the  intake  almost  exactl}^  on  the  present  shore  line  of 
the  mainland  north  of  Conners  Island  and  ends  at  the  south  end 
of  the  fore  bay.  where  the  west  fence  of  the  railroad  passes  under 
the  center  of  the  transmission  line.  The  length  between  these  points 
is  21.950  feet.  The  canal  bottom  is  given  a  slope  of  0.35  foot  per 
thousand  feet,  or  1.848  feet  per  mile. 

Studies  were  also  made  of  the  most  economical  cross  section.  The 
wetted  section  adopted  is  56  feet  wide  and  56  feet  deep  at  mean  stage. 
The  sides  are  channeled  and  the  bottom  left  as  smooth  as  is  ])racti- 
cable  in  dry-rock  excavation.  It  was  decided  that  it  was  preferable 
not  to  line  the  bottom  or  sides  with  concrete,  but  to  enlarge  the  cross 
section  sufficienth'  to  provide  equivalent  capacity.  For  hydraulic 
computations  the  value  of  "  Kutters  n  "  was  taken  at  0.028.  When 
the  flow  is  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  the  slope  of  the  water  surface 
is  0.000288  at  mean  stage  and  0.000311  at  standard  low  water.  Where 
the  highest  stage  of  water  in  the  canal  brings  the  water  surface 
above  the  rock  surface  reinforced  concrete  retaining  walls  are  built 
on  each  side  of  the  canal.  This  condition  obtains  only  at  the  southerly 
end  of  the  route.  The  exposed  sides  of  the  earth  cut  are  given  a  1 
on  2  slope.  On  one  side  a  10-foot  berm  on  the  rock  surface  prevents 
earth  from  sliding  into  the  canal.  On  the  other  side  a  25-foot  l:)erm 
is  provided  to  leave  room  for  a  roadway  and  transmission  line. 

Starting  at  deep  water  near  the  middle  of  the  Tonawanda  channel 
of  Niagara  River,  an  a])p7X)ach  channel  1.8T5  feet  long  is  dredged 
leading  to  the  intake.  This  channel  is  700  feet  wide  by  12  feet  deep 
at  the  upper  end  and  185  feet  wide  by  32  feot  deep  at  the  lower  end, 
at  the  west  end  of  the  intake  arches.  The  intalvte-arch  wall  is  a 
massive  concrete  structure  425  feet  long  and  25  feet  thick,  with  its 
top  6.2  feet  above  mean  stage.  An  ice-diverting  shelf  was  considered 
unnecessary,  partly  because  of  the  location  and  partly  because  of 
the  ice  run  at  the  power  house.  The  intake  wall  is  piercetl  by  16 
arches,  each  of  20-foot  span.  15  feet  high  at  the  springings  and  20 
feet  at  the  crown.  The  crowns  are  12  feet  below  standard  low  water. 
The  maximum  velocity  thi'ough  these  arches  will  be  3.3  feet  per  sec- 
ond.   The  arches  are  about  1,200  feet  south  of  Connors  Island. 

Behind  the  arches  is  the  bellmouth  ajiproach  to  the  main  canal. 
It  is  2.000  feet  long.  400  feet  Avide  at  one  end  and  56  feet  wide  at 
the  other.  The  depth  of  water  varies  from  23  to  56  feet  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  give  a  uniform  acceleration  of  velocity  from  1.50  to 
6.38  feet  per  second.  On  each  side  is  a  massive  retaining  wall  rising 
to  elevation  570. 

At  the  downstream  end  of  the  canal  is  the  fore  bay.  Starting  with 
a  wetted  section  56  feet  by  56  feet,  it  expands  in  the  first  500  feet  to 
a  section  130  feet  wide  by  40  feet  deep,  and  at  the  same  time  makes 
•I  bend  of  about  30°  to  the  right,  the  velocity  being  unifoimly  re- 
tarded from  6.38  feet  to  5.95  feet  per  .second.     Then  for  900  feet 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     311 

along  the  face  of  the  rack  house  it  maintains  the  same  depth.  Ijiit 
narrows  clown  to  a  width  of  25  feet. 

The  rack  house  is  a  building  950  feet  long  and  42  feet  wide  sit- 
uated on  the  west  side  of  the  fore  ba3^  The  central  850  feet,  the 
rack  house  proper,  is  divided  into  34  bays  by  concrete  piers  5  feet 
thick  placed  25  feet  center  to  center.  Between  each  pair  of  piers 
is  a  rack  structure.  Entrance  to  each  bay  is  provided  by  a  submerged 
arched  opening  13  feet  high  at  the  springings  and  18  feet  high  in  the 
center.  The  croAvii  of  the  arch  is  12  feet  below  mean  stage  at  full 
load  on  plant.  Just  above  the  crowns  of  the  arches  runs  a  horizontal 
concrete  "  ice-diverting  shelf  "  5  feet  wide.  The  tops  of  the  piers 
and  the  main  floor  of  the  rack  house  are  at  elevation  576,  well  above 
the  highest  possible  surge,  account  being  taken  of  the  spillways  pro- 
vided. The  house  has  the  usual  crane,  rack-raking  equipment,  stop 
logs,  etc.  Every  two  bays  supply  water  to  one  15-foot  circular  pen- 
stock tunnel,  descending  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The  A-elocity  is  1.75 
feet  per  second  through  the  submerged  arches,  0.98  between  the  piers, 
and  about  1.50  through  the  racks. 

At  each  end  of  the  rack  house  are  two  similar  bays  forming  an  ice 
run.  They  differ  from  the  central  bays  in  that  their  entrances  are 
not  obstructed  by  arches,  and  that,  in  place  of  racks,  each  bay  con- 
tains a  spillway  with  a  gate  sliding  vertically  in  a  recess  in  the  con- 
crete weir,  and  whose  crest  is  movable  between  elevations  548  and 
576.  Each  pair  of  gates  serves  one  15-foot  circular  ice-run  tunnel 
discharging  under  the  tracks  of  the  Gorge  Route  Railway.  It  is 
estimated  that  at  mean  stage,  with  a  flow  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  in  the  canal,  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  two  ice  runs 
vvill  exceed  5,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  With  the  stage  lowered  by 
ice  to  554,  the  capacity  would  still  be  about  3,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond. When  not  lowered  for  ice  sluicing  it  is  intended  that  these 
gates  be  set  at  an  elevation  a  few  inches  higher  than  the  water  at 
Connors  Island.  They  will  then  serve  as  surge  spillways  in  case  of 
sudden  shutdowns  in  the  power  house.  Before  a  surge  could  reach 
the  top  of  the  fore-bay  walls  the  spillways  would  be  discharging 
nearly  8,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  penstock  tunnels  extend  downward  at  an  angle  of  45°  for 
about  280  feet ;  then,  by  a  curve  of  240  feet  radius,  become  horizontal 
with  center  lines  at  elevation  265.  This  point  is  reached  about  13 
feet  from  the  flange  of  the  penstock  valve  in  the  east  wall  of  the 
power  house.  The  45-foot  length  of  tunnel  next  to  the  valve  is  12 
feet  in  diameter,  and  has  a  steel  lining.  The  next  25-foot  length 
away  from  the  power  house  is  lined  with  concrete  only,  and  tapers 
from  12  feet  to  15  feet  in  diameter.  The  remaining  412-foot  length 
is  15  feet  in  diameter.  The  mean  velocity  is  6.66  feet  per  second  in 
the  15-foot  section  and  10.42  in  the  12 -foot  section. 

The  power  house  and  equipment  are  practically  the  same  as  in 
the  pressure-tunnel  project,  except  that  the  center  lines  of  pen- 
stocks and  valves  are  at  right  angles  to  the  building  instead  of  be- 
ing on  a  skew. 

The  gross  head  is  313.8  feet.  The  loss  of  head  is  estimated  at  11 
feet,  of  which  7:^  feet  is  in  the  canal  itself.  This  gives  a  net  head  of 
302.8  feet.  With  the  use  of  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  at  a  com- 
bineti  turbine  and  generator  efficiency  of  86  per  cent,  the  power  out- 


312      Dn^ERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES  AXD  XIAGARA  RIVEK. 

put  is  591,000  horsepower,  which  is  29.6  horsepower  per  cubic  foot 
per  second.  This  is  equivalent  to  an  over-all  efficiency  of  83  per  cent. 
Table  No.  34  gives  the  summarj'^  of  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  this 
project.  The  total  is  $43,579,000,  which  amounts  to  $73.70  per  horse- 
power. Estimated  time  of  development  is  two  and  one-half  years 
for  first  power  and  five  years  for  completion. 


Table  No.  34. 


-Power  canal  proposition — Summary  of  estimate  of  construction 
cost. 


Item. 


Quantity,  j  Unit  price. 


Dredging  in  river: 

Hardpan . . .' cubic  yards. 

Rock do. . . 


191,300 
103,700 


$1.25 
G.oO 


Total  river  work i 

Cofterdam,  D=  10.5  feet linearfeet..  4,100  j  44.00 

Earth  excavation cubic  yards..         290,000  j  1.75 

Roek  excavation do....         229,000  3.50 

Backfill do....  2S,000  .45 

Plain  concrete do....  29,800  12.00 


Total  intake 

Earth  excavation cubic  yards. .      1, 934, 000 

Roeh  excavation do 3, 469, 500 

Backfill do. . . .         261, 000 

Concrete  in  reinforced  walls do —  25, 800 

Reinforcing  steel pounds. .      1,666,000 

Total  canal 

Total  bridges ' 

Earth  excavation cubic  yards. . :         69, 000 

Rock  excavation do. ... !        180, 000 

Backfill do 11,200 

Plain  concrete do. . . .  10, 000 


Total  fore  bay 

Earth  excavation cubic  yards. 

Rock  excavation do. . . 

Backfill do... 

Plain  concrete do. . . 

Reinforced  conTete do. . . 

Building square  feet. 

Racks pounds. 

Ice  run  gates 

Stop  logs,  steel,  for  one  penstock. pounds. 

By-passes 

Total  ra'k  house  and  ice  run 

Circular  tunnels.  15  feet  diameter linear  feet. 

Tapering  tunnels,  15  to  12  feet  diameter do. . . 

Circular  tunnels,  12  feet  diameter do... 

Total  penstock  and  ice  nm  tunnels 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards. 

Cofferdam,  D  =  15 linear  feet. 

Plain,  concrete cubic  yards. 

Reinforced  concrete do. . . 

Building square  feet. 

Rebuilding  trolley  track 


12,700 

44,000 

2,300 

25,050 

3,050 

40,000 

2,500,000 

4 

288,000 

17 


.65 

2.  2.' 

.45 

15.00 

.07 


Amount. 


$239,000.00 
074,000.00 


Total. 


180,000.00 
507,000.00 
802,000.00 
13,000.00 
478,000.00 


1,257,000.00 

7,806,000.00 

118,000.00 

387,000.00 

117,000.00 


1.25 

3.00 

.45 

12.00 


1.25 

3.00 

.45 

12.00 

25.00 

12.0(J 

.10 

17,000.00 

.10 

1,000.00 


8,134 
425 
765 


156. 00 
154.00 
124.00 


86,000.00 

5.59,000.00 

5,000.00 

120,000.00 


If', 

132, 

1, 

301, 

76. 
480; 
250, 

68. 

29; 

17, 


000.00 
000.00 
000  00 
0(X).00 
000.00 
000.00 
000.00 
000. 00 
000.00 
000.00 


214,900 

950 

40,950 

1,290 

74,000 


Total  power  house I 

Turbines  and  generators horsepower. .  j       029,000 

Erection  and  accessories do I       029,000 

Penstocks,  steel pounds.  .1     l,88''i,000 

Johnson  valves I  17 

Total  equipment i 

Real  estate I 


3.  .50 
90.00 
12.00 
25.00 
15.00 


1,269,000.00 
65,000.00 
95,000.00 


752,000.00 

86,000.00 

491.000.00 

32,000.00 

1,110,000.00 

6,000.00 


14. 15 

3.39 

.10 

63,000.00 


8,900,000.00 

2,076,000.00 

189,000.00 

1,071.000.00 


Summation 

Conlingeiicios,  15  percent  of  $32,281,000 

Engineering  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of 
»32,2>ll,000 


Summation 

Construction  Interest,  8  per  cent  of  $40,351,000. 

ConstrtictioQ  cost .*. 

Co?t  per  horsepower  for  "igi.OOO  horsepower 


$913,000.00 


1,980,000.00 


9,685,000.00 
4.32,000.00 


770,000.00 


1,370,000.00 


1,429,000.00 


2,477,000.00 


12,236,000.00 
989,000.00 


32,281,000.00 
4,842,000.00 

3,228,000.00 


40,351,000.00 
3,228,000.00 


43,579,000.00 
•  73. 70 


DIVEESION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     313 

The  G.OOO.OOO  cubic  yards  of  rock  and  earth  excavation  from  this 
project,  exclusive  of  that  from  the  power-house  site  and  penstock 
tunnels,  is  to  be  placed  alonp;  the  shore  of  Niagara  River  between 
(xrass  Island  and  Cayuga  Island,  as  shown  on  plate  No.  33.  This 
forms  407  acres  of  desirable  land,  and  furnishes  docking  facilities 
for  a  score  of  ships  of  the  size  which  can  reach  the  harbor  through 
existing  channels.  The  cost  of  hauling  the  spoil  to  this  place  and 
dumping  it  has  been  included  in  the  estimates  above.  The  cost  of 
dredging  the  slips,  building  dock  walls,  and  purchasing  adjacent 
land  has  not  been  included,  because  the  value  of  the  new  land  is  esti- 
mated to  more  than  offset  the  cost  of  these  items. 

The  general  plan  of  the  power-canal  proposition  is  shown  on  plate 
No.  33,  and  in  greater  detail  on  plate  No.  39,  where  a  profile  of  the 
selected  route  is  given,  as  well  as  a  large  scale  map.  Plates  Nos. 
40  and  41  present  outline  designs  of  intake,  fore  bay,  and  power- 
house layouts. 

It  is  entirely  possible  that  further  study  might  lead  to  a  slightly 
more  economical  location  for  a  power  canal  and  also  to  a  more 
economical  cross  section.  The  studies  leading  to  the  location  and  sec- 
tion adopted  were  based  on  unit  prices  somewhat  different  from  those 
finally  adopted.  The  change  in  section  might  involve  not  only  varia- 
tion in  width  and  depth  throughout  the  canal  but  also  the  use  of 
concrete  linings  on  sides  or  bottom  and  of  riprap  on  earth  slopes. 

The  above-given  estimates  show  the  two  tunnel  projects  to  be 
practically  equal  in  cost  and  efficiency.  Operation  and  maintenance 
costs  should  also  be  about  the  same.  For  supplying  power  to  the 
factories  now  in  existence  the  tailrace-tunnel  plant  has  an  advantage 
in  location.  For  supplying  new  factories  the  two  stand  on  an  equal- 
ity. Neither  scheme  can  compete  financially  with  the  canal  proposi- 
tion, which  is  both  cheaper  and  more  efficient.  The  estimated  con- 
struction cost  per  horsepower  of  the  power  canal  development  is 
only  about  85  per  cent  of  that  of  the  tunnel  projects.  Its  slightly 
greater  operation  and  maintenance  costs  leave  it  still  decidedly 
cheaper  than  the  others  in  point  of  cost  of  electric  energy  produced. 

There  are  certain  seriou.^  defects  inherent  in  the  tailrace  tunnel 
proposition  which  make  it  a  project  of  very  doubtful  advisability 
both  from  a  construction  and  from  nn  operating  standpoint.  The 
construction  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  almost  the  whole  of  the  tun- 
nel would  necessarily  be  below  Lake  Ontario  level,  where  difficulty 
with  ground  water  would  be  almost  certain  to  occur.  While  it  might 
be  found  that  water  would  not  accumulate  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
give  appreciably  more  trouble  than  in  the  higher  level  pressure 
tunnel,  there  is  a  large  chance  that  the  trouble  would  be  consider- 
able. No  allowance  has  been  made  in  the  estimate  for  this  serious 
possibility. 

From  an  operating  point  of  view  there  are  two  important  draw- 
l^acks.  In  the  first  place  it  may  be  advisable  to  maintain  a  large 
'pumpmg  plant  at  one  end  or  the  other  of  the  tunnel,  preferably  the 
lower  end,  and  to  provide  some  sort  of  emergency  gates  at  the  lower 
end  in  order  to  be  able  to  unwater  the  tunnel  should  it  ever  become 
necessary.  Without  such  equipment  great  loss  of  time  would  ensue 
in  unwatering.  With  the  equipment  all  ready,  it  would  take  some 
time  to  pump  out  such  a  bore.  The  equipment  might  stand  idle 
for  10  3'ears  at  a  time.     The  present  tunnel  of  the  Niagara  Falls 


314      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Power  Co.  unwaters  itself,  because  it  is  higher  than  the  water  into 
which  it  ilischarges,  except  right  at  the  outfall.  The  tunnel  under 
consideration  in  the  tailrace-tunnel  proposition  would  have  to  be  as 
low  as  the  tailwater  level  or  great  loss  of  power  would  result.  In 
the  second  place  tiiere  is  the  matter  of  surges  in  a  tailrace  tunnel  so 
constructed.  These  might  be  very  serious  indeed,  and  no  way  of 
calculating  or  forecasting  them  has  yet  been  developed.  Serious 
surges  iuive  never  occurred  in  the  present  tailrace  tunnels  at  Niagara 
Falls,  but  conditions  in  them  are  not  at  all  comparable  with  condi- 
tions in  a  low-level  tunnel  48  feet  in  diameter  and  5  miles  long,  serv- 
ing units  of  three  to  five  times  the  poAver.  With  proper  draft  tube 
elliciency  the  center  of  the  turbine  will  have  to  be  approximately  20 
feet  above  the  tail-water  elevation,  and  even  slight  variations  in 
this  level  will  reduce  efficiency  and  impair  speed  regulation,  while 
large  sudden  changes  would  render  speed  regulation  impossible 
and  might  produce  shock  and  impact,  causing  serious  stresses  in  the 
machiner}'.  The  regulators  adopted  for  controlling  surges  in  open 
canals  and  pressure  tunnels  do  not  appear  to  be  adapted  to  the 
control  of  such  a  tunnel.  Regulating  reservoirs  in  the  rock  near  the 
upstream  end  of  the  tunnel  would  involve  prohibitive  expense.  The 
estimates  do  not  include  any  pumping  plant  or  tunnel  gates  or  any 
regulators  other  than  the  synchronous  relief  valves  on  the  penstocks. 
These  latter  would  aid  considerably  in  preventing  surges,  but  their 
sufficiency  is  problematical. 

If  construction  of  the  tailrace-tunnel  proposition  was  undertaken, 
it  might  be  found  that  ground  water  gave  no  special  trouble.  It 
miglit  never  become  necessary  to  unwater  the  tunnel  after  its  com- 
jjletion.  In  operating  the  plant  there  might  never  be  any  serious 
difficulty  from  surges,  particularly  in  view  of  the  use  of  synchronous 
relief  valves.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  chances  of  serious 
trouble  along  the  lines  indicated  are  sufficiently  great  to  make  the 
project  of  very  doul)tful  advisability. 

There  is  one  imi)ortant  objection  to  the  pressure-tunnel  proposi- 
tion, although  it  is  not  serious.  It  is  this:  If  one  of  the  penstock 
valves  requires  cleaning  or  repairs  it  will  be  necessary  to  shut 
down  the  entire  plant  and  drain  the  tunnel.  The  plant  would  then 
remain  down  while  repairs  were  being  made  unless  the  job  was 
a  long  one.  in  wiiich  case  the  penstock  tunnel  leading  to  the  valve 
\.ould  be  bulkheaded  and  the  plant  .started  up.  a  second  shutdown 
being  required  to  remove  the  bulkhead.  This  difficulty  could  be 
obviated  by  adopting  the  construction  advocated  l)y  tlie  old  Niagara 
Fails  Power  Co.  and  Hugh  L.  Cooper  &  Co.,  of  leading  the  main 
tunnel  up  to  a  fore  bay  at  the  top  of  the  bank,  from  which  water 
would  be  fed  to  the  turbines  in  long  penstocks,  as  in  the  power- 
canal  pro])osition.  Such  a  construction  would  be  much  more  expen- 
siv<'  and  le-ss  efficient,  and  does  not  appear  justifiable.  Otlier  and 
chea|)er  means  which  might  i>rove  satisfactory  iiave  been  suggested 
f<»r  at  If'ast  greatly  les.sening  the  force  of  this  objection. 

The  power-canal  proposition  presents  some  objections,  none  of 
which  .seem  i^erious.  From  a  con.ctruction  point  of  view  there  is  no 
particular  (lifficulty  involved,  and  from  an  operating  viewpoint  the 
<»nly  possibility  of  trouble  is  in  the  fonnation  of  ice  in  the  canal. 
I'ndrr  full  operating  contlitions  the  current  in  the  canal  will  be  too 
swift  to  permit  ice  formation  to  any  extent.     "When  the  plant  first 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     315 

commences  to  operate  on  one  or  two  units,  the  cuiTent  in  the  ciinal 
v.ill  be  very  slow  and  ice  may  form.  There  is,  of  course,  tlie  pos- 
sibility that  the  plant  might  be  shut  down  for  several  davs  (hiring 
freezing  weather,  but  this  is  remote,  and  it  api)ears  even  less  likely 
that  both  ice  runs  would  be  out  of  commission  at  such  a  time.  The 
most  important  objection  seems  to  be  the  presence  of  a  large  canal 
extending  fc^r  miles  througl)  or  near  the  city,  with  the  necessity  for 
bridge  maintenance  and  all  the  attendant  inconveniences.  By  dis- 
posing of  the  spoil  along  the  shore  of  Niagara  River,  as  suggested, 
theie  would  not  Ije  the  addi'd  objection  of  enormous  ])iles  of  rock 
and  earth  along  the  sides  of  the  canal.  The  canal  would,  neverthe- 
less, partially  prevent  the  use  of  valuable  land  for  other  purposes, 
form  a  dividing  line  disadvantageous  to  street  and  sewer  systems, 
and  cause  the  city  or  the  company  extra  expense  for  building  and 
maintaining  bridges  as  the  city  grew. 

In  the  pressure-tunnel  and  power-canal  propositions  the  use  of 
generating  units  of  more  than  87,000  horsepower  each  is  readily 
possible.  The  Hydroelectric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario  is  said  to 
have  decided  upon  units  of  52,500  horsepower  each  for  its  new  de- 
velopment. The  use  of  units  of  60,000  horsepower  each  has  been 
suggested.  Such  units  would  very  likely  be  less  expensive  per  horse- 
power than  those  included  in  the  estimates.  The  manufacturers  were 
not  prepared  to  make  estimates  on  sucli  units.  The  37,000-horsepower 
units  proposed  are  to  embody  the  most  recent  improvements,  includ- 
ing either  the  hyclraucone  or  an  equally  efficient  form  of  draft  tube. 

Further  consideration  of  and  comparisons  of  these  proposed  de- 
\  elopments  are  given  in  Section  F-10.  where  the  influence  of  such 
factors  as  rate  of  absorption  of  power,  selling  price  of  power,  and 
cost  of  promoting  and  financing  is  pointed  out. 

4.    PROPOSED  PLANTS  DIVIDING  DIVERSION  BUT   USING  FULL  HEAD   IN  ONE 

STAGE. 

The  projects  described  previously  for  utilizing  the  full  head  are 
all  based  on  the  use  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  a  single  plant. 
If  this  amount  is  to  be  used,  there  seems  to  be  no  advantage  in  having 
several  plants  whose  total  diversion  amounts  to  20.000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  The  cost  of  building  two  or  more  plants  of  the  same 
total  capacity  would  be  a  little  greater  than  the  cost  of  a  single  one, 
and  the  cost  of  operation  would  be  somewhat  greater.  In  case  a 
revision  of  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain  allowed  a  greater  diversion 
than  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  it  might  be  well  to  develop  the 
total  quantity  in  two  or  more  parallel  plants.  ^A.  discussion  of  the 
proper  limits  to  diversions  around  the  Falls  and  around  Whirlpool 
and  Lower  Rapids  has  been  given  in  section  E  of  this  i-eport.  Should 
the  desirability  become  apparent,  a  second  plant  could  be  constructed 
later  for  developing  an  additional  10,000  or  20,000  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

The  canal  project  could  easily  be  doubled  in  size  when  first  con- 
structed, and  the  result  would  probably  be  a  slight  increase  in  effi- 
ciency and  decrease  in  development  cost  per  horsepower.  A  single- 
pressure  or  tailrace  tunnel  to  carry  30,000  or  40,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  seems  impracticable,  and  the  requirement  of  constructing  two 
tunnels  for  such  a  diversion  precludes  any  chance  of  appreciable 


316      DIVERSION   OF   WATFR    FROAI   GREAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

gain  in  efficiency  or  economy  in  such  a  development  over  the  single 
liO.OOO  ciihic  I'eet  per  second  development.  In  case  a  second  like  quan- 
tity were  developed  later,  under  like  conditions,  the  entire  works 
would  simply  be  duplicated,  including  a  new  tunnel  or  canal,  as  the 
case  might  be.  This  procedure  would  be  more  economical  ultimately 
than  a  method  involving  enlargement  of  the  then  existing  canal  or 
tunnel. 

5.    PROPOSED    PLANTS    DIVIDING    DIVERSION    AND    DIVIDING    HEAD. 

From  the  ChippaAva -Grass  Island  pool  to  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool 
there  is  a  gross  head  of  about  220  feet.  The  existing  plants  all  use 
this  head,  or  part  of  it.  It  is  possible  to  use  the  two  present  Ameri- 
can plants,  or  one  of  the  present  ones  and  one  new  one,  of  the  same 
head.  ( ombined  with  a  development  using  the  same  diversion  under 
the  90  feet  of  head  in  the  rapids  below  the  Falls.  Any  rational 
plan  must  involve  the  abandonment  of  the  Niagara  plant  of  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  because  of  its  incurable  inefficiency.  The 
sami'  is  true  to  a  lesser  extent  of  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.'s  sta- 
tion 2.  It  then  remains  only  to  consider  a  new  development,  which,^ 
combined  with  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.'s  station  3,  will  utilize 
20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  under  the  220-foot  head,  and  another 
plant  which  will  utilize  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  under  the  90- foot 
head.  Outline  plans  and  estimates  for  such  an  installation  have 
been  prepared.  In  Section  E-6  a  plan  is  considered  Avhich  resembles 
this  one,  but  in  which  the  220-foot  development  is  a  simple  matter 
of  one  tunnel  and  one  poAver  house.  The  scheme  here  treated  has  a 
tunnel,  a  canal,  and  tAvo  poAver  houses.  To  distinguish  them,  this 
one  Avill  be  called  the  compound  2-stage  proposition  and  the  other 
one  the  simple  2-stage  proposition. 

Compound  2-stage  projjoiiition. — The  hydraulic  canal  and  station 
3  of  the  Hydraulic  PoAver  Co.  have  already  been  described  in  Sec- 
tion F-2  of  this  report.  With  station  2  shut  down,  the  maximum 
capacity  of  this  plant  at  mean  sttige  is  about  6,650  cubic  feet  per 
second  and  130,000  horsepoAver.  The  present  floAv  through  the  canal 
is  about  8,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  InA'estigation  showed  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  enlarge  the  canal  to  a  capacity  of  20,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  Avithout  greatly  reducing  the  present  poAver 
output  for  many  months  Avhile  construction  Avas  in  progress.  The 
•lemand  that  the  present  supply  of  power  be  furnished  withput  inter- 
ruption is  so  imp>ortant  tliat  such  a  course  is  practically  impossible. 
As  a  new  canal  through  the  heart  of  the  city  is  out  of  the  question 
as  regards  both  expense  and  desirability,  the  plan  adopted  invohes  a 
tunnel  from  Port  Day. 

The  general  outline  designs  are  shown  on  plates  Nos.  33.  42,  43,  44, 
and  45. 

An  approach  channel  is  to  be  dredged  in  the  river.  This  channel 
is  curved  in  plan  and  extends  from  deep  Avater  1.300  feet  south  of 
(xrass  Island  to  the  canal  entrance  at  Port  Day.  It  is  3,000  feet  long. 
300  feet  Avide,  and  20f  feet  deep  at  mean  stage.  Near  the  outer  end 
of  this  channel  a  new  ice-diA'e/ ting  structure  is  built,  consisting  of 
strongl}'  trus^jed  booms  floating  betAveen  concrete  piers.  The  Port 
Day  entrance  south  of  Bufl'alo  Avenue  is  dredged  to  a  depth  of  20 
fj'et  on  the  east  side  and  36  feet  on  the  Avest.    Beyond  Buffalo  AAenue 


DIVEESIOX    OF   WATER   i'KUM   OKEAT   l.AKE.S   AND   NlAUAliA   inVER.      olV 

about  88,000  5'ards  of  rock  are  dredf^ed  from  the  canal,  eiroctiM<^  an 
average  deepening  of  about  5  feet  and  enabling  it  to  cany  10,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  with  a  fall  to  the  basin  of  only  about  -2.2  feet. 

Along  the  west  side  of  the  Port  Day  entrance  \i  tunnel  intake  is 
built.  Fifteen  panels  of  racks  are  supported  between  concrete  piers 
44  feet  high,  45  feet  long,  and  5  feot  thick,  placed  25  feet  center  to 
center.  The  water  enters  the  space  between  the  piers  through  sub- 
merged arches  21  feet  high  at  the  springings  and  2(3  feet  at  the  crowns. 
Behind  the  racks  are  gates  for  use  if  it  is  desired  to  drain  the  tunnel. 
The  entering  water  has  a  velocity  of  about  1.85  feet  per  second 
through  the  arches.  0.94  between  the  piers,  and  1.3  through  the  racks. 
The  tunnel  forebay  runs  behind  the  rack  house.  It  is  20  feet  wide 
by  36  feet  deep  at  the  south  end,  and  55  feet  wide  by  56  feet  deep  at 
the  north.  The  velocity  in  it  varies  from  1  to  3^-  feet  per  second. 
From  the  north  end  of  this  forebay  a  short  bellmouth  section  leads 
the  water  into  the  tunnel,  where  it  attains  a  mean  velocity  of  9.68 
feet  per  second. 

The  tunnel  is  of  horseshoe-shaped  cross  section  35  feet  in  diameter. 
The  top  half  is  a  35-foot  semicircle ;  below  that  the  sides  and  invert 
each  have  a  radius  of  TO  feet.  The  lining  is  of  concrete  22  inches 
thick.  At  the  start  the  tunnel  slants  downward  at  a  slope  of  2  hori- 
zontal to  1  vertical  for  about  150  feet,  then  makes  a  vertical  curve 
of  12")-foot  radius  and  adopts  a  slope  of  6  feet  per  1,000.  This  brings 
it  well  below^  the  city  sewer  tunnels  and  above  the  tunnel  of  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  In  plan  the  tunnel  starts  with  a  curve  to 
the  left  with  a  radius  of  1,275  feet.  It  then  has  a  tangent  bearing 
north  54°  west,  followed  by  a  curve  to  the  right  with  a  radius  of  430 
feet.    The  whole  length  is  4,240  feet. 

For  hydraulic  computations,  Kutter's  "  N "  was  taken  at  0.013. 
This  gave  a  slope  of  0.000439,  and  loss  of  head  in  the  tunnel  of  1.86 
feet.  ^ 

Near  the  lower  end  of  the  main  tunnel  a  circular  tunnel  30  feet  in 
diameter  rises  to  a  "  differential "  surge  tank  in  the  open  space  be- 
tween the  flumes  which  supply  water  to  station  2.  The  tank  is  of 
concrete,  95  feet  in  diameter,  and  rises  45  feet  above  the  ground. 

Beyond  the  end  of  the  35-foot  tunnel  is  a  tapering  section  325 
feet  long.  From  this  seven  penstock  tunnels  branch  off  at  an  angle 
of  60°.  They  are  circular,  15  feet  in  diameter,  and  average  about 
325  feet  long.  They  enter  a  power  house  similar  in  design  and  equip- 
ment to  that  of  the  pressure-tunnel  project,  but  containing  only  10 
units,  each  rated  at  32,000  horsepower  maximum.  Best  efficiency  of 
these  units  is  specified  at  about  30,000  horsepower.  Seven  of  the 
units  are  supplied  by  the  tunnel  as  described  above.  The  other  three 
are  supplied  from  the  canal. 

The  intake  for  the  three  units  supplied  from  the  canal  is  on  the 
west  side  of  the  basin,  between  the  central  mill  and  the  Schoelkopf 
&  Mathews  mill  of  the  Niagara  Milling  Co.  The  south  branch  of  the 
basin  is  filled  in  and  the  north  branch  widened  to  100  feet  abreast  the 
intake.  The  face  of  the  intake  is  flush  with  the  west  wall  of  the 
canal.  It  admits  water  through  eight  submerged  arches  9  feet  high 
to  the  springings  and  14  feet  to  the  crowns.  The  span  of  each  arch 
is  16  feet,  the  crown  being  9  feet  below  mean  stage.  The  piers  be- 
tween arches  are  4  feet  thick.  After  passing  the  submerged  arches 
the  water  flows  between  the  same  piers,  which  serve  to  hold  up  the 


318      DIVERSIOX   OF   WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RI\T.R. 

roadway.  Behind  the  piers  the  water  enters  a  small  forebay,  passes 
throufrh  a  continuous  line  of  racks,  between  a  set  of  deep  reinforced- 
concreite  girders  supporting  the  racks,  and  enters  the  three  15-foot 
penstock  tunnels,  each  350  feet  long.  The  velocity  is  2.63  feet  per 
second  through  the  arches,  from  1^  to  1  between  the  piers,  and  about 
1.4  through  the  racks,  0.93  between  the  girders,  and  8.2  in  the  pen- 
stock tunnels.  There  are  no  gates,  but  stop  logs  behind  the  arches 
serve  to  shut  off  the  whole  flow. 

The  power  house  on  the  talus  slope  is  of  the  same  general  tj-pe  as 
already  described  in  the  pressure-tunnel  proposition,  being  equipped 
with  penstock  valves  and  vertical  generating  units.  A  lower  part  of 
the  building  over  the  tailraces  contains  bus  bars,  oil  switches,  and 
other  accessories. 

The  mean  stage  of  water  surface  at  Port  Day  is  562  feet,  and  in 
the  lower  river  abreast  of  the  power  house  343.  giving  a  gross  head  of 
219.  For  the  three  units  fed  from  the  basin  the  losses  are  estimated 
at  4.5  feet.  Net  head  is  214.5  feet.  For  the  other  seven  new  units 
the  losses  are  5  feet  and  the  net  head  214.  For  station  3  the  losses  are 
4  feet,  exclusive  of  forebay,  rack,  and  penstock  losses,  and  the  net 
head  is  215  feet.    Table  No.  35  gives  the  power  output. 

Table  No.  35. — Power  output  of  compound  ttoo-stage  proposition. 


Units. 


Water  re- 
quired 
f  cubic  feet 
per  second.) 


Horse- 
power 
produced. 


Maximum 

norse- 

power 

capacity. 


3  new,  from  basin 

7  new,  from  tunnel 

5  direct-current,  station  3 

8  alternating  current,  station  3  Conly  6  operated) 

Total 


4,350 
10, 150 
2,250 
3,250 


91,000 

212,000 

42,000 

64,000 


96,000 
224, 000 
43,000 
87,000 


20,000  409,000 


450,000 


The  horsepower  produced  is  20.4  per  cubic  foot  per  second. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  installation  has  a  spare  capacity  of  41,000 
horsepower,  which  permits  shutting  down  an}'  one  unit  without  re- 
ducing the  power  output. 

The  estimated  cost  of  new  construction  in  this  proposition  is 
$21,183,000,  which  is  $51.80  per  horsepower,  exclu.'^ive  of  the  original 
cost  of  these  parts  of  the  existing  plant  incorporated  in  the  design. 
Details  are  given  in  the  estimate  summarv,  Table  No.  36.  The  esti- 
mated time  of  development  is  one  year  for  the  first  power  and  three 
and  one-fourth  years  for  completion. 

Table  No.  36. — Compound  two-stage  proposition — Summary  of  estimate  of  con- 
struction cost. 


Item. 

Quantity. 

Unit  price. 

Amount. 

Total. 

UPPEE  STAGE. 

Dredping  in  river,  hardpan cubic  vards. . 

Ice  protection,  piers  and  booms lump.. 

293,000 

$1.25 

$366,000.00 
200,000.00 

Total  river  work 

$566,000.00 

Cofferdam,  D-22  feet linear  feet 

400            i94.66 
16,100               1.75 
47,600  !             3  50 

78,000.00 
28,000.00 
167,000.00 

Earth  excavation cubic  yards. . 

Rock  excavation do 

DIVEESION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     319 

Table  No.  3G. — Compound  ttvo-stape  proposition— Fiummary  of  estimate  of  con- 
st ruction  cost — Continued. 


Item. 


UPPEE  STAGE — Continued. 

Plain  concrete cubic  yards. 

Reinforced  concrete do. . . 

Steel  reinforcement,  extra pounds. 

Racks,  steel do. . . 

Stop  logs,  steel QO-  ■  - 

Gates •  -  -  •  • 

Building square  feet. 


Quantity.    Unit  price.  I     Amount. 


Total  Port  Day  intake 

Horseshoe  tunnel, :«  feci  diameter linear  feet. 

Tapering  tunnel,  25  feet  mean  diameter do. . . 

Circular  tunnel: 

;iO  feet  diameter  riser a'" 

15  feet  diameter do. .  - 

Shafts,  25  feet  square cubic  yards. 


11,390 

980 

102,  000 

1, 005, 000 

64,500 

15 

18, 450 


$12.00 

25.00 

.07 

.10 

.10 

15,  000.00 

12.00 


4,240 
325 

210 
3,328 
12,800 


Total  tunnels 

Rock  excavation do. . . 

Earth  excavation do. . . 

Reinforced  concrete: 

21  percent  steel 4°"" 

li  per  cent  steel do. . . 

Plain  concrete do. . . 

Roof  and  incidentals 


3,540 
1,500 

900 
220 
590 


Total  differential  surge  tank -  - . 

Dredging  hydraulic  canal  entrance,  rock,   cubic 

yards .' ■  - 

Dredging  in  hydraulic  canal,  rock do — 

Dredging  in  basin,  rock do — 

Wideiiing  basin,  rock,  nearly  all  dredging — do — 
Concrete  retaining  walls do — 


Total  canal  work 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards. . 

Plain  concrete ^^"' 

Reinforced  concrete do. . . 

Racks pounds. 

Stop  logs do... 

Building square  feet . 


Total  basin  intake 

Cofferdam,  D-15 linear  feet . 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards. 

Plain  concrete do. . . 

Reinforced  concrete do. . . 

Building:  ,    ^ 

High  portion square  feet . 

Low  portion do. . . 


40, 700 

78,700 

4,600 

8,400 

3,650 


450.00 
325.00 

549.00 

157.00 

12.00 


$137,000.00 
24,000.00 
7,000.00 
100,000.00 
6,000.00 
225,000.00 
221,000.00 


3.75 
1.50 

40.00 
30.00 
15.00 


25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
20-00 
15.00 


1,909,000.00 
106,000.00 

115,000.00 
522,000.00 
154,000.00 


13,000.00 
2,000.00 

36,000.00 
7, 000.00 
9, 000.00 

10, 000.00 


21,800 

3,120 

1,960 

584,000 

172, 900 

8,200 


Total  power  house 

Penstocks,  steel pounds. 

Penstock  valves 

Turbines  and  generators horsepower. 

Erection  and  accessories do. . . 


550 

52, 900 

22,600 

4,200 

35,100 
14, 580 


3.50 
15.00 
25.00 
.10 
.10 
12.00 


90.00 
3.. 50 
12.00 
25.00 

15.00 
12.00 


1, 018, 000  00 

1, 968, 000  00 

115,000.00 

168,000.00 

55,000  00 


76,000.00 
47,000.00 
49, 000  00 
58,000.00 
17, 000.00 
98, 000.00 


Total  equipment. 
Real  estate 


Summation 

Contingencies,  15  per  cent  of  $16, 139, 000 

Engineering  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of 
$16, 139, 000 


Summation 

Constniction  interest,  5  per  cent  of  $20, 174, 000. 


Construction  cost 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  409, 000  horsepower. 

LOWER  STAGE. 


Reversing  tailraces,  upper  station — - 

Revenue  from  power  lost  when  reversing  tailraces. 

Total  reversing  unper  plant  discharge 

Circular  tailrace  tunnel: 

16  feet  diameter linear  feet 

10 fret  diameter do... 

4  feet  diameter do . . . 


781,000  .10 

10  1  53,000.00 

320,000  j  15.20 

320,000  3.40 


50,000.00 
185,000.00 
271,000.00 
105,000.00 

526,000.00 
175,000.00 


78,000.00 

.530,000.00 

4,864,000.00 

1,088,000.00 


1,2.50 

2,580 

410 


167. 00 
105. 00 
45.00 


160,000.00 
500,000  00 


209,000.00 

271,000.00 

18,000.00 


Total. 


93,000.00 


2,806,000.00 


77,000.00 


3,  324, 000  00 


345,000.00 


1,312,000.00 


6,560,000.00 
156,000.00 


16,139,000.00 
2,421,000.00 

1,614,000.00 


20,174,000.00 
1,009,000.00 


21,183,000.00 
51.80 


660, 000.  on 


320      DIVERSION  OF  WATER   FROM  GRE;AT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Taiuk  No.  30. — Comi>oitiul  tno-staye  inopo'iiiion — Summary  of  estimate  of  con- 
struction cost — Continued. 


Item. 


Quantity.    Unit  price.       Amount. 


Total. 


LOWER  STAGE — Continued. 

Tape  horscjhoe  tunnel,  mo.in  diameter  39  feet, 
linear  feet 

Horso.'iJioe  tunnel,  48  feet  diamc-tcr linear  feet. . 

Taper  horseshoe  timnel,  mean  diameter  32  feet, 
Imear  feet ; 

Circular  penstock  tuiinel.';,  l.'ifoet  diameter,  linear 
feet. 


Shafts,  25  feet  square cubic  yardb. 


1,195 
19.900 


1,8.50 
31, 970 


Total  tunnels 

Circular  tiuuicl,  16  feet  diameter linear  feet. . 

^haft cubic  yards. . 

Plnin  concrete , ".do 

Steel,  penstock,  etc pounds.. 

Penstock  valve,  16  feet  diameter 

MLscellaneoiis 


140 

4, 130 

640 

138, 500 

1 


Total  by-pa,ss 

Rf)ck  oxcav;\tion cubic  yard.s. . 

Plain  concrete .do 

Reinforced  concrete do 

Cofferdam,  D-10  feet linear  feet.. 

Horsc.'ihoc  tunnel,  30  feet  diameter do 

Building square  feet . . 

Gate:,  stool pounds.. 

Special  machiner v  for  gates 

Rebnildint;  Gorge  route  tracks 


78,000 

14, 840 

630 

3C0 

240 

5, 700 

1,030,000 


$580.00       $693,000.00 
735.00    14,626,000.00 

I 
440.  00  I      293, 000. 00 


2S9.000.00 
384, 000. 00 


156.00 
12.00 


167.00 

12.00 

15.00 

.10 

53.000.00 


23,000.00 
50.  WX  00 
10,000.00  I 
14,fK)0.00 
5:3,000.00  I 
5,000.00  , 


$16,783,000.00 


3.50 
12.00 
25.00 
40.00 
306.00 
12.00 
.10 


273,  OCO.  00 
178,000.00 
16.000.00 
12, 000. 00 
88, 000.  Ou 
6**,  000. 00 
103.000.00 

50,  im.  00 

2,000.00 


155, 000.0*^ 


Total  sn^gc  spillwaj' 

Rock  excavation. .' cubic  yards.. 

Cofferdam,  D-15  feet linear  feet. . 

Plain  concrete cubic  yards. . 

Reinforced  concrete "do 

Building .square  feet. . ' 

Rebuilding  Gorge  route  tracJcs iilll.f 


186, 300 
800 

m,  150 

1,060 
64, 6C0 


Total  powerhouse ' ' 

Penstocks,  steel pounds. . 

Synchronous  relief  valves 

Do 

Turbines  and  generators horsepower. . 

Erection  and  accessories do : 

Penstock  valves 

Interlocking  signalling  and  operating  equipment...! 


982, 500 

10 

13 

1S2, 000 

182,000 

14 


3.50 
90.00 
12.00 
25.00 
15.00 


632,000.00 
72, 000.  00 

434, 000. 00 
26.000.00 

969;  000. 00 
5, 000. 00 


.10 

10,000.00 

5,000.00 

16. 30 

3.50 

43,000.00 


Tot  il  equipment. 
Real  estate 


Summal  ion 

Coniingencics,  15  per  cent  of  $25,173,000 

Engineering  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of 
i2.5,173,000 


Summation 

Construction  interest,  9  per  cent  of  $31,466,000. 

Construction  cost 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  161,000  hoisf-power 


BOTU  .ST.VGE6  COMBIXEU. 


98,(XX>.00 
100,000.00  I 

6.5,000.00  I 
2,967,000.00 
637,000  OC  ■> 
602, 000. 00 

53, 000. 00 


790, 000. 00 


2,15S,000.00 


4,519,000.00 
108,000.00 


25,173.000.00 
3, 776, 000. 00 

2,517,000.00 


31,466,000.00 
2,8.32,000.00 


34, 298, 000. 0(J 
209.10 


Consiructiou  co6i  of  upper  stage. 
Construction  cost  of  lower  stage . 


Constniction  cose  of  entire  proposition. 
Co.st  per  horsepower  for  573,000  horsepower.. 


21,183,000.00 
34, 298, 000. 00 


55.481,000.00 
96.80 


For  tlie  lower  stage  pbint  two  methods  present  themselves.  The 
water  from  the  upper  stage  ttiilraces  ma}^  be  collected  and  used  again, 
or  it  may  be  turned  into  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool  and  the  water 
required  for  the  lower  plant  taken  independently  from  that  pool  at 
some  point  near  tlie  railroad  bridges.  The  second  method  is  ob- 
viously cheaper  as  regards  original  construction,  for  it  shortens  the 
lengtli  of  tunnel  required  by  about  a  mile.     It  also  provides  for  a 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     321 

much  more  flexible  and  independent  operation  of  the  two  plants. 
There  are,  however,  three  serious  objections  to  this  plan.  In  the 
winter  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool  often  carries  enormous  quantities 
of  ice.  The  same  amount  of  ice  which  passes  the  intakes  on  the  upper 
ri\er,  distril)uted  over  a  waterway  from  5,000  to  7,500  feet  wide,  will 
pass  this  intake  with  a  width  of  waterway  of  only  500  to  1.000  feet, 
depending  on  the  intake  location.  It  can  be  expected  from  this  con- 
centration that  ice  trouble  will  be  many  times  as  great  as  in  the  cases 
of  the  present  plants,  whose  troubles  have  often  been  severe.  Ice 
bridges  frequently  form  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pool,  and  then  move 
down  as  a  solid  mass  until  they  are  broken  up  at  the  railroad  bridges. 
The'  second  disadvantage  of  an  intake  in  this  pool  arises  from  the 
violent  fluctuation  in  surface  level  to  which  it  is  subject.  These 
changes  in  water  surface  elevation  are  at  present  more  than  four  times 
as  great  as  in  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  pool.  Systematic  records 
of  the  fluctuations  are  not  available,  but  the  records  during  the 
winter  of  1917-18  of  a  gauge  maintained  by  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co. 
showed  a  range  from  336.5  to  356  feet.  The  range  during  a  number 
of  years  must  be  much  greater.  If  40,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is 
diverted  around  the  Whirlpool  Eapids,  the  level  of  the  Maid  of  the 
Mist  pool  will  be  lowered,  the  amount  of  lowering  being  greater  at 
low  than  at  high  stages.  At  the  low  stage  of  January  28,  1918,  the 
level  would  have  been  reduced  from  336.5  to  330.4  feet.  For  a 
diversion  of  80.000  cubic  feet  per  second  the  level  would  have  been 
about  323.5  feet.  The  third  objection  is  that  floating  weeds  and 
trash,  a  very  bothersome  amount  of  which  sometimes  comes  down  the 
river,  must  again  be  separated  from  the  water  in  the  second  method, 
while  in  the  first  method  there  is  no  chance  for  a  second  accumulation. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  an  intake  in  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool 
must  be  so  designed  as  to  be  able  to  handle  floating  weeds  and  trash, 
ice  jams,  vast  quantities  of  floating  ice,  and  fluctuations  of  stage  as 
great  as  30  feet.  The  turbines  served  by  such  an  intake  will  be  sub- 
ject to  fluctuations  of  head  amounting  to  more  than  30  per  cent  of 
the  mean  net  head,  which  means  considerable  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  continuous  power  they  can  turn  out,  lessened  efficiency,  and  in- 
creased difficulties  of  operation. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  was  decided  that  any  lower  stage  plant 
should  be  of  the  type  not  taking  water  from  the  Maid  of  the  Mist 
Pool,  and  the  outline  plans  prepared  therefore  provide  for  gathering 
the  discharge  from  the  upper  head  plant  before  it  is  permitted  to 
enter  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool. 

The  draft  tubes  of  station  3  and  of  the  new  upper  stage  plants  are 
reversed  and  discharge  away  from  the  river  into  tailrace  tunnels 
which  are  10  feet  in  diameter  for  the  station  3  units  and  16  feet  for 
the  new  ones.  These  tunnels  join  a  gradually  enlarging  main  tail- 
race  tunnel  which  reaches  48  feet  in  diameter  at  the  point  where  it 
receives  the  tunnel  from  the  last  unit.  A  16-foot  by-pass  tunnel  with 
a  valve  connects  the  headrace  tunnel  with  the  tailrace  tunnel  to 
supply  water  to  the  lower  plant  when  part  of  the  upper  plant:  is  shut 
down.  All  the  turbines  in  the  upper  plants  are  provided  with  syn- 
chronous relief  valves. 

The  main  tunnel  is  of  horshoe-shaped  cross-section,  48  feet  in 
diameter,  side  and  bottom  radii  96  feet.     Its  hydraulic  properties  are 

27880—21 21 


322      DR^RSIOX  OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

exactly  the  same  as  those  of  the  tunnel  described  in  Section  F-3  of 
this  report  under  the  heading  "  Tailrace  tunnel."  It  is  19,900  feet 
lonof. 

To  allow  the  upper  plant  to  operate  at  times  with  a  water  consump- 
tion greater  than  that  of  the  lower  plant  a  spillway  is  provided  near 
the  lower  end  of  the  tunnel.  A  basin  2G7  feet  lorig  l)y  50  feet  wicle 
is  dug  in  the  talus  slope,  and  connected  to  the  tunnel  by  two  short 
tunnels,  each  30  feet  in  diameter.  Along  the  front  of  the  basin  is  a 
L^iillway  weir  with  10  segmental  gates,  which  form  a  movable  crest. 
These  gates  are  each  24  feet  long  and  operate  between  concrete  piers 
3  feet  thick.  The  movable  crest  has  a  range  of  14  feet.  The  ma- 
chinery for  operating  the  crest  is  in  a  building  supported  on  the 
piers.  The  spillway  slopes  down  under  the  Gorge  Eoute  tracks  and 
discharges  into  the  river.  With  the  gates  in  their  lowest  position, 
this  spillway  will  discharge  the  full  tunnel  capacity  of  20.000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  -with  practically  no  change  in  head  on  the  upper 
plant. 

_  The  power  house  is  just  downstream  from  the  spillway.  Fourteen 
circular  penstock  tunnels,  15  feet  in  diameter  and  about  132  feet  long, 
branch  off  from  a  tapering  section  of  the  main  tunnel.  The  power 
house  in  the  talus  slope  is  of  the  same  type  as  in  the  pressure  tunnel 
proposition  and  has  the  same  arrangement  of  penstock  valve,  turbine, 
generator,  and  draft  tube.  It  contains  14  units  each  rated  at  13,000 
maximum  horsepower.  Thirteen  machines  can  carry  the  full  load. 
It  is  intended  to  operate  the  plants  with  a  mean  tail-water  eleva- 
tion of  343  at  the  upper  station.  At  mean  stage  the  tail-water  eleva- 
tion of  the  lower  plant  is  250,  which  gives  a  gross  head  of  93  feet. 
The  total  hydraulic  losses  in  the  lovv'er  development  arc  estimated  at 
9  feet,  of  v,-hich  the  principal  part,  namely  G.75  feet,  occurs  in  the 
main  tunnel.  The  net  head  remaining  is  84  feet.  With  86  per  cent 
efficiency  of  machinery,  a  diversion  of  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second 
gives  an  output  of  164,000  horsepower.  This  is  8.2  horsepower  per 
cubic  foot  per  second. 

The  two  plants  combined  have  a  gross  head  of  312  feet,  an  output 
of  573,000  horsepower,  and  an  over-all  efficiency  of  81  per  cent. 
They  develop  28.6  horse  power  per  cubic  foot  of  water  diverted  per 
second. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  lower  stage  plant  is  $34,298,000,  which  is 
$209.10  per  horsepower.  For  the  two  plants  combined  the  cost  is 
$55,481,000,  or  $96.80  per  horsepower  then  available.  A  summary 
of  the  estimates  is  given  in  Table  Xo.  30.  The  estimated  time  o'f 
development  of  the  lower  river  plant  is  two  and  one-fourth  years  for 
the  first  power  and  four  and  one-fourth  years  for  completion.  Cer- 
tain details  of  the  design  upon  which  the  estimate  was  based  are 
shown  on  jdates  Nos.  42  to  45,  inclusive. 

The  critical  element  of  this  scheme  is  the  operation.  The  upper 
and  lower  plants  must  be  operated  as  a  unit  and  great  care  must  be 
taken  by  the  use  of  the  by-pass,  relief  valves,  and  spillway  to  main- 
tain a  uniform  flow.  It  must  be  positively  assured  that  the  open- 
ing (jf  a  circuit  breaker  in  the  upper  plant  will  either  admit  extra 
water  to  the  tunnel  to  compensate  for  the  shutting  down  of  the  unit, 
or  else  will  close  the  gates  in  the  lower  station  on  a  unit  which  is 
using  an  approximately  equal  quantity  of  water;  otherwi.se  the  supply 
of  water  to  the  lower  plant  is  likely  to  be  diminished  suddenly  under 


DIVEESION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     323 

full  load,  causing  a  reduction  in  speed  of  the  generating  units,  with 
consequent  undesirable  and  even  dangerous  operating  conditions. 
Under  such  circumstances  there  is  danger  of  sucking  air  into  the 
turbines  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause  destructive  shocks  and  stresses, 
and  there  is  also  danger  of  damage  to  the  electrical  machinery. 

Because  of  this  uncertain  element  of  danger  in  operation,  the  Hy- 
draulic Power  Co.  has  modified  its  original  plans  as  presented  in 
Exhibit  B  of  the  interim  report  of  March  2,  1918,  and  is  arranging 
to  have  the  units  discharge  into  a  tail-bay  between  the  power  house 
and  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool.  The  tail-bay  has  free  communi- 
cation with  the  pool,  and  ordinarih'  will  be  at  the  same  level.  It 
will  discharge  into  the  pool  until  such  time  as  the  down-river  plant 
is  constructed  and  placed  in  operation,  and  thereafter  whenever  the 
down-river  plant  is  not  drawing  all  the  water  discharged  from  the 
upper  plant.  The  tail-bay  becomes  a  head-bay  for  the  down-river 
plant,  feeding  the  upper  end  of  the  tunnel  through  two  short  tun- 
nels beneath  the  power  house.  Gates  are  provided  for  closing  the  two 
tunnel  entrances,  and  also  for  shutting  the  tail-bay  off  from  the 
river.  The  advantages  of  this  design  are,  first,  provision  for  dis- 
charging surplus  water  into  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool:  second, 
provision  for  supplying  the  down-river  plant  automatically  with 
water  from  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool  in  case  of  loss  of  load  on  upper 
plant ;  third,  simplicity  of  control  at  upper  end  of  main  tunnel  and 
between  tail-bay  and  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool.  The  disadvantages  are 
about  the  same  as  those  already  enumerated  for  the  intake  near  the 
railroad  bridges.  Also  the  loss  of  head  will  probably  be  greater  than 
with  the  arrangement  proposed  herein.  The  change  will  prove  ad- 
vantageous if  the  lower  stage  is  never  developed. 

The  above-described  outline  plans  and  estimate  were  prepared 
before  the  change  in  plans  by  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  had  been  de- 
termined upon.  In  fact,  they  follow  the  original  plans  of  that  com- 
pany fairly  closely,  although  deviating  considerably  from  them  in 
certain  particulars.  All  three  schemes  will  cost  about  the  same, 
however,  and  it  seems  unnecessary  for  the  purposes  of  this  report  to 
change  the  plans  and  estimates  here  given  in  an  attempt  to  be  in 
accord  with  later  developments,  the  designs  for  which  are  being 
altered  frequently. 

The  matter  of  surges  in  the  long  tunnel  which  forms  a  tailrace 
for  one  plant  and  a  headrace  for  another,  deserves  the  most  careful 
consideration.  It  appears  much  more  difficult  to  regulate  surges  in 
this  tunnel  than  in  the  simple  headrace  pressure  tunnel,  but  regula- 
tion seems  easily  within  the  range  of  practicable  possibility,  and  the 
problem  is  far  less  difficult  than  the  one  presented  in  the  tailrace- 
tunnel  proposition.  With  the  by-pass,  relief  valves,  spillway,  and 
interlocking  and  automatic  electrical  control  suggested,  it  is  believed 
good  regulation  and  freedom  from  serious  accident  could  be  secured. 
As  an  extra  precaution  against  possible  flooding  of  the  upper  power 
houses  a  spillway  might  be  located  near  the  upper  end  of  the  long 
tunnel,  so  arranged  as  to  discharge  into  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool 
any  part  of  the  full  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  when  the  water 
arose  above  an  elevation  of  about  355.  The  desirability  of  the  use 
of  a  differential  surge  tank  at  the  downstream  end  of  this  tunnel, 
with  consequent  modification  of  or  elimination  of  the  spillway  herein 
provided,  deserves  careful  study. 


324      DIVERSION    or   water    TROM   great   lakes   and   NIAGARA   RIVER. 
6.   PROPOSED  PLANTS  USING  FULL  DI%'ERSION   BUT   DIVIDING   HEAD. 

Simple  two-stage  proposition. — An  outline  design  and  estimate 
was  made  for  an  mstallation  to  use  a  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  in  two  stages,  there  being  only  one  power  house  for  each 
stage.  The  studies  already  referred  to  in  Section  F-6  determined  that 
it  sliould  be  a  self-contained  system  without  connection  to  the  Maid 
of  the  Mist  pool.  Plate  No.  33  shows  the  general  layout  of  the 
project.  In  this  proposed  development  an  approach  channel  is  to  be 
dredged  in  the  river  similar  to  the  one  in  the  tailrace  tunnel  propo- 
sition Section  F-3,  but  extending  downstream  to  Grass  Island.  On 
Grass  Island  is  built  an  intake  exactly  like  the  one  described  in  the 
pressure-tunnel  proposition.  A  48-foot  tunnel  8,500  feet  long,  simi- 
lar to  those  already  described,  leads  to  a  point  in  the  Gorge  near  the 
car  barns  of  the  Gorge  Route  Railway.  The  tunnel  passes  just  south 
of  the  wheel  pit  of  station  No.  2  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co., 
and  30  to  40  feet  above  the  tailrace  tunnels  leading  from  the  turbines 
of  this  company  and  the  International  Paper  Co.  At  the  lower  end 
of  the  tunnel,  between  the  New  York  Central  and  Gorge  Route 
tracks,  is  a  diifferential  surge  tank  105  feet  in  diameter  and  90  feet 
higli.  Fifteen  penstock  tunnels,  each  15  feet  in  diameter,  branch 
off  from  a  tapering  section  of  tunnel  in  the  usual  manner.  Entering 
the  power  house  the  water  passes  through  penstock  valves  and  tur- 
bines and  discharges  into  a  tailrace  tunnel  running  longitudinally 
under  the  power  house  as  in  the  tailrace-tunnel  proposition.  Fifty 
feet  downstream  from  the  power  house  a  500-foot  length  of  the  tail- 
race  tunnel  is  opened  up  to  the  surface  of  the  talus  slope  to  form  a 
temporary  spillway  so  that  the  upper  plant  can  be  used  alone  during 
the  construction  of  the  downstream  plant. 

The  15  units  installed  in  this  plant  are  rated  at  32,000  maximum 
horsepower.  They  are  to  be  vertical-shaft  machines  of  the  general 
type  and  characteristics  already  described  for  the  upper  station  of 
the  compound  two-stage  development. 

When  this  plant  is  running  independently  the  gross  head  is  215.25 
feet.  The  total  losses  are  estimated  at  7  feet,  of  which  3.25  feet  occur 
in  the  main  tunnel.  The  net  head  is  208.25  feet,  and  power  output 
460,000  horsepower,  or  20.3  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per  second. 

The  cost  is  estimated  at  $31,528,000,  which  is  $77.70  per  horse- 
power.   A  summary  of  the  estimate  is  to  be  found  in  Table  No.  37. 

The  lower  stage  development  is  exactly  like  that  described  in  Sec- 
tion F-5  for  the  compound  two-stage  proposition,  except  that  the 
length  of  the  48-foot  tunnel  is  only  17,200  feet  from  the  downstream 
end  of  the  temporary  spillway,  or  17,750  feet  from  the  power  house. 
Considering  the  upper  and  lower  developments  as  a  unit  the  gross 
head  is  312.25  feet  and  the  total  losses  14.75  feet,  of  which  3.25  feet 
occurs  in  the  upper  tunnel  and  6  in  the  lower.  The  net  head  is 
297.5  feet;  power  output,  580,000  horsepower,  or  29  horsepower  per 
cubic  foot  per  second ;  and  overall  efficiency  81.9  per  cent.  The  cost 
of  the  two  plants  is  estimated  at  $61,227,000,  which  is  $105.60  per 
hoi-sepower.  Table  No.  37  contains  the  estimate  summary.  Certain 
details  of  the  design  upon  which  the  estimate  was  based  are  shown 
on  plates  Nos.  46  to  48,  inclusive. 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FRO^^I   GRKAT   I.AKK.S   AND    XIACARA   RIVKR.      325 

The  estimated  time  of  development  is  two  years  for  the  first  power 
and  four  and  one-half  years  for  completion  of  the  upper  plant;  and, 
measuring  from  the  commencing  of  the  lower  plant,  two  years  for 
the  first  power  from  it  and  four  and  one-fourth  years  for  its  com- 
pletion. 

The  difficulties  in  operating  this  plant  would  be  much  the  same  as 
in  the  case  of  the  compound  two-stage  proposition,  as  already  de- 
scribed in  Section  F-5. 


Table  No.  37. — ^'^implc  Uco-stagc  proposition — Suiiimary  of  estimate  of  construc- 
tion cost. 

UPPER  STAGE. 


Item. 

Quantity. 

Unit  price. 

Amount. 

Total. 

Dredging  in  river,  hardpan cubic  yards. . 

835,700 

SI.  25 

'$1,045,000.00 

Total  river  work 

1 

81,045,000.00 

Cofferdam,  P-5  feet linear  feet. . 

Rnck  excavation cubic  yards. . 

Plain  concrete ".do 

Reinforced  concrete do 

Racks pounds. . 

Stop  logs  (steel) do — 

Gates 

2,200 
94,500 
26, 220 
2,320 
880,000 
102,000 
30 
48,000 

m.oo 

3.  .50 

12.00 

25. 00 

.10 

.10 

19, 000. 00 

12.00 

22, 000. 00 

331.000.00 

315,000.00 

58,000.00 

88, 000. 00 

10, 000. 00 

570, 000. 00 

576,000.00 

Building square  feet . . 

Total  intake 

1,970,000.00 

^^ain  tunnel,  4S  feet  diameter linear  feet 

8,500 

700 

16,200 

3, 525 

98 

50 

735,00 
440. 00 
12.00 
157. 00 
1.18.5.00 
735. 00 

6, 248, 000. 00 
308, 000. 00 
194, 000. 00 
5.53, 000. 00 
114,  oor>.  00 
37, 000. 00 

Tapering  tunnel,  32  feet  mean  diameter do 

Shafts,  25  feet  square cubic  yards. . 

Penstock  tuiinels,  15  feet  diameter linear  feet. . 

Downlake  shaft,  .50  feet  diameter do 

Tailrace  tunnel,  4S  feet  diameter do — 

Total  tunnels 

7,454.000.00 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards. . 

Reinforced  concrete: 

2  per  cent  steel do 

3;  percent  steel do 

Plain  concrete do 

Tunnel  connection,  43  feet  diameter linear  feet. . 

Roof  and  miscellaneous 

12,700 

1,100 

2,780 

930 

145 

3.00 

35. 00 

47.50 

15.00 

915.00 

38, 000. 00 

38, 000. 00 
132,000.00 

14,000.00 
133, 000. 00 

15, 000. 00 

Total  surge  tank 

370,000.00 

Rock  exca'  ation cubic  jards. . 

Plain  concrete ".do 

Building: 

Oxer  generating  units square  feet. . 

Over  valves do 

140, 500 

48, 080 

40,600 
27,300 

3.50 
12.00 

15.00 
12.00 

4<>2, 666. 66 

577, 000. 00 

609, 000. 00 
328,00(1.00 

Total  power  house 

2, 006, 000. 00 

Rock  excav ation cubic  vards. . 

Plain  concrete do 

119,200 
4,600 

3.50 
15.00 

417, 000. 00 
69, 000. 00 

Total  temporarv  spillway 

486, 000. 00 

Penstocks  and  draft  tubes  (steel) pounds. . 

Turbines  and  generators horsepower. . 

ErecTion  and  accessories do 

2,070,000 

480,000 

480, 000 

15 

15 

.10 

15.20 

3.40 

53,000.00 

10,000.00 

207,ooaoo 

7,296,000.00 

1,632,000.00 

795, 000. 00 

150, 000. 00 

S vnchronous  relief  valves 

Total  equipment 

10  080  000  00 

Real  estate 

1 

161  000  00 

23, 572, 000. 00 
3,536,000.00 

2,357,000.00 

Contingencies,  15  per  cent  of  $23,572,000 

Engineering  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of 
$23.572,000 

Summation  . . . .' 

29,465,000.00 
2,063,000.00 

Construction  interest,  7  per  cent  of  ?29,4ti5,000 

Construction  cost 

31,528,000.00 
77.70 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  406,000  horsepo\\-er  is 

1 

1 

326      DIA'ERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 


Tablk  No.  37. — Simple  tico-sta(je  proposition — Sumtvary  of  estimate  of  construc- 
tion cost — Continued. 

LOWER   STAGE. 


Itpm. 


Quantity.    Unit  price.      Amount 


Total. 


Plain  concrete cubic  yards . 

Filling  temporary  spillway 

Revenue  from  power  lost  "when  closing  spillway.. . 


Total  cost  of  closing  spillway 

Xfain  tunml,  48  feet  diameter linear  feet. 

Taper  tunnel,  mean  diameter  32  feet do. . . 

Circular  p.'nsto.k  tunnels,  15  feet  diameter... do... 
Shafts,  25  feet  square cubic  yards. 


•1,600 


si£.no      $69, 000.  no 

I      100,000.00 
.'      500,000.00 


17,200 

6^5 

1,850 

31,970 


735.00  ,12,642,000.00 

440.00  I      293,000.00 

156.00  1      289,000.00 

12.00         384,000.00 


Total  tunnels 

Circular  tunnel,  IP  feet  diameter linear  feet. 

Shaft cubic  yards. 

Plain  eoncrete do.. . 

Steel,  penstock,  etc pounds. 

IVnsto<k  valve,  16  feet  diameter 

^.'isccllaneous 


300 

4,130 

640 

138,500 

1 


167.00 

12.00 

15.00 

.10 

53,000.00 


50,000.00 
50,000.00 
10,000.00 
14,000.00 
53,000.00 
5,000.00 


Total  by-pass 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards . . 

Plain  concrete do 

ReLnforc'>d  concrete do 

Coffordam,D=10  fcei linear  feet . . 

Horsc'ihoe  tunnel,  30  feet  diameter do 

Building square  feet.. 

C  at  cs,  steel pounds . . 

Special  machinery  for  gates 

Rebuilding  Gorge  Route  tracks 


Total  surge  spillway 

Rock  excavation cubic  yards . . 

Cofferdam,  D=15  feet linearfeet.. 

Plain  concrete cubic  yards.. 

Reinforced  concrete do 

Building square  feet . . 

Rebuilding  Gorge  Route  tracks 


Total  powerhouse 

Penstocks,  steel pounds . . 

Rnichronous  relief  valves 

Turbines  and  generators horsepower . . 

Erection  and  accessories do 

Penstock  valves 

Interlocking  signaling  and  operating  equipment 

Total  equipment 

Real  estate 


Summation 

Contingencies,  l.i  per  cent  of  $21,999,000 

EnrinccrinK  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of 
521,999,000 


Summation 

Constniction  interest,  8  per  cent  of  527,499,000. 

Constniction  cost 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  174,000  horsepower 


78,000 

14,840 

630 

300 

240 

5,700 

1,030,000 


3.  .50 
12.00 
2o.OO 
40.00 
366.00 
12.00 
.10 


273, 000. 00 

178, 000. 00 

16,000.00 

12,000.00 

88,000.00 

68, 000. 00 

103,000.00 

50.000.00 

2,000.00 


186,  .300 

800 

36, 150 

1,060 

64,600 


3.50  ! 
90.00  I 
12.00 
25.00 
1.5.00  I 


652,000.00 
72,000.00 

434,000.00 
26, 000. 00 

969,000.00 
5,000.00 


982,  .500 

15 

182,000 

182,000 

14 


.10 

10,000.00 

16.30 

3.50 

43,000.00 


98, 000. 00 
1.50,000.00 
2,967,000.00 
637.000.00 
602, 000. 00 

50,000.00 


$069,000.00 


13,608,000.00 


182,000.00 


790,000.00 


2, 158, 000. 00 


4,504,000.00 
88,000.00 


21,999,000.00 
?,  300, 000. 00 

2, 200, 000. 00 


27,499,000.00 
2,200,000.00 


29,699,000.00 
170.70 


BOTH  ST.A.OES  COMBINED. 

Construction  cost  of  upper  stage $31,  ?2}>,  000. 00 

Construction  cost  of  lower  stage 29. 090, 000. 00 

Construction  cost  of  entire  proposition 01, 227. 000. 00 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  580,000  horsecower 105. 60 


7.   PG\VER  DEVELOPMENT  COMBINED  WITH  SHIP  CANAL. 

The  investigations  of  the  Board  of  P^ngineei-s  on  Deep  Waterways, 
made  July,  1897-June,  1900,  and  reported  in  House  of  Representa- 
tives Document  No.  149,  Fifty-si.xth  Congress,  second  session,  estab- 
lished the  La  Salle-Lewiston  route  as  the  most  economical  and  satis- 
factory general  location  for  a  ship  canal  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake 
Ontario,  on  the  United  States  side  of  the  international  boundary. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     327 

After  careful  study  of  the  report  of  this  hoard,  and  reconnaissance 
of  tlie  terrain  lying  hetween  the  two  lakes  and  from  the  Niagara 
River  eastward  to  Lockport,  it  was  decided  that  there  is  no  reason 
apparent  why  this  superiority  does  not  still  exist.  The  identical 
alignment  adopted  by  the  board  was  assumed  as  a  basis  for  the  esti- 
mates here  given,  although  it  was  thought  further  study  might  lead 
to  selection  of  a  slightly  different  alignment,  particularly  in  the 
vicinity  of  La  Salle.  A  considerably  more  spacious  and  commodious 
entrance  from  Niagara  River  into  the  head  of  the  canal  tlian  that 
herein  provided  might  be  desirable,  in  order  to  minimize  difFiculties 
and  dangers  to  vessels  navigating  the  entrance.  The  number,  ar- 
rangement, and  location  of  locks  was  likewise  taken  the  same  as  in 
the  plans  presented  by  the  board,  although  it  was  realized  that  the 
tendency  of  recent  design  is  toward  fewer  locks  and  higher  lifts, 
and  that  more  extended  and  detailed  study  might  demonstrate  the 
desirability  of  fewer  locks  in  this  instance. 

The  canal  cross-section  in  rock  cut,  as  recommended  by  the  board, 
was  240  feet  wide  and  21  feet  deep.  It  was  designed  for  use  by 
boats  480  feet  long,  52  feet  beam,  and  19  feet  draft,  this  being  the 
size  of  boat  then  considered  most  economical  for  lake  service  where 
limiting  channels  were  21  feet  deep.  The  largest  vessel  then  exist- 
ing on  the  Great  Lakes,  the  freight  steamer  John  TT.  Gates ^  was  478 
feet  long,  52  feet  beam,  and  30  feet  molded  depth.  The  steam  freight 
vessel,  W.  Grant  Morden^  now  the  largest  boat  in  commission  on  the 
Lakes  is  625  feet  long,  59  feet  beam,  and  32  feet  molded  depth.  A 
number  of  other  lake  freighters  over  600  feet  long  have  a  beam  of 
64  feet.  At  present  the  draft  of  these  boats  is  limited  by  the  depths 
available  in  certain  dredged  channels,  and  varies  from  i9  feet  to  21 
feet,  depending  on  lake  stages,  for  navigation  between  Lake  Erie 
and  the  upper  lakes.  At  present  the  limiting  depths  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Grosse  Pointe  Channel  at  the  foot  of  Lake  St.  Clair.  There 
the  depth  is  20  feet  below  the  low  water  datum  plane,  which  is  at 
elevation  573.8.  In  deep  water  these  large  freighters  could  load 
several  feet  deeper.  The  size  of  the  locks  and  channels  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  Canals,  and  the  present  Welland  Canal,  limits  the 
size  of  vessels  plying  between  Lake  Ontario  ports  and  Lake  Erie, 
or  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to  255  feet  length,  43  feet  beam,  and  14  feet 
draft. 

For  the  needs  of  navigation  only  a  canal  width  of  200  feet  is  pro- 
posed, this  being  the  width  of  the  new  Welland  Canal,  now  under 
construction,  and  also  of  the  Black  Rock  Canal,  except  on  curves, 
where  it  is  wider.  The  depth  should  be  equal  to  the  depth  provided 
in  the  new  Welland  Locks,  namely,  30  feet.  From  the  point  of  view 
of  navigation,  a  ship  canal  connecting  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  has 
been  discussed  in  Section  A  of  this  report.  The  following  para- 
graphs treat  of  a  ship  canal  combined  with  a  power  development. 

In  carrying  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  for  power  devel- 
opment through  a  canal  200  feet  wide  and  30  feet  deep  a  mean  cur- 
rent velocity  of  3.33  feet  per  second,  or  2.3  miles  per  hour,  would 
prevail,  and  this  would  be  increased  at  times  when  the  upper  locks 
were  being  filled.  A  perfectly  satisfactory  canal  might  be  300  feet 
wide  and  40  feet  deep,  or  400  feet  wide  and  30  feet  deep.  Such  a 
canal  would  pass  a  flow  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  a  mean 
velocity  of  1.67  feet  per  second,  or  1.14  miles  per  hour.    At  the  La 


328      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   PROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RR^ER. 

Salle  entrance  a  canal  section  400  feet  wide  and  30  feet  deep  is  both 
more  commodious  for  vessels  entering  and  more  economical  of  con- 
struction than  a  section  300  feet  wide  and  40  feet  deep.  At  station 
930  of  the  deep-waterways  route  it  becomes  more  economical  to 
construct  the  section  300  feet  wide  and  40  feet  deep,  because  of  the 
heavy  overburden  of  solid  rock.  The  300-foot  width  is  superior  in 
this  point  of  economy  from  this  point  to  the  locks.  A  slio^ht  economy 
mifjht  be  effected  by  narrowin*^  to  300  feet  before  reachin<j^  the  rail- 
road brid*res  in  La  Salle,  but  this  is  doubtful,  and  the  extra  width 
is  desirable  where  brid^^es  are  clustered  so  closely  together.  The  sec- 
tion finally  adopted  is  400  feet  wide  and  30  feet  deep  below  elevation 
561  (which  is  1.5  feet  below  standard  low  water  at  Cayuga  Island) 
from  the  river  entrance  to  station  026.  In  the  next  800  feet  it  nar- 
rows 100  feet  and  deepens  10  feet.  From  station  934  to  station 
1166  it  is  300  feet  wide  and  40  feet  deep.  In  the  next  800  feet  it 
changes  to  400  feet  width  and  30  feet  depth,  and  thence  it  maintains 
these  dimensions  to  station  1210,  near  the  locks.  This  last  widened 
portion  enables  vessels  to  keep  away  from  the  power-canal  intake 
and  leaves  more  room  just  above  the  locks  for  mooring,  passing,  or 
lying  in  wait. 

For  the  sake  of  comparison,  estimates  are  also  given  for  a  canal 
200  feet  wide  by  33  feet  deep  and  for  a  canal  400  feet  wide  and  30 
feet  deep  throughout  its  entire  length. 

The  locks  were  made  of  approximately  the  same  size  as  those  of 
the  new  Welland  Canal. 

At  present  there  is  a  good  channel  for  the  largest  lake  boats  from 
Lake  Erie  through  the  Black  Rock  Ship  Canal  and  Lock  and  down 
the  American  channel  to  the  Wickwire  Steel  Co.  docks,  and  projects 
have  been  adopted  for  continuing  the  improvements  to  North  Tona- 
wanda. 

From  the  lumber  docks  at  Xorth  Tonawanda  to  La  Salle  9  or  10 
feet  is  the  maximum  depth.  In  this  ship-canal  project  it  is  proposed 
to  dredge  a  channel  throughout  this  reacli  400  feet  wide  and  21  feet 
deep  at  standard  low  water,  corresponding  in  dimensions  with  the 
Strawberry  Island  channels  above. 

The  entrance  to  the  ship  canal  is  to  be  at  La  Salle,  at  the  upper 
entrance  to  the  Little  River  behind  Cayuga  Island.  For  the  last 
4.000  feet  of  dredged  channel  where  vessels  would  be  turning  into 
the  entrance,  and  where  a  cross  current  exists,  the  dredged  channel 
is  to  be  600  feet  wide.  The  entrance  has  concrete  piers  on  each  side 
and  a  heavy  boom  that  can  be  swung  across  in  winter,  the  whole 
being  designed  to  divert  ice.  The  velocity  in  the  400-foot  canal  is 
1 .67  feet  per  second,  and  in  the  entrance  where  the  ice  boom  floats 
it  is  approximately  1  foot  per  second.  As  the  river  current  past  the 
entrance  is  roughly  2  feet  per  second,  there  should  be  no  groat  diffi- 
culty in  keeping  ice  out  of  the  canal  unless  the  river  should  freeze 
from  shore  to  shore,  a  thing  which  did  not  occur  in  the  extremelv 
cold  winter  of  1917-18. 

The  sides  of  the  canal  are  to  be  channeled  in  about  10-foot  lifts 
in  rock  cut.  the  canal  bottom  having  the  full  nominal  width.  At 
elevation  571.  abo\e  high  water,  theie  is  a  10-foot  berm  on  each  side. 
At  the  t<jp  of  the  rock  surface  is  another  10-foot  berm.  When  the 
rofk  surface  does  not  rise  to  elevation  571,  reinforced  concrete  re- 
taining walls  are  built  to  that  height.    Earth  slopes  are  1  on  2. 


DIVEESION    OF   WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RIVER.      329 

There  is  one  double  fiiofht  of  six  locks  with  a  total  lift  of  242  feet, 
and  one  double  flight  of  two  locks  with  a  total  lift  of  74  feet.  The 
locks  are  of  the  design  of  the  Deep  Waterways  Board  modified  to  give 
them  a  length  of  800  feet  between  hollow  quoins,  clear  width  of  80 
feet,  and  minimum  depth  of  water  on  the  sills  of  30  feet.  They  have 
the  usual  double-leaf  mitering  gates  and  guard  gates,  and  arc  all 
founded  on  rock. 

Below  the  locks  is  an  entrance  betAvcen  diverging  piers  1,500  and 
2,250  feet  long,  respectively.  The  piers  have  mooring  facilities  for 
several  of  the  largest  boats.  The  river  below  the  locks  has  a  depth 
varying  frorn  35  to  72  feet.  Just  outside  the  river  mouth,  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  mile  north  by  east  from  P^ort  Massassauga  is  a  shoal  with  a 
least  depth  of  about  13  feet.  Here  a  channel  is  to  be  dredged  600  feet 
wnde  and  25  feet  deep  at  low  water.  This  is  wider  and  deeper  than 
the  channels  in  the  upper  river  because  of  the  violent  sea  to  which  this 
entrance  is  exposed  in  northeasterly  gales.  From  this  point  on  in 
Lake  Ontario  there  is  ample  water  for  all  vessels  if  they  keep  east  of 
Niagara  River  gas  and  bell  buoy. 

Water  for  power  generation  is  taken  from  the  ship  canal  about 
3,000  feet  above  the  upper  locks.  Here  the  ship  canal  is  making  a 
curve  to  the  right  on  a  radius  of  8,800  feet.  Along  the  outside  of  this 
curve  is  a  concrete  wall  of  12  feet  wide  at  the  top,  30  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom,  and  2,130  feet  long.  It  is  pierced  by  35  arches  of  30- foot  span 
each.  The  arches  are  10  feet  high  at  the  springings  and  20  feet  at  the 
crowns.  The  crowns  are  thus  10  feet  below  low  water.  The  piers 
between  arches  are  30  feet  wide.  This  structure  has  been  made  very 
massive  to  resist  the  impact  of  ships  that  might  accidentally  collide 
with  it,  and  very  long  so  that  the  "  cross  current "  produced  would 
not  interfere  appreciably  with  navigation.  The  velocity  of  the  cross 
current  is  estimated  to  be  about  0.3  foot  per  second.  The  velocity 
through  the  arches  is  1.07  feet  per  second. 

Just  north  of  the  arch  wall  is  an  ice  run.  This  is  a  double  weir 
having  an  effective  length  of  30  feet,  and  closed  by  two  gates  which 
can  be  lowered  to  elevation  545.  Water  and  ice  falling  over  the  weir 
flow  through  a  tunnel  12  feet  in  diameter  to  the  lower  river.  With 
the  water  lowered  to  8  feet  below  mean  stage  the  capacity  of  this  ice 
run  is  about  2,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  while  at  mean  stage  it  is 
3,000  to  4,000.  A  small  house  covers  the  gates  and  operating  ma- 
chinery. 

Behind  the  arches  the  water  enters  a  basin  2,070  feet  long,  varying 
in  width  from  10  to  317  feet,  it  is  30  feet  deep  at  low  water.  From 
the  wider  end  of  the  basin,  which  is  downstream,  runs  a  canal  which 
rapidly  contracts  to  a  wetted  section  58  feet  wide  by  58  feet  deep. 
This  canal  is  about  2,000  feet  long,  and  approximately  half  of  its 
length  is  on  a  curve  of  1,010- foot  radius.  The  sides  are  channeled  and 
the  bottom  lined  with  concrete.  At  the  lower  end  it  expands  to  a  sec- 
tion 172  feet  wide  with  a  depth  of  58  feet.  Here  the  water  enters  the 
fore  bay  900  feet  long,  which  is  58  feet  deep  at  mean  stage.  From  up- 
stream to  downstream  end  the  fore  bay  tapers  in  width  from  172  to 
20  feet.  Along  the  west  edge  of  the  fore  bay  are  the  rack  house  and 
an  ice  run. 

The  ice  run  is  at  the  upstream  end  of  the  rack  house.  It  is  exactly 
like  the  other  ice  run  outside  of  the  arch  wall  in  the  ship  canal.  The 
rack  house  has  about  the  usual  arrangement  of  submerged  arches  and 


330      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

racks  supported  by  piers.  There  are  bell-mouthed  entrances  to  17 
penstock  tunnels.  eKch  15  feet  in  diameter.  The  flow  to  each  penstock 
is  controlled  by  a  pair  of  sfates,  20  feet  wide  and  30  feet  high. 

At  mean  stage  the  velocities  of  the  water  are  1.07  feet  per  second 
through  the  outer  arches.  5.95  in  the  central  section  of  the  canal,  1.67 
through  the  racks,  and  6.67  in  the  penstock  tunnels. 

The  power  house  on  the  talus  slope  is  similar  to  that  outlined  in 
the  headrace  tunnel  proposition,  except  that  it  has  no  penstock  valves. 
Its  17  units  are  rated  at  38,000  horespower  each,  giving  a  total  of 
646,000  rated  liorsepower.  Sixteen  machines  can  carry  the  total  load. 
The  gross  head  on  this  plant  at  mean  stage  is  316.4  feet.  The  total 
hydraulic  losses  are  estimated  at  3.5  feet,  giving  a  net  head  of  312.9 
feet.  At  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  this  gives  611,000  horsepower. 
This  is  30.6  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  per  second,  aud  shows  an  over- 
all efficiency  of  85  per  cent. 

In  estimating  the  cost  of  the  power  development  it  was  considered 
that  all  parts  of  the  canal  necessary  to  navigation  were  public  struc- 
tures built  for  free  public  use,  and  that  construction  interest  should 
not  be  charged  against  them.  The  estimated  total  cost  was  $198,412,- 
000.  which  is  $324.70  per  horsepower.  The  cost  of  the  part  necessi- 
tated for  power  purposes  alone  is  $93,000,000  or  $97.50  per  horse- 
power. A  summary  of  the  estimate  is  given  in  Table  No.  38.  The 
general  layouts  of  certain  main  features  of  the  design  upon  which  the 
estimate  was  based  are  shown  on  plates  Nos.  49  to  51. 

Table  No.  38. — Ship  canal  proposition — Summary  of  estimate  of  construction 

cost. 


Item. 


Quantity.    Unit  price. 


Amount. 


Total. 


Dredging  in  upper  river,  hardpan cubic  yards . 


Total  upper  river  work 

Dredging  earth  and  hardpan do... 

Dredging  rock do. . . 

Back  fill do. . . 

Plain  concrete do. . . 

Riprap do. . . 

Ice.boom  pontons 


2,872,000 


SI.  25 


$3,590,000.00 


Total  La  Salle  entrance 

Earth  excavat ion cubic  yards. 

Rock  excavation do. . . 

Do do... 

Reinforced  concrete,  0.37  per  cent  steel do. . . 

Back  fill do . . . 

Oak  fenders feet  b.  m. 

Weirs 


156,900  ! 
143.200  ( 
5,900 
26,700 
23,500  1 
38  I 


1.25 

6.50 

.45 

12.00 

1.00 

,800.00 


196,000.00 
931,000.00 
3,000.00 
320,000.00 
24, 000. 00 
68,000.00 


10, 856, 000 

18,766,000 

6,492,000 

148,200 

803,000 

170,000 


.65 
1.95 
1.90 
18.70 
.45 
150.00 


7, 0.56, 000. 00 

36, 594, 000. 00 

12, 335, 000. 00 

2,771,000.00 

361,000.00 

26,000.00 

40, 000. 00 


Total  main  canal 

Earth  excavation cubic  yards.. I  2,440,000 

Rock  excavation do....;  5,860,000 

Plain  concrete do. ... j  2, 936, 000 

Back  fill do. ...I  416,000 

Reinforcing  steel pounds. .  6, 800, 000 

Structural  steel do....  20,830,000 

Steel  castings do ;  6,090,000 

Steel  forgiugs do....'  75,000 

Bronze do....  I  25,000 

Ironwork do. . . .  1, 000, 000 

Oak feet  b.  m..'  180,000 

M  achluery ' 


.65  1,586,000.00 
2.25  13,185,000.00 
12.00  135,232,000.00 


.45 
.07  I 
.10 
.12 
.20 
.80  I 
.07  I 
160.00 


Total  locks 

Total  bridges 

Total  railroad  relocation miles. 

Karth  cxc;ivaiion cubic  yards. 

Rock  excavation do. . . 

Concrete do. . . 


187,000.00 

476, 000. 00 
2,083,000.00 

731,000.00 
15,000.00 
20, 000. 00 
70, 000. 00 
27,000.00 

900,000.00 


28 
2,300 
6,900 
1,450 


36,000.00 
1.50 
3.75 
15.00 


3,000.00 
26,000.00 
22,000.00 


$3, 590, 000.  CO 


1, 542, 000. 00 


59, 183, 000. 00 


64,512,000.00 

7,191,000.00 

980,000.00 


DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     331 

Table  No.  38. — Ship  canal  proposition — Summary  of  estimate  of  construction 

cost — Continued. 


Hem. 

Quantity. 

Unit  price. 

Amount. 

Total. 

Circular  tunnel,  12  feet  diameter 

linear  feet.. 

2,230 

2 
2,250 

$125.00 

11,000.00 
12.00 

$279, 000. 00 
22,000.00 
27,000.00 

Building 

...square  feet.. 

$379,000.00 

...cubic  yards.. 

215, 000 
2;i2,000 
297, 000 
31, 800 
4, 350 
171,000 

.65 

1.90 

6.50 

12.00 

160.00 

1.00 

140, 000. 00 
441,000.00 
1, 930, 000. 00 
382, 000. 00 
783,000.00 
171, 000. 00 

Rock  excavation 

Dredging  rock 

Plain  coucret  c 

Cribs 

Riprap  and  rock  filling 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

linear  feet.. 

..cubic  yards.. 

3, 847, 000. 00 

Dredging  Niagara  Bar 

Earth  excavation 

Rock  excavation 

Plain  concrete 

...cubic  yards.. 

do 

do.... 

do.... 

470, 000 

246,000 

1, 199, 500 

73, 430 

1.25 

.65 

2.25 

12. 00 

5SS,  000. 00 

160, 000. 00 

4, 499, 000. 00 

881, 000.  00 

Earth  excavation                    .       .  . 

5, 540, 000. 00 

..cubic  yards.. 

14, 800 

96, 100 

14, 800 

750 

693 

34 

2 

1, 020, 000 

70, 200 

.65 

3.00 

12.00 

25.00 

125. 00 

18,000.00 

11,  000. 00 

.10 

12.00 

10,000.00 
288,000.00 
178, 000.  00 

19, 000.  00 

87, 000. 00 
612,  000. 00 

22, 000. 00 
102,  000.  00 
842, 000. 00 

Plain  concrete 

Reinforced  concrete 

Circular  tunnel,  12  feet  diameter — 
Gates 

do 

do.... 

do.... 

linear  feet.. 

Do.                              --- 

Racks 

Building 

pounds.. 

...square  feet.. 

2, 100, 000. 00 

Circular  tunnel,  15  feet  diameter. . . 
Taper  tunnel,  mean  diameter  Vih  fee 
Circular  tunnel,  12  feet  diameter . . . 

linear  feet.. 

t do 

do.... 

7,565 
510 
510 

156. 00 
154. 00 
125.00 

1,180,000.00 
79,000.00 
64, 000. 00 

1,323,000.00 

Rock  e.xcavation 

...cubic  yards.. 

172,666 
21, 300 
66, 770 
660 
72,000 

3.50 

6.50 
12.00 
25.00 
15.00 

603, 000. 00 

13S,  000.  00 

801, 000. 00 

16, 000. 00 

1, 080, 000. 00 

4, 000.  00 

Dredging  rock 

Plain  concrete 

Reinforced  concrete 

Building 

Rebuilding  Gorge  Route  tracks  . . . 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

...square  feet.. 

2,642,000.00 

Turbines  and  generators 

Erection  and  accessories 

Penstocks 

...horsepower.. 

do.... 

poimds.. 

646, 000 

646, 000 

2, 327, 000 

14.00 

3.30 

.10 

9, 044, 000.  00 

2, 132,  000. 00 

233, 000. 00 

Total  equipment 

11, 409, 000. 00 

1, 606, 000. 00 

Summation . . 

156, 492, 000. 00 

Contingencies,  15  per  cent  of  S156, 492. 000 . 

23, 474, 000. 00 

Engineering  and  superintendence, 
$156,492,000 . . 

10  per  cent  of 

15, 649, 000. 00 

Summation    . 

195, 615, 000. 00 

2,  797, 000. 00 

Construction  cost . 

198, 412, 000. 00 

324.70 

97.50 

If  the  width  of  the  ship  canal  is  reduced  to  200  feet,  the  hydraulic 
losses  are  increased  to  6.5  feet,  which  gives  a  net  head  of  309.9  feet 
and  a  power  output  of  605,000  horsepower.  This  is  30.3  horsepower 
per  cubic  foot  per  second  and  shows  an  over-all  elRcienc}^  of  84.2  per 
cent.  The  estimated  cost  is  $170,000,000,  which  is  $281  per  horse- 
power. If  the  width  is  made  400  feet  throughout  and  the  depth  30 
feet,  the  cost  is  approximately  $203,000,000,  or  $332.20  per  horse- 
power. 

If  the  locks  were  reduced  to  the  minimum  size  necessary  to  accom- 
modate modern  boats,  say,  650  feet  long,  70  feet  wide,  and  with  25 


3G2      DIVERSION  OF  WATER   TT.OM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIX'ER. 

feet  available  depth,  the  cost  vrould  be  reduced  by  ten  to  twenty 
million  dollars. 

The  time  of  construction  is  estimated  to  be  between  8  and  10  years. 
Power  development  might  begin  when  approximately  two-thirds 
of  the  entire  work  was  complete. 

The  combined  ship  and  power  canal,  with  300-foot  width,  is  esti- 
mated to  cost  $19,833,000  more  than  the  sum  of  the  costs  of  a  200- 
foot  ship  canal  for  navigation  only  and  the  power  canal  proposition 
described  previously.  It  is  estimated  to  produce  '20,000  horsepower 
more  than  the  power  canal  project. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  water  diverted  from  the  ship  canal 
into  the  power  canal  should  be  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  ship 
canal  rather  than  from  the  side,  as  herein  planned,  in'order  to  relieve 
navigation  of  difficulties  due  to  the  cross-current.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested also  that  a  power  tunnel  rather  than  a  power  canal  be  pro- 
vided between  the  ship  canal  and  the  power  house.  It  is  believed 
these  structures  would  prove  more  expensive  and  less  desirable  than 
those  adopted  for  this  estimate,  but  they  seem  Avorthy  of  careful 
consideration  in  case  construction  of  a  combined  ship  canal  tuid 
power  development  is  contemplated  seriously. 

s.  PROPOSED  ElflE  AND  OXTAKIO  SAMTAKV  CANAL. 

The  proposed  canal  of  the  Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitar}'  Canal  Co. 
has  lieen  described  in  section  A.  with  emphasis  on  the  navigation 
features,  and  the  sanitary  features  of  the  company's  project  are 
discussed  in  section  B  of  this  report. 

From  a  purely  mechanical  point  of  view  there  seems  to  be  no  in- 
superable obstacle  to  the  operation  of  the  proposed  canal  in  the 
>ummer  time.  The  probability  of  serious  difficulties  with  ice  in 
wintertime  seems  A'ery  great.  Every  winter  the  i)revailing  we:?terly 
Avinds  drive  the  ice  into  the  narrow  eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie.  From 
Sturgeon  Point  to  Buffalo  the  ice  is  driven  high  on  the  beaches, 
while  a  vast  ice  pack,  heaped  into  enormous  windrows  and  ridges, 
extends  offshore  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  It  is  from  this  shore 
that  it  is  proposed  to  take  21.000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second 
til  rough  the  canal. 

The  estimate  of  the  cost  of  this  project  submitted  bj^  the  company 
is  shown  in  Table  Xo.  39. 

Table  No.  .30. — Estimate  nf  coat. 

[Submitted  by  Erie  &  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  Co.,  August,  1918.] 

Orfliii.iry  oartli  exc.ivatio:i,  main  canal.  •^0,.300.0OO  yaifl.';  tit  15  cents.  $6,  n4.'"i.  OOQ 

Soft  shale  excavation,  main  canal,  .^9,700,000  yards  at  15  cents 8,  955,  000 

Hani  shale  and  limestone  excavation,  main  canal,  60,500.000  yards 

at  M)  cents 24,  2()0,  000 

f^tnliri.iry  .'artli  excuvation,  barge  canal,  18,100,000  yards  at  15  cents-  1.  215.  000 

rv.nfrctc  in  side  walls,  2.30,000  yards  at  .fO 1,  380.  000 

Railroad  track.*?,  470,000  linear  feet  of  single  trar-k  at  $4^                   __  1.  880  000 

Total 44,575.000 

Contingencies  5  per  cent 2,225,000 

Total 46.800,000 


PIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  CUEAT  LAKES  AND   >:iA(;AltA  RIVER.     [VSd 

Tabi.k  No.  :][).— Hsiiniiiti-  of  rox/— ( 'oiitimi.'.l. 

Bri(l,£es  over  main  canal  (mostly  lift)  inrliidim:  .•.niiiii-..i„  .  .  lu  4:{0.  (XMi 

Bridges  over  river  branch  canal '  711^'  (hmi 

Total -7  ...{s  ^„„, 

Hiffh-lift  lock,  208  by  050  by  70  by  35  feet,  twin  steel  tanks     __  7.'(j'.>7  (KHJ 

Low-lift  lock,  104  by  G50  by  70  by  35  feet,  twin  steel  tanks (5,  I'M,  chni 


Total 72.3«).00() 

(High-lift  lock  will  operate  in  10  minutes,  low  in  5  minutes.) 

Entrance  lock  at  Lake  Erie  to  regul.ite  level  of  canal 500, 0«)f) 

Seneca  Shoal  Harbor  4  miles  into  Lake  Erie,  made  with  waste  mate- 
rial from  excavation  and  concrete _  _  3,  OOO  (Kj() 

Olcott  PLirbor {  jvK)]  fii-»o 

Entrance  lock  at  Black  Rock,  for  barges  to  Tonawanda 50(i.  fM>0 

Chambers  and  screens  for  sewage 3(M).  O'MI 

Guard  lock  east  of  Tonawanda,  for  barge  canal 1,  «KTi),  (K)«> 

Dam  in  Eighteen  Mile  Creek,  5.000  horsepower ."00,  (MM) 

Submerged  weirs  in  Niagara  River  to  regulate  lake  levels  l.-o.  <M»;> 

Spreading  pier  above  Horseshoe  Falls  for  scenic  grandeur.  1.-.o.  (kmi 

Power  houses ],imm).(mm> 

Penstocks,  turbines,  and  generators  for  800,000  horsepower S.  (mmi.  (mm) 

Transmission  and  transformers 3,  .5(M).  (mid 

Riglit  of  way 2,  ()00,  (I0<i 

Two  per  cent  commission  sale  of  bonds 2,  0(M».  <mh» 


Total 95.  969,  000 

The  quantities  of  excavation,  etc.,  are  satisfactorv.  l)iit  the  imit 
prices  are  based  upon  a  remarkably  laro;e  drop  from  present  prices. 
A  revised  schedule  was  prepared  to  <iet  an  estimate  of  cost  of  the 
project  which  would  be  more  nearly  comparable  with  costs  jriven  for 
the  other  propositions  considered  in  this  report.  The  item  for  the 
cost  of  a  dam  in  Eighteen  Mile  Creek  was  dropped,  as  was  also  the 
item  of  5,000  horsepower  to  be  generated  there.  The  promoters  ai"e 
apparently  unaware  of  the  fact  that  this  power  can  be  developed  only 
by  the  use  of  500  cubic  feet  per  second  of  water  diverted  from  the 
Niagara  River  as  now  diverted  by  the  Hydraulic  Eace  Co.  of  Lock- 
port.  This  500  cubic  feet  per  second  is  part  of  the  diversion  author- 
ized by  the  treaty,  and,  as  the  present  proposition  is  to  divert  all  the 
treaty  water  through  a  sanitary  canal,  no  water  power  of  any  value 
woukl  be  left  in  Eighteen  Mile  Creek.  The  two  items  for  a  regtdat- 
ing  weir  in  the  Niagara  River  and  a  "spreading  pier"  above  the 
Horseshoe  Falls  have  been  dropped.  These  are  matters  properly 
combined  with  any  new  power  project,  but  as  they  have  not  been 
charged  against  the  others  they  will  not  be  against  this  one.  The 
items  for  transformers  and  transm_ission,  and  for  commission  on  the 
sale  of  bonds,  are  dropped  as  all  comparisons  in  this  section  have  been 
on  the  basis  of  the  cost  of  power  at  the  bus  bars,  exclusive  of  promo- 
tion and  finance.  The  items  of  excavation  and  concTete  are  charged 
at  the  unit  prices  given  in  Table  No.  28.  As  hardly  a  suggestion  has 
been  offered  as  to  the  proposed  layout  of  the  hydroelectric  plants, 
costs  for  them  have  been  adopted  based  on  similar  jilants  in  other 
propositions.  The  detailed  estimates  of  the  company's  engineer  on 
bridges  and  locks  have  been  carefully  studied,  and  it  appears  that 
the  unit  prices  therein  adopted  must  be  almost  exactly  doubled  to 
make  them  comparable  with  unit  prices  used  in  the  power  project 


334      DIVEHSION   OF   WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RRTSR. 

estimates  previously  oriven  in  this  report.  These  estimated  costs 
therefore  have  been  doubled,  and  the  remaining;  minor  items  for 
which  there  is  very  little  data  have  been  doubled  also. 

The  resultino:  estimate  is  fjiven  in  table  No.  40.  The  total  cost  is 
$401,760,000.  This  is  on  a  basis  comparable  with  the  costs  of  the 
other  propositions  discussed  in  previous  paragraphs  of  this  report, 
althoufrh  it  gives  the  company  the  benefit  of  several  doubts  and  is 
considered  low  in  comparison  with  the  others. 

The  company  has  stated  that  eventuall}^  some  economical  wsij  of 
utilizing  the  power  in  the  8-foot  drop  from  Lake  Erie  into  the  head 
of  the  canal  may  be  developed,  but  its  cost  is  not  included  in  the 
estimate.  Omitting  this,  and  omitting  the  5,000  horsepower  from 
Eighteen  Mile  Creek  for  reasons  stated  above,  the  power  output  com- 
puted on  a  basis  comparable  to  that  of  the  other  propositions  falls  a 
little  short  of  the  800,000  horsepower  claimed  by  the  company.  At 
mean  stage  it  amounts  to  787,000  horsepower,  which  is  30.3  horse- 
power per  cubic  foot  per  second.  On  this  basis  the  estimated  cost  of 
the  development  is  $510.50  per  horsepower. 

In  Section  F  10  of  this  report  the  cost  of  power  production  by  dif- 
ferent projects  is  estimated.  This  is  for  power  at  the  bus  bars,  ex- 
clusive of  transmission,  promotion,  and  finance  costs,  and  it  ranges 
between  $10  and  $16  per  horsepower-year.  Similar  computations 
for  the  Erie  &  Ontario  Canal  scheme  give  a  cost  of  $65  per  horse- 
power. It  is  possible  that  after  business  conditions  have  been  stabil- 
ized on  a  peace  basis,  costs  will  be  much  lower  than  at  present,  but  the 
benefits  will  accrue  to  projects  located  at  Niagara  Falls  or  Lewiston 
as  much  as  to  this  one. 

Table  No.  40. — Erie  atirl  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal— Revised  estimate  of  cost. 

Excavation : 

Earth  and  soft  shale,  124.100.000  cubic  yards  at  65  cents $80,  665.  000 

Roolv.  oa.oOO.OOO  cubic  yards  at  $1.95 117,075,000 

r'niK-rete,  230.000  cubic  yards  at  $12 2.  7G0,  000 

Kailroad   track 3,  760.  000 

Bridges 21,  260,  000 

Lift  locks 28,  860,  000 

Entrance  lock,  Lake  Erie 1,000,000 

Sem^-a  Harl)or 6.  000,  000 

Olcott    Harbor 2.  000.  OOO 

Black  Rock  Lock 1,000,000 

r'hanibers  and  screens  for  sewage 600,000 

Toiuiwnnda  (iuard  Lock 2.000.000 

Power   luiuses 5.  700,  000 

Headwnrks .S,  000.  OOO 

Penstofks 7(X>.  000 

Turbines,  generators,  valves,  switch  gear,  etc 18,000,000 

Right  of  way 3.700,000 

Summation 208,  980,  000 

Contingencies,  15  per  cent  of  $298.980.000 44.8.50,000 

Enginerlng  and  superintendence,  10  per  cent  of  $298,980.000 29,900,000 

Summation 873,  730,  000 

Construction  Interest.  7}  per  cent  of  $373,730,000 28,030,000 

fJon.structlon    cost 401,  760,  000 

Cost  per  horsepower  for  787.000  horsepower  is  $510.50. 


DIVEKSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     335 
9.    PLANTS   PROPOSEO    HY    VARIOUS    IXTFRKSTS. 

From  time  to  time  a  orreat  manv  sehomos  for  Xiairara  power  <lc 
velopment  have  been  submitted  to  the  War  Dcpartmenf  for  ap- 
proval. Most  of  these  follow  the  lines  laid  down  in  Sections  F  3  to 
F-7,  inclusive,  of  this  report.  All  Avhicli  ap|)ear  to  have  value  will 
now  be  discussed  briefly.  The  absurd  and  freakish  srhemes,  such 
as  the  proposal  to  establish  overshot  paddle  wheels  in  a  cave  dup 
behind  the  Falls,  will  not  be  dealt  wnth. 

Propositioivs  of  UydraulU-  Power  ('o.—\\\  Fc])ruarv.  If) is.  tlio 
Hydraulic  Power  Co.  of  Nia^^ara  Falls  submitted  four  power  piopo- 
sitions  to  the  division  eno^ineer.  The  first  two,  which  were  named 
"  Proposition  IT.  P.-A,"  and  "  Proposition  H.  P.-B,"  contemplated 
an  extension  of  the  existintr  plant  to  utilize  9,500  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, altogether,  under  a  head  of  about  212  feet,  about  00.000  or 
65,000  new  horsepower  being  produced.  The  present  TTydraulic 
Canal  was  to  be  somewhat  enlarged.  "  Proposition  IT.  V.-V  "  was 
practically  the  same  as  the  upper  stage  part  of  the  "compound  2- 
stage  proposition."  described  in  Section  F-5.  "  Pro])osition  IT.  P.-D  " 
was  practically  the  same  as  the  whole  "  compound  2-stage  propo- 
sition." The  cost  and  power  output  of  these  developments  would  be 
about  the  same  as  for  the  "compound  2-stage  proposition."  Com- 
ment on  the  upper  stage  portions  of  these  propositions  was  made 
in  the  interim  report. 

Propositions  of  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co. — The  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co.  submitted  two  projects  in  February.  1918.  "  Proposition 
F-4  "  of  this  company  was  for  the  use  of  10.260  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond in  a  tailrace  tunnel  development  similar  to  the  one  tr(>ated  in 
Section  F-3,  but  operating  only  on  the  upper  stage.  The  possibil- 
ity of  enlarging  this  proposition  to  a  capacity  of  20,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  was  mentioned.  This  plan  was  discussed  in  the  interim 
report  and  the  conclusion  reached  that  it  would  take  longer  to  de- 
velop, was  more  expensive,  and  was  less  efficient  than  proposition 
H.  P.-C  of  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co. 

The  other  proposition  of  the  company,  "  K-4,"  was  for  a  canal 
to  utilize  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  under  the  full  head.  Tn  its 
general  outline  this  corresponds  to  the  canal  project  in  Section  F-3. 
Its  cost  and  power  output  would  be  similar.  Studies  of  power  ca- 
nals proposed  for  this  locality  have  shown  that  the  comparatively 
wide  and  shallow  canal,  with  concrete-lined  bottom,  which  this  plan 
proposes,  is  less  economical  for  this  location  than  a  narrower,  deeper, 
unlined  section. 

Propositions  of  the  Empire  Power  Corpomtion. — In  February, 
1918,  the  Empire  Power  Corporation  submitted  a  proposition  for 
developing  power  with  a  diversion  of  4,400  cubic  feet  per  second  on 
the  upper  stage.  The  scheme  Avas  to  take  water  from  Niagara  River 
just  below  Port  Dav  into  a  canal  along  the  shore  of  the  New  York 
State  Eeservation,  'conducting  it  to  a  point  opposite  the  head  of 
Goat  Island.  Here  it  was  to  enter  two  17-foot  concrete  con.lujts 
running  under  the  reservation  to  a  power  house  on  the  present  site 
of  the  International  Hotel  buildings.  The  power  house  was  to  have 
turbines  and  ffenerators  situated  in  a  deep  pit,  much  as  in  the  pres- 
ent power  houses  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  From  the  power 
house  a  tailrace  tunnel  was  to  take  \\\q  water  to  an  outfall   about 


33G      DIVERSION   OF   WATER   1-RO.M   GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

r»00  feet  upstream  from  the  International  Bridge.     The  objections 
to  the  scheme  were  stated  in  tlie  interim  report  of  March  2.  1918. 

In  April.  1918,  the  Empire  Power  Corporation  submitted  a  sec- 
ond proposition.  This  was  a  scheme  to  utilize  a  diversion  of  13,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  alon":  the  lines  of  the  first  proposition  of  this 
company.  The  canal  of  the  earlier  scheme  was  retained,  but  was 
closed  at  the  upper  end.  thus  forming  a  sort  of  fore  bay.  A  large 
boat-shaped  intake  in  Niagara  Kiver  is  provided,  about  1,500  feet 
^outh  of  the  plant  of  the  International  Paper  Co.  Entering  this  and 
passing  through  the  racks  the  water  plunges  downward  into  a  tun- 
nel. Passing  horizontally  for  about  2,300  feet  through  this  tunnel 
it  rises  again  into  the  fore  bay.  From  the  fore  bay  it  goes  under- 
ground again  tlirough  three  conduits  to  two  power  houses  similar  to 
those  of  the  earlier  project,  and  is  discharged  through  a  tailrace 
tunnel  at  the  same  outfall. 

Propositions^  of  Hugh  L.  Cooper  <&  Co. — On  January  5, 1918,  Hugh 
L.  Cooper  &  Co.,  consulting  engineers,  of  New  York  City,  submitted 
to  the  division  engineer  19  different  propositions  for  developing 
power  at  Niagara  Falls. 

Plans  A,  B,  and  C  were  for  tailrace-tunnel  developments  of  the 
lower  stage,  with  diversions  of  41,360,  30,980,  and  20,600  cubic  feet 
per  second,  respectively.  They  provide  for  a  power  house  in  the  talus 
slope  of  the  gorge  about  800  feet  above  the  Michigan  Central  Rail- 
way bridge,  and  a  straight  tailrace  tunnel  discharging  near  the 
Devils  Hole.  The  reasons  given  in  Section  F-5  for  avoiding  plants 
taking  water  from  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool  all  apply  in  full  force 
to  these  three  plans. 

Plans  D,  E,  F,  and  W  are  for  tailrace-tunnel  projects  developing 
the  upper  stage,  with  diversions  of  33,000,  23,000,  13,000,  and  10,500 
cubic  feet  per  second,  respectively.  In  general  these  resemble  the 
plan  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  but  the  design  and  location  of 
the  power  house  seem  somewhat  less  satisfactory,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  protection  from  ice. 

Plans  G,  H,  X,  and  I  are  for  a  pressure-tunnel  development  of 
the  full  head  of  both  stages,  using  33,000,  23,000,  20,000,  and  13,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  respectively.  The  intake  behind  Conners 
Island  seems  very  much  exposed  to  ice  troubles.  The  large  open  fore 
bay  at  the  brink  of  the  lower  gorge  seems  expensive  and  inefficient 
as  compared  with  a  differential  surge  tank.  There  appears  to  be 
no  sufficient  reason  why  the  water  in  the  tunnel  at  elevation  345 
should  be  raised  to  elevation  530  and  then  lowered  to  elevation  345 
again  through  expensive  steel  penstocks.  The  subterranean  power 
house  appears  unduly  crowded  and  expensive.  Otherwise  these 
propositions  stand  on  the  same  basis  as  the  headrace-tunnel  plant  of 
Section  F-3. 

Plans  J,  K,  Y,  and  L  are  for  the  same  diversions  used  under  the 
full  head  by  means  of  a  canal.  The  same  power-house  design  is 
used  as  in  Plans  Ci,  H,  X,  and  I.  The  present  investigation  has 
shown  that  a  more  economical  location  for  the  canal  can  be  found 
farther  west,  that  a  more  economical  cross-section  of  canal  is  ob- 
tainable and  that  better  ])i-otection  from  ice  can  be  provided. 

Plans  M,  N,  Z,  and  O  are  for  the  same  diversions  and  head  de- 
veloped l)y  a  tailrace-tunnel  project.    Except  for  the  cramped  power 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   XlACAltA   RIVKU. 


:vs 


house  and  inferior  ice  protection,  the  scheme  is  alx.id  ciiuiv  :.lci.t  to  tlie 
tailrace-tunnel  proposition  in  Section  F-3. 

Plan  Z  was  recommended  provisionally,  siihjecl  to  vei-v  llioron.rl, 
examination  of  the  rock  alon<.-  the  tunnel"  route  hv  drillin"^r  uv  otluT- 
wise.  Plan  1  was  rccomuiended  for  adoi^tion  in  ('ase  the  rock  umwd 
unsuitable  for  tunneling. 

Propositions  of  31  r.  L.  II.  Davis.— Ten  schemes  for  Niagara  power 
development,  submitted  to  the  Union  Carbide  Co.  by  Mr.  Li-onard  11. 
Davis,  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  have  come  to  the  War  Department.  These 
all  provide  for  the  use  of  19,500  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  imder 
the  full  head,  in  one  or  more  stages.  Of  these  sclieines,  which  are 
set  forth  m  reports  dated  March  1  and  April  1,  19  LS.  lie  recommends 
schemes  5-b  and  4  as  the  best.  Scheme  5-b  is  practically  identical 
with  the  canal  proposition  of  Section  F-a.  The  only  tlitferenccs  are 
that  the  canal  intake  is  behind  Conners  Island,  where  ice  troul)les 
would  be  greater  than  out  in  front  of  it,  as  in  F-;'..  and  (hat  the 
canal  location  and^  cross-section  are  not  quite  as  economical  as  the 
ones  described  in  F-3. 

Scheme  4  is  a  rather  complex  affair.  The  Hydraulic  Power  Co.'s 
plant  is  retained,  a  tunnel  29  feet  in  diameter,  with  an  intake  above 
the  railroad  bridges,  taking  the  9,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  assumed 
ulthiiately  to  be  used  by  this  plant,  extends  to  a  power  house  below 
the  Eiverdale  Cemetery.  A  canal  Ci  feet  wide  and  30  feet  deep 
carries  11,000  cubic  feet  per  second  from  behind  Conners  Island 
to  the  same  new  power  house.  This  project  is  inferior  to  5-b,  and  is 
also  inferior  in  general  layout  to  the  compound  two-stage  proposition. 

Scheme  5-a  is  the  canal  scheme  Avith  the  power  house  inovetl  down 
to  Lewiston,  greatly  increasing  the  cost  and  slightly  decreasing  the 
production  of  power.  Scheme  5-c  is  the  headrace-tunnel  pro^josition 
in  its  usual  form.  Schemes  1,  2,  3-a,  and  3-b  are  ingenious  attempts 
to  utilize  the  present  power  plants  as  part  of  a  full-heail  develop- 
ment. By  Mr.  Davis's  own  statement,  the  results  are  inferior  to 
schemes  4  and  6-b.  In  addition  several  of  them  would  invlove  a 
great  temporary  curtailment  of  the  present  pox-cr  ouipm,  \\li;,-1i  Is 
inadmissible. 

Pro  position  of  the  Niagara  Gorge  Poiver  Cu. — .^  piL.jLii  .-i  luc 
Niagara  Gorge  Power  Co.,  designed  by  Barclay.  Parsons,  &  Khq^p, 
consulting  engineers,  was  submitted  by  the  power  company  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  in  an  application  for  a  permit  to  divert  20,000 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  from  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  pool.  The 
Niagara  Gorge  Power  Co.  is  controlled  by  the  same  interests  as  the 
Niagara  Gorge  Railway  Co.,  owner  of  the  electric-  railway  in  the 
gorge.  In  the  plan  of  Messrs.  Barclay,  Pareons  &  Khipp  an  intake 
is  provided  between  the  railroad  bridges  at  the  foot  of  the  Maid  of 
the  Mist  pool.  From  the  intake  the  Avater  flows  through  a  pair  of 
33-foot  tunnels  to  a  power  house  under  the  transmission-line  cross- 
ing. The  location  of  the  intake,  determined  by  ownership  of  the 
site,  is,  as  regards  interference  and  damage  from  ice,  subject  to  all 
of  the  objections  made  in  section  F-5  to  intakes  in  the  Maid  ol  the 
Mist  pool. 

Proposition  of  T.  Kennanl  Thomson. — A  proijositioii  <d"  Mr.  T. 
Kennard  Thomson,  consulting  engineer,  of  New  York  City,  wa.-,  re- 

27880—21 22 


338      DIVERSION  OF  WATER   FROJil  GREAT  LAKES   AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

ceived  in  January,  1918.  The  enfjineerinnr  features  are  very  nieagerly 
described  in  the  folio  submitted.  Additional  facts  have  been 
p:athered  from  an  article  by  Mr.  lliomson.  which  was  reprinted  in 
the  Niagara  Falls  Journal.  August  22.  1917.  The  scheme  provides 
for  a  dam  in  the  gorge  at  the  foot  of  Fosters  Flats,  which  aviII  cause 
the  Avater  to  rise  and  obliterate  Fosters  Flats  Rapids  and  the  whirl- 
pool. The  whole  flow  of  the  river  is  to  be  used  to  generate  1,000,000 
horsepower  or  more. 

MisceUaneovs  proposition.'^. — The  Niagara  County  Irrigation  and 
Water  Supply  Co.  proposes  to  utilize  4,400  cubic  feet  i)er  second  by 
a  canal  from  La  Salle  to  the  Devils  Hole.  The  route  recommended 
is  uneconomically  long  and  the  power  in  a  fall  of  9  feet  in  the  rapids 
below  the  Devils  Hole  is  lost. 

Another  proposition  was  that  the  State  of  New  York  and  the 
city  of  Niagara  Falls  unite  in  developing  4,400  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second  in  a  project  similar  to  that  of  the  Empire  Power  Corpo- 
ration, except  that  the  power  house  was  to  l)e  in  a  cave,  excavated 
under  the  reservation.    The  scheme  had  no  particular  merits. 

10.   COMPARISON  or  PROPOSED  DEA'ELOPMENTS. 

Certain  remarks  which  apply  to  several  of  the  proposed  schemes 
for  powder  development  have  been  reserved  for  this  part  of  the 
report. 

For  convenience  of  reference  and  comparison  Table  No.  41  is  here 
presented  as  a  statistical  summary  of  estimates  previously  given.  In 
it  are  tlie  name,  quantity  of  diversion,  gross  head,  net  head,  horse- 
power per  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second,  total  horsepower  produced, 
construction  cost  per  horsepoAver,  and  time  of  development  for  each 
project  which  provides  a  complete  working  plant.  In  regard  to  these 
estimates  it  seems  proper  and  important  to  repeat  that  they  are  pre- 
liminary estimates  based  on  outline  layouts  which  can  in  no  sense 
be  considered  final  designs.  While  a  great  deal  of  study,  thought, 
labor,  and  care  have  been  expended  upon  them,  they  have  not  been, 
and  under  the  circumstances  could  not  be,  based  on  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  multitudinous  lesser  details.  Indeed,  so  many  essential 
elements  are  unavoidably  of  such  uncertain  character  that  any  further 
refinement  appears  without  justification  for  the  purposes  of  the  re- 
port. It  is  believed  that  they  are  sufficiently  sound  and  correct  to 
be  used  without  hesitation  in  the  consideration  of  the  important 
problem  to  which  they  apply. 

There  is  a  possibility  that  the  intakes  on  Grass  Island  Shoal 
provided  in  several  of  the  propositions  would  have  to  be  located 
farther  towaid  midstieam  in  order  not  to  pass  ice  into  the  new  intake 
channel  of  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  or  else  new  piers  and  booms 
might  have  to  be  ])rovided  for  that  company  and  some  dredging 
done  on  the  rock  .shoal  upstream  from  (xoat  Island.  In  either  case 
an  important  item  would  be  added  to  the  construction  cost  of  the 
proposition  involved.  The  pressure  tunnel  location  under  Sugar 
Street  and  the  power  canal  intake  south  of  Conners  Island  are  free 
from  this  possible  objection. 

In  the  descriptions  of  generating  machinery  provided  for  the 
various  propositions  individual  exciters  have  been  specified,  mounted 
on  the  generators.     This  was  done  because  the  prices  furnished  by 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER.     839 

manufacturers  of  <reneratin<>:  machinery  were  based  on  such  .lcsi^r„s. 
It  is  not  intended  to  specify  any  such  minor  detail  in  the  sense  of 
advocating;  it  in  preference  to  another  desi«rn  e(iuallv  j^^mmI  or  hetter. 
The  exciter  system  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  or  that  of  the  .Missit?- 
sippi  River  Power  Co.  is  probably  a  little  better.  These  involve  one 
or  two  separate  hydroelectric  service  units  in  each  power  station, 
and  presumably  are  somewhat  more  expensive  to  install  than  the 
system  specified.  The  difference  in  expense  would  ajjplv  about 
equally  to  all  sinole-stajro,  propositions  and  wouhl  affect  the  two- 
stage  propositions  sli^jhtly  more. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  Table  No.  4i  none  of  the  power-development 
schemes  which  involve  a  reasonably  low  capital  cost  are  credite<l 
Avith  an  output  as  j^reat  as  3f)  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  of  water 
diverted  per  second  from  Niaojara  Ixiver.  Any  one  of  tiiem  utilizing 
the  gross  head  from  Grass  Island  to  Riverdale  Cemetery  can  be  made 
to  produce  30  horsepower  per  cubic  foot  i)er  second  at  add('«l  ex- 
pense. This  would  involve  an  increase  in  rates  or  a  diminution  in 
return  to  the  investors  in  the  enterprise.  The  power-canal  jjroposi- 
tion  can  be  brought  up  to  this  output  at  less  expense  than  the  otiier 
propositions. 


Table  41. — Summary  of  comparative  estimates  of  various  dcvdojimfnt  i>riiji  ,tM. 
[Omissions  and  assumptions  as  in  accompanying  tcxt.j 


Proposition,  number,  and 
name. 


Total 
diver- 
sion, 
cubic 
feet 
per 
sec- 
ond. 


1.  Power  canal 

2.  Pressure  tunnel 

3.  Tailrace  tunnel 

Simple  two-stage 

Upper  stage  only  — 
Lower  stage  only . . . 

5.  Compound  two-stage 

tipper  stage  only 

Lower  stage  only 

6.  Ship  canal: 

300  feet  wide,  40  feet 

deep 

400  feet  wide,  30  feet 

deep 

200  feet  wide,  33  feet 

deep 

Portion  of  works  of  300 
foot  canal  necessi- 
tated by  the  power 
development 

7.  Erie  and  Ontario  Sani- 

tary Canal 


20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 


20,000 
20,000 
20,000 


26,000 


Gross 
head. 


313.8 
312.  .5 
312.5 
312. 
215.2 

97.0 
312.0 
219.0 

93.0 


216.4 
316.4 
316.4 


326. 4 


Net 
head 


302. 8 
301.3 
299.0 
297.5 
208.2 

89.2 
298.4 
214.4 

84.0 


312.9 
312.9 
309.9 


310.2 


Total 
horse- 
power 
on 
bus 
bars. 


591,000 
588,000 
584,000 
580,000 
406,000 
174,000 
573,000 
409,000 
164,000 


611,000 
611,000 
605.000 


787,000 


Horse- 
power, 

per' 
Pubic 

feet 

per 
second. 


29.6 
29.4 
29.2 
29.0 
20.3 

8.7 
28.0 
20.4 

8.2 


.30.6 
30.  G 
.30.2 


Construc- 
tion 
cost.' 


Con- 
stnic- 
tion 
cost, 
I    per 
I  horse- 
power.' 


$43, 
50, 
.52, 
61, 
31, 
29, 
55, 
21, 
34, 


000 
000 
000 
01)0 
000: 
000 
000 
000 

ooo! 


198,412,000 
203,000,000 
170,000,000 


J73.70 
86.40 
89.40 

105.60 
77.70 

170.70 
96.80 
51.80 

209.10 


.324.70 
332.20 
281.00 


Time  of 
develop- 

m<nl 
(years). 


First 
power. 


93,000,000      97.80          7 
401,760,0001    510.50| 


Com* 
plete. 


1  See  text  for  assumptions  and  omissions. 

In  line  with  the  remarks  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  in  further 
explanation  of  statements  in  Section  F-1  of  this  report  regarding 
economic  sizes  of  main  conduits,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  mo.-^t  eco- 
nomical diameter  of  long  tunnel  for  the  tailrace  tunnel,  pressure 
tunnel,  and  two-stage  propositions  on  the  basis  of  the  finally  assumed 
unit  costs,  fixed  charges,  and  selling  price  of  power  is  43  feet  instead 
of  48  feet,  as  adopted.    Use  of  the  smaller  tunnel  would  decrease  the 


340      DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FKO.M  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RH-ER. 

con>t ruction  cost  of  tlie  pressure-tunnel  proposition  about  8  per  cent 
and  reduce  the  power  output  a  little  more  than  2  per  cent.  The  con- 
struction cost  per  horsepower  produced  would  be  reduced  approxi- 
mately 0.\  per  cent.  This  brin<2:s  the  cost  per  horsepower  of  the  pres- 
sure-nmnel  proposition  more  than  one-third  of  the  way  down  to  the 
corresponding  figure  for  the  power-canal  proposition,  but  decreases  the 
available  power  output  by  14,000  horsepower.  The  basis  on  which  the 
various  propositions  were  compared,  as  defined  in  the  assumptions 
stated  in  Section  F-1,  was  not  the  production  of  equal  amounts  of 
power  from  equal  quantities  of  water,  but  the  use  in  each  case  of  20,000 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  to  produce  as  much  power  as  Avas  con- 
sistent with  good  economy  of  development.  At  the  same  time  it  was 
considered  wise  to  increase  main  tunnels  and  canals  somewhat  beyond 
the  size  demantled  by  present-day  economy  to  prevent  falling  into  a 
ditiiculty  similar  to  that  now  confronting  the  plant  of  the  old  Niagara 
Falls  Fower  Co.  In  so  doing  it  has  come  about  that  the  total  amounts 
of  povrer  provided  by  the  various  propositions  do  not  differ  very 
widely. 

Another  point  in  this  connection  is  the  situation  with  respect  to  the 
location  of  the  power  house  in  the  lower  gorge.  For  best  economy  of 
investment  the  power  house  of  the  i)ower-canal  proposition  should  be 
located  where  shown,  abreast  of  Riverdale  Cemetery.  To  move  it 
either  up  or  down  stream  economy  must  be  sacrificed.  With  respect 
to  all  the  tunnel  propositions,  however,  the  economy  would  be  slightly 
improved  by  locating  the  downstream  terminus  near  Devils  Ilole. 
]S  ine  feet  of  head  would  thus  be  sacrificed,  representing  a  large  amount 
of  power.  The  Devils  Hole  site  was  avoided  to  prevent  such  sacrifice 
of  available  power,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  the  tunnel  and  canal 
propositions  more  nearly  comparable. 

The  costs  given  in  the  preceding  parts  of  Section  F  and  in  Table  Xo. 
41  covering  the  various  projects  considered,  do  not  include  the  entire 
capital  costs  nor  even  the  whole  of  what  might  be  termed  construction 
costs.  Thus  the  general  overhead  items,  projierly  part  of  construction 
costs,  which  have  been  omitted  in  each  case,  are  costs  of  promoting  in- 
terest in  the  proposition,  of  obtaining  funds,  of  organizing  a  managing 
company,  and  of  legal  services  invoh'ed  in  promotion,  financing,  and 
organizing.  The  fundamental  item  of  purchase  of  any  necessary 
rights  from  existing  power  companies  has  not  been  included.  The  de- 
velojjment  expense  involved  in  building  up  a  market  for  power  con- 
sunq)tion  and  milking  the  enterprise  a  going  concern,  also  properly  a 
pait  of  capital  cost,  has  been  omitted.  The  costs  given  are  called  con- 
struction costs.  They  include  purchase  of  necessary  land  and  rights 
of  way  and  construction  required  in  providing  a  plant  to  produce  elec- 
tric energy  at  generator  voltage  on  the  bus  bars  of  the  power  station. 
All  expense  pertaining  to  transformation  and  transmission  of  electric 
energy  lias  been  omitted  i)urpo.sely. 

The  omissions  just  mentioned  have  appreciable  effects  on  the  capital 
cost  of  each  proposition,  and  since  these  effects  are  not  equal  on  the 
<lifferent j)rojocts,  it  becomes  desirable  to  note  them  and  discuss  them 
briefly.  Furthermore,  in  the  matter  of  operating  costs  there  are  almost 
certain  to  be  differences  worthy  of  consideration:  and,  if  so,  these 
.should  be  taken  into  account  in  studying  the  desirability  of  the  differ- 
ent schemes.  An  estimate  has  therefore  been  made  of  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing power  in  each  case. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROIM   ORKAT   LAKES;   AXU    XIACAI'.A    RIVER.      341 

Any  one  of  the  seven  propositions  listed  in  TuMc  N(..  41.  which 
covers  the  full  head,  mirrht  be  adopted  as  the  final  plan  for  iitili/.in^r 
the  full  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  diversion  now  |)errnissible  undeT- 
the  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  Under  any  of  these  i)lans  some  or  all  nf 
the  existm^:  plants  would  be  superseded.  Whether  or  not  the  com- 
panies now  diverting  water  from  the  Nia^rara  Kiver  have  any  ri«rlits 
to  such  water  beyond  the  revocable  ones  <>:ranted  by  their  "permits 
from  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  whether  anv  new  com))anv  desiring' 
to  use  this  water  Avould  have  to  compensate  them  is  considered  to  be  a 
question  outside  of  the  scope  of  this  report. 

It  is  essential,  hoAvever,  that  the  effect  of  these  ri«rhts,  if  any  e.vist, 
upon  the  cost  of  producino:  power  by  the  various  pi-opositions  to  be 
compared  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  it  has  an  important  effect 
upon  the  relative  economy  of  the  different  propositions.  For  tiiis 
reason,  the  comparison  will  be  worked  out  under  two  different  as- 
sumptions. First,  it  will  be  assumed  tiiat  the  com])iinies  now  usin«r 
water  possess  a  i-i<rht  therein  that  can  not  be  taken  from  them  with- 
out equitable  compensation.  Under  this  assumption  the  cost  of  pn)- 
ducing  power  from  the  authorized  diversion  of  2().()()()  cubic  feet  per 
second  by  each  of  the  propositions  Avill  be  compared.  Matter  relat- 
ing to  this  comparison  will  be  referred  to  as  based  on  "tlie  use  of 
the  first  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second."  Secondly,  it  will 
be  assumed  that  by  a  new  treaty  an  additional  diversion  of  20.()()it 
cubic  feet  per  second  has  been  authorized.  This  couhl  be  developed 
without  interfering  with  the  existing  plants  and  without  expen.se 
for  acquiring  any  rights  which  the  existing  c()mj)anies  may  claim  to 
possess.  The  comparison  of  costs  of  power  production  under  this 
second  assumption  will  be  referred  to  as  based  on  ''the  use  of  the 
second  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second."  If  it  l)e  found,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  that  the  power  companies  have  no  rights  of  any 
kind  for  the  deprivation  of  which  they  would  be  entitled  to  compen- 
sation, the  com^)arative  costs  computed  for  the  second  diversion  f)f 
20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  would  apply  also  to  new  jdants  built  to 
utilize  the  diversion  authorized  by  the  existing  treaty. 

The  power  outputs  listed  in  Table  No.  41.  and  used  in  deriving 
the  construction  costs  per  horsejiower,  as  given  in  the  same  talile, 
are  the  outputs  which  would  obtain  Avith  ])lan(s  in  lirst-class  con- 
dition, operating  at  best  efficiency,  Avith  the  I'iver  at  uuwu  .staL'e.  and 
using  in  each  case  the  full  quantity  of  Avater  listed  n?i.ler  t..t;i! 
di  Aversion. 

As  regards  variation  of  poAver  with  stage,  the  situation  at  Nuigara 
is  almost  ideal.  The  full  supply  of  Avater  up  to  any  tot^il  diversion 
contemplated  is  availalile  at  any  stage  of  the  river  which  occurs,  and 
can  be  diverted  for  poAver  development  except  in  extremely  rare 
cases  of  very  bad  conditions.  The  head  varies  a  little  with  changes 
of  stage,  the  variation  in  Avater  level  in  the  :Nlaul  of  the  Mist  1  ool 
being  in  the  same  direction  and  about  four  tunes  as  great  as  in  the 
Chippawa-Grass  Island  Pool.  Accordingly,  at  high  stage  the  avail- 
able head  is  less  than  at  mean  stage  and  the  po.'^sibh'  power  nut|)ut 
correspondingly  less,  conditions  being  reversed  at  low  stage.  It  is 
only  once  or  tA^ice  a  year  that  this  variation  amounts  to  as  much  a.s 

1  per  cent.  .      ,         i  ^  i,         .■  i- 

The  assumption  of  full  power  output,  and  full  continu..us  divei- 
sion  of  the  maximum  amount  of  water  permitted,  is  in  accordance 


342    DivEnsrox  of  water  from  great  lakes  and  Niagara  Rn-Ei; 

"svith  common  practice  -whoii  comi^arinir  construction  costs  per  horse- 
power. Such  an  output  -wouhl  not.  of  course,  be  obtained  in  actual 
operation,  and  the  construction  cost  per  horsepower  of  actual  average 
output  wouhl  be  greater  than  that  given,  depending  in  amount  on 
the  output. 

In  estimating  operating  costs  it  has  seemed  best  to  assume  a  power 
output  in  each  case  such  as  it  is  believed  would  exist  after  the  plant 
wa  fully  constructed  and  the  market  l)uilt  up  to  capacity.  The 
ratio  of  average  power  delivered  to  maximum  power  delivered 
is  known  as  the  load  factor.  The  situation  at  Niagara  Falls  is 
unique  in  respect  to  the  load  factors  which  prevail.  At  the  plant 
of  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  it  is  probably  nearer  unity  than  at  any 
other  large  plant  in  the  world,  the  daily  load  factor  ranging  from 
90  to  99  per  cent.  At  the  plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  it 
is  much  lower,  but  still  unusually  good.  A  load  factor  of  60  per  cent 
is  well  above  the  average  in  central  station  practice.  The  reason  for 
the  high-load  factors  at  Niagara  Falls  is  the  fact  that  the  load  is 
consumed  largely  by  electrochemical  plants  operating  continuous 
processes.  24  hours  a  day,  7  days  a  week.  These  industries  are  the 
ones  which  lienefit  most  from  cheap  power,  and  most  of  them  are 
actually  dependent  upon  it  for  existence.  There  are  many  reasons 
for  believing  that  the  future  market  developed  in  this  vicinity  will 
consist  largely  of  loads  of  similar  character,  and  accordingly  it  has 
been  assumed  that  90  per  cent  of  the  full  power  production  possible 
at  mean  stage  will  be  marketed  continuously.  The  power  produc- 
tion costs  are  based  on  this  assumption. 

The  marketable  power  production  of  a  plant  which  is  limited  as 
to  its  supply  of  water  depends  to  a  slight  extent  upon  the  power 
factor  of  the  connected  load,  and  the  production  cost  depends  even 
more  on  the  power  factor.  For  a  plant  as  a  whole  the  power  factor 
may  be  defined  as  the  ratio  of  output  in  kilowatts  to  output  in  kilo- 
volt-amperes.  Niagara  loads  are  very  good  in  this  Trespect  also,  the 
power  factors  averaging  close  to  unity  because  of  the  character  of 
the  connected  loads.  An  important  consideration  being  the  use  of 
many  s;\'nchronous  converters  whose  fields  may  be  overexcited  to 
keep  this  factor  near  unity.  The  generators  provided  in  the  esti- 
mates are  designed  with  ample  windings  to  permit  full  turbine  ca- 
])acity  to  be  developed  with  the  power  factor  at  90  per  (;ent.  xVt 
this  value  the  reduction  in  the  amount  of  marketable  power  avail- 
able is  too  light  to  be  considered.  Because  of  the  extra  copper  in 
the  generators,  however,  and  the  extra  size  of  the  generator  thereby 
rerpiired.  the  capital  costs,  and  hence  the  annual  charges,  are  in- 
creased. 

The  estimates  of  cost  of  producing  power  probably  are  not  as  accu- 
rate as  the  construction  cost  estimates,  being  based  on  less  reliable 
data  and  having  been  prepared  with  far  less  care.  As  already  pointed 
out,  tiiey  are  ])robably  several  dollars  per  horsepower  per  annum  less 
than  the  ultimate  actual  cost  of  delivering  power  on  the  premises  of 
any  customer  V)ecause  of  the  cost  iten)s  omitted.  They  should  be 
regarded  as  rough  estimates,  believed  to  be  sufliciently  good  to  form 
a  fair  Itasis  of  comi)arison  of  the  various  propositions.  Production 
fosts  include  fixed  charges  and  operation  charges,  which  latter  in- 
(•lu<l('  salaries  of  most  of  the  employees,  cost  of  supplies,  and  cost  of 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AM.    .m.x.,.\HA   ItlVKIl.     343 

maintenance.  Maintenance  inrludes  repairs  and  minor  or  fre(|u»'ni 
replacements.  Fixed  diaries  \vei'e  assumed  at  l(t  per  cent  i)er  aiimnii 
of  the  total  construction  costs,  beiu};  divided  as  follows:  Interest  on 
investment,  5^  per  cent;  depreciation.  2^  i)er  cent;  taxes  and  insur- 
ance, 2  per  cent.     The  operation  costs  were  computed  in  each  cji.se. 

As  regards  lixed  charges,  a  few  general  remarks  seem  desirable. 
A  rate  of  interest  of  54  per  cent  was  considered  best  for  these  esti- 
mates. It  is  evident  that  the  rate  will  de|)end  to  a  large  extent  on 
the  credit  of  the  organization  handling  the  enterprise.  Thus  if  it 
w'ere  undertaken  by  the  United  States  Governnient.  fun<ls  might  be 
readily  raised  at  4  to  44  per  cent  on  (iovernment  bonds  based  on  tlie 
property  and  guaranteed  by  the  Treasury  De[);n'lment. 

At  Niagara  Falls  a  w'ater-power  development  is  far  less  specu- 
lative, and  it  seems  likely  that  hnancing  would  be  less  diliicult.  than 
under  average  conditions.  On  a  normal  money  market  a  [jrivate 
company  might  be  able  to  finance  such  a  proposition  at  rates  ^•arying 
between  5  and  7  per  cent,  depending  on  the  resources  and  character 
of  the  men  in  charge.  The  rate  of  54  per  cent  adopted  in  these  esti- 
mates was  a  mean  of  the  various  possible  cases  considered. 

Depreciation  has  been  taken  at  2i  i)er  cent  per  annum  on  the  whole 
construction  cost  with  the  thought  that  a  depreciation  reserve  will  be 
established  to  care  for  retirement  of  property  items  which  have  be- 
come inadequate  or  obsolete  or  which  require  replacement  because  of 
accident,  use,  or  age,  the  funds  representing  the  balance  of  the  reserve 
being  at  all  times  readily  available  for  replacements,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  integrity  of  the  total  investment  unimpaired. 

It  is  understood  that  a  proper  annual  depreciation  allowance  to 
cover  hydraulic  and  electric  machinery  ranges  from  4  to  8  per  cent. 
Something  like  half  the  cost  of  construction  of  these  propositions, 
however,  is  for  works  whose  rate  of  deprecitition  is  likely  to  bo  so  low 
that  1  per  cent  per  annum  of  the  construction  cost  S(»t  aside  at  5  per 
cent  compound  interest  would  seem  ample  to  care  for  it.  Another 
portion  of  the  works  amounting  to  more  than  one-<iU!irter  of  the 
total  construction  cost  might  be  cared  for  by  a  2  per  cent  annuitv 
similarly  set  aside.  For  the  average  expected  service  life  an  amiual 
rate  of  24  per  cent  has  seemed  about  right.  This  is  based  on  the 
compound-interest  method  of  depreciation  accounting  as  applied  to 
individual  items  of  the  property.  •    ,    ,•        ,  ,    , 

Two  per  cent  per  annum  of  the  construction  cost  is  believed  to  be 
sufficient  to  cover  both  insurance  and  taxes,  including  lire  and  lia- 
bility insurance  and  property  and  war  taxes.  Since  it  has  been  as- 
sumed in  these  estimates  that  gross  income  is  just  su  hcient  to  main- 
tain and  operate  the  plant  there  is  no  net  income,  and  uMice  no  mcome 
tax  to  care  for.  War  taxes  include  only  excise,  utilities,  insurance, 
and  stamp  taxes  and  amount  to  a  very  smal  sum  comparatively. 
Several  engineers  were  found  to  be  agreed  that  10  per  cent  was 


about  right  for  fixed  charges  and  it  is  believed  the  «  ^""^I  "  « 
sufficiently  correct  even  though  the  subdivision  «;f /';% '^^^^J^ '  . '*? 
parts  is  not  as  well  worked  out.  It  is  to  be  noted  hat  the  niattei  of 
Led  charges  is  very  hnportant  in  its  effe<;^^,  both  on  annm^^^^  pro- 
duction charges  and  on  construction  costs.  Ihus  hxe.  ^'h'^'J-'^^^^  ^  "' 
statute  two-thirds  or  more  of  the  annual  P^-^'l^^^^'^-^l^j^f " ;  J'  ^^^ 
also   influence   construction  costs  because   they   form  the   most   m- 


344      DIVEKSIOX  OF  WATER   FROM  GEEAT  LAKES  AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

fluential  factor  in  the  determination  of  the  economic  sizes  of  various 
portions  of  the  plant. 

In  computing  operation  charges  an  estimate  was  made  of  the  posi- 
tions to  be  filled  and  the  probable  salaries  required.  To  the  annual 
sum  covering  salaries  40  per  cent  was  added  to  cover  supplies  and 
sundries.  An  estimate  was  then  made  of  the  annual  cost  of  repairs 
and  minor  rei^lacements.  This  latter  figure  was  based  on  such  infor- 
mation as  came  to  hand.  In  each  case  the  figure  for  repairs  and 
minor  replacements  is  much  the  same  as  the  figure  for  salaries  and 
supplies.  As  already  stated,  it  is  believed  the  estimated  operating 
charges  as  presented  give  a  reasonable  idea  of  what  might  be  ex- 
pected. They  seem  to  compare  properly  with  other  estimates  and 
known  costs.  An  engineer  Avell  acquainted  with  power-plant  opera- 
tion at  Niagara  Falls  stated  that  it  was  impossible  to  forecast  within 
limits  of  an}'  value  the  operation  costs  of  a  plant  so  much  larger  than 
and  different  from  any  yet  constructed.  It  seems,  on  the  other  hand 
that  it  is  of  importance  to  know  that  they  are  likely  to  be  more  than 
$1  per  horsepower  year  and  less  than  $4.  As  a  matter  of  comparison 
among  the  different  propositions  the  figures  given  are  believed  to  be 
ver}'  fair. 

For  the  sake  of  clearness  and  simplicitj^  first  consideration  will  be 
given  to  the  case  that  might  arise  after  the  companies  at  present 
operating  were  fully  cared  for  and  were  utilizing  the  20,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  of  water  provided  in  the  present  treat3^  If  then  an 
additional  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  of  water  was  to  be  developed 
under  one  of  the  first  four  propositions  listed  in  Table  No.  41,  the 
operation  costs  and  annual  charges  for  horsepower  would  be  as  in 
Table  No.  42. 


Table  No.  42. — Estimated  annval  charges  for  power  development,  exclusive  of 
fired  charges  o-?i  original  overhead  and  development  expenses. 

(Based  on  use  of  a  second  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second.] 


No. 

Proposition. 

90  per  cent  of 
maximum 

continuous 
output,  in 

horsepower. 

Fixed  charges 
per  horse- 
power per 
year. 

Operation 
charges  per 
horsepower 

per  year. 

Cost  of  power 
on  bus  bars 
per  horse- 
power per 
year. 

1 

? 

Power  canal 

Pressure  tunnel 

532,000 
529,000 

$8.20 
9.60 
9.90 

11.70 

SI.  SO 
1.70 

$10.00 
11  sn 

3 

526,000 
522,000 

1.70                    11.60 

4 

Simple  two- stage 

2.20                   IS.  on 

Under  the  conditions  noted,  this  power  would  l)e  sold  to  new  plants 
which  wouhl  preferably  be  located  as  near  as  possi[)le  to  the  new 
|)ower  houses.  Transforming  and  transmission  costs  would  be  the 
same  for  all  four  propositions,  except  that  the  tailrace-tunnel  prop- 
osition would  be  .somewhat  handicai)ped  by  the  fact  that  there  are 
fewer  available  factory  sites  near  it  than  near  the  others. 

The  question  of  the  most  economical  method  of  utilizing  the  jjres- 
<*iit  authorized  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  .second 
under  the  assumption  that  the  companies  now  using  this  diversion 
must  be  compensated  if  it  is  taken  away  from  them  will  now  be  taken 
up.     The  best  way  to  care  for  the  Pettebone  Cataract  Paper  Co., 


DIVEESION    OF   WATKK   FllOM   Ul'.KAT  LAKKS  AND    XlAUAIiA    IMVl.ll.      345 

Cataract  Cit^-  Millin<r  Co.,  and  Lockpoit  iiiterosts  \v()iil.l  ."^rctii  to  lie 
to  compensate  them  tor  the  loss  of  the  water  hv  i)r(jvi(lin«r  a  suitahk- 
supply  of  electric  power  at  very  low  rates  and"  under  fjivoraldf  con- 
ditions of  contract.  In  case  the  new  power  phmts  do  ik.I  liavo  a 
transmission  line  to  Lockport,  power  mi«iht  he  purchased  from  the 
Niaj^ara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  Power  Co.,  and  resold  to  phwits  at  that 
place  at  rates  which  would  protect  those  inteiv.sts  from  l<.s>.  The 
cost  of  providin<^  such  compensation  for  all  these  interests  is  verv 
uncertain,  the  matter  being  a  comj^lex  one.  In  order  to  inive  some- 
thint{  to  go  by,  it  will  be  assumed  that  the  l^ettebone  inteie.sts  are 
supplied  3,000  horsepower,  at  $7  per  horsepower  per  annun).  the 
power  costing  the  generating  company  SlG  per  horsepower  per  annum 
to  provide,  and  making  the  net  cost  to  the  generating  company 
$27,000  per  annum.  Similarly,  it  will  be  assumed  that  lo.ooo  h<»rse- 
power  is  furnished  Lockport  interests,  at  $10  per  horsepgwi-r  per 
annum,  the  power  costing  $22  per  horsepower  per  annum,  uv  a  net 
amount  of  $120,000  per  annum.  On  these  assumptions  the  total  cost 
of  compensating  the  Pettebone  and  Lockport  interests  will.be  $147,- 
000  per  annum. 

The  new  proposition  must  also,  under  the.se  assumptions,  he 
charged  with  paying  a  just  return  to  the  present  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co,  to  compensate  for  destroying  assets  of  that  comiiany. 
This  is  another  item  which  at  present  seems  absolutely  indetermi- 
nate. As  a  basis  for  arriving  at  it  a  complete  inventory  of  the 
property  would  first  have  to  be  made,  and  all  tangible  and  intan- 
gible items  concerned  carefully  appraised.  It  is  thought  that  this 
charge  should  not  apply  to  such  properties  of  the  present  company 
as  transformer  houses  and  equipment,  transmission  lines,  railroads, 
real  estate  held  for  development,  and  foreign  and  domestic  power 
plants  or  distributing  plants  owned.  It  should  include  generators, 
switch  gear,  conductors,  and  electrical  accessories,  owned  by  the 
Aluminum  Co.  of  America,  and  the  Cliff  Electrical  Distributing  Co.. 
in  so  far  as  they  form  component  parts  of  the  ])resent  ])ower  plant. 

In  explanation  of  the  exclusion  of  transformer  houses,  transmis- 
sion lines,  distributing  plants,  etc..  it  may  be  stated  that  the  assuni])- 
tion  was  that  electric  power  would  be  sold  to  the  Niagara  Fall.s 
Power  Co.  at  a  price  sufficient  to  permit  it  to  operate  its  transform- 
ers, transmission  and  distributing  system,  supjilying  its  present  cus- 
tomers, and  receiving  a  fair  return  upon  the  fair  value  of  this  por- 
tion of  its  plant. 

Lender  the  assumption  stated  above  the  charge  for  compensation 
would  properly  cover  all  fixed  annual  charges  against  those  por- 
tions of  the  physical  property  of  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  and  old 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  now  used  as  parts  of  hydroelectric  jdants. 
but  made  partiallv  or  wholly  unserviceable  under  the  new  .scheme 
to  the  extent  that"  these  charges  could  not  be  met  by  other  use.^  or 
disposition  of  the  properties.  In  addition,  it  appears  that  some  com- 
pensation might  justly  be  required  for  intangible  values,  mcludinp 
to  some  extent,  the  present  opportunity  of  the  company  for  profit. 
If  the  new  project  was  allotted  to  the  present  company  the  opportu- 
nity for  profit  thus  afforded  might  well  be  held  to  replace  the  lost 
opportunity.  The  following  figures  were  computed  from  data  given 
in  Moody's  Manual  for  1918,  in  order  to  give  certain  information 


346      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVEI; 

for  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.,  CliflF  Electrical  Distiibutinp;  Co..  and 
old  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  combined,  for  the  year  1917: 

Gross  income $6.  204,  837 

Operating  expenses,  taxes,  and  insurance 2.  GOT.  878 

Interest 1,  377,  260 

Available  for  depreciation,  surplus,  and  dividends 2,219,099 

The  gross  income  given  is  from  all  sources.  The  expenses  cover 
transmission  systems,  transformer  buildings  and  equipment,  and  real 
estate  not  essential  to  the  plant  as  a  power-producing  enterprise. 
Proper  division  between  the  items  which  are  essential  and  those  not 
essential  to  the  power-producing  enterprise  is  impossible  with  the 
data  at  hand,  and  doubtless  would  be  considered  impossible  by  the 
companies  themselves  with  all  the  data  at  their  command.  It  will  be 
assumed  that  a  sum  of  $2,000,000  per  annum  is  a  proper  compensation 
to  the  present  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co. 

In  the  case  of  the  compound  two-stage  proposition,  part  of  the  plant 
of  this  company  is  retained.  Of  course,  fixed  charges  on  this  must  be 
included  in  the  final  cost  of  power  development.  While  the  distribu- 
tion of  cost  would  differ  in  minor  details  in  this  case  the  differences 
would  be  small  and  because  of  the  great  uncertainty  involved  the  same 
figure  of  $2,000,000  per  annum  will  be  used  in  this  case  also. 

Table  No.  43  is  based  on  the  assumptions  enumerated  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraphs. 

The  present  customers  of  the  existing  plants  will  very  likely  be 
retained,  and  the  present  transforming,  transmitting,  and  distributing 
equipment  utilized  to  its  full  extent.  In  each  case  more  than  100,000 
horsepower  must  be  transmitted  between  the  present  plants  of  the 
Hydraulic  Power  Co.  and  old  Niagara  Falls  Power  (^o.  No  allowance 
has  been  made  for  the  cost  of  this  item.  It  is  thought  the  expense 
might  be  moderate  if  the  necessary  cables  were  placed  in  the  discharge 
tunnel  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  This  co.st  item  does  not  affect 
the  comparison  between  plants,  as  it  applies  equally  to  all.  For  the 
power  canal  and  pressure  tunnel  projects  the  present  output  of  the 
existing  plants,  about  250,000  horsepower,  would  have  to  be  trans- 
mitted from  the  lower  gorge  up  to  the  present  milling  district.  From 
the  best  data  available  it  is  estimated  that  the  yearly  cost  of  this 
service  would  not  exceed  $350,000,  and  that  the  power  loss  would  not 
exceed  8,000  horsepower.  This  would  increase  the  annual  cost  per 
horsepower  from  $14  to  $14.90  for  the  j)Ower  canal  proposition,  and 
from  $15.40  to  $16.30  for  the  pressure  tunnel  proposition,  as  shown  in 
the  last  column  of  Table  No.  43.  Matters  of  promotion,  finance,  etc., 
may  be  assumed  the  same  in  all  cases,  and  so  not  to  affect  the  validity 
of  the  final  comparison. 

As  regards  the  effect  on  capital  cost,  and  consequently  the  effect  on 
fixed  annual  charges,  of  cost  promotion,  financing,  organization,  de- 
velopment of  market  and  going  concern,  there  is  a  point  Avorthy  of 
note.  In  cithei-  of  the  two-stage  propositions  the  cost  of  the  upper 
stage  development  is  only  about  one-half  of  the  total  cost,  while  the 
upper  plant  produced  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  power.  More- 
oxitr  the  first  power  could  be  produced  sooner  in  the  two-stage  than 
in  tlx'  single-stage  development;  and  commencement  on  construction 
of  the  main  tunnel  could  be  longer  delayed,  because  the  upper  .stage 
plant  would  be  able  meantime  to  supply  the  growing  market.  The 
result  is  that  far  less  unproductive  investment  is  carried  at  any  time 


DIVERSION    OF   WATKll   FROM  GREAT   LAKES   AND    NI^VtJAUA   RIVER.      347 


with  a  two-stage  than  with  a  single-stafrc  developinent,  and  the  capitiil 
cost  per  horsepower  prothiced  is  k'ss  until  the  jji-ojin-ts  near  coiiiijle- 
tion.  This  condition  would  lead  to  bettor  credit  and  a  .sounder 
financial  condition  durins:  the  construction  period,  which  in  turn 
might  make  possible  the  flotation  of  bonds  on  better  tei-nis. 

Thus  far  in  the  discussion  the  production  cost  only  has  been  dwelt 
upon,  A  chance  for  profit  is  necessary  in  such  an  enterpri.se  in  order 
to  induce  business  men  to  undertake  the  risk  oi'  runiun;^  the  busi- 
ness and  to  spur  them  to  the  endeavors  likely  to  bring  it  success.  In 
fact,  experience  teaches  that  a  speculatitvc  profit  not  only  is  neces- 
sary for  inducing  the  highest  degree  of  managerial  elliciency,  but  is 
considered  essential  by  investors  as  a  "'margin  of  .safety"  on  ixjnds 
to  hold  up  their  value  and  thus  prevent  increase  in  effective  in- 
terest rate.  A  reasonable  profit  is  a  proper  assunij^tion.  It  .seems  to 
be  a  fact  that  owners  of  a  company  are  more  willing  to  reinvest 
earnings  in  the  company's  capital  than  to  borrow,  although  strictly 
the  cost  of  such  capital  is  the  same  in  either  case.  The  two-stage 
plant  would  begin  to  sell  power  much  sooner  than  the  single-stage 
plant,  and  such  profit  as  was  derived  from  these  sales  would  repre- 
sent an  accumulation  of  capital  not  available  to  the  single-stage  plant. 
If  selling  prices  were  so  adjusted  as  to  yield  a  satisfactory  profit 
after  the  plant  was  completed,  then  the  margin  Avould  be  .still  greater 
during  the  first  few  years  in  the  case  of  the  tW'O-stage  project  because 
of  the  lower  capital  cost  and  consequent  smaller  fi.xed  charges  per 
horsepower  on  the  upper-stage  plant.  In  addition  to  swelling  profits 
and  lessening  the  cost  of  financing  a  project,  an  increase  in  the  sell- 
ing price  of  power  has  an  influence  on  construction  cost  by  modify- 
ing the  economic  sizes  of  conduits  and  other  plant  items.  I'hus, 
while  an  increase  in  selling  price  per  horsepower  year  adtjs  to  the 
annual  income,  it  at  the  same  time  adds  to  the  value  of  i)ower  lost 
in  conduits,  etc.  An  increase  in  size  of  conduits  will  (liminish  the 
power  loss  at  the  expense  of  the  fixed  annual  charges.  The  extent  of 
the  increase  in  size  economically  justifiable  under  the  new  conditions 
is  determined  by  the  principle  that  the  sum  of  annual  fixed  charges 
plus  annual  value  of  power  lost  shall  be  a  minimum.  Were  com- 
petition likely  to  force  selling  prices  down  to  cost,  the  economic 
sizes  would  necessarily  be  based  on  a  minimum  cost  of  proilucing 
power  consistent  with  the  scoi)e  of  the  proposition  adopteil. 

Table  No.  4S.— Estimated  annual  charges  for  power  development  errluxirc  of 
development  expense  and  original  overhead  expense  on  new  porti"-'-  -<  '■'"»!/. 

[Based  on  use  of  first  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second.] 


No. 

Proposition. 

90  per 
cent  of 
maxi- 
mum con- 
tinuous 
output, 
in  horse- 
power. 

Annual 
charge, 
present 
plant  of 
Niagara 

Falls 
Power  Co. 

Annual 
charge, 
Pette- 
bonc  and 
I.ockport 
interests. 

Ordi- 
nary 
fixed 
charges 

per 
horse- 
power 
per 
year. 

FiN.d 
J.P 

plaiu 
per 
horse- 
power 
per 
year. 

i-r 
horsi 
jwwir 

per 
year. 

'•  nf 

■  r 

p.r 
year. 

Cost 
cor- 
rected 

to 
ual- 

■li-S- 

i.liti- 
tion 
condi- 
tions. 

\ 

532,000 
520,000 
526,000 
522,000 
516,000 

$2,000,000 
2,000,000 
2, 000, 000 
2,000,000 
2,000,000 

$147,000 
117,000 
1-17,000 
147,000 
147,000 

$8.20 
9.60 
9.90 
11.70 
10.70 

$4.00 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 

SI.  80 
1.70 
1.70 
3.20 
2.20 

$14.00 
li.40 
1.5.70 
18.00 
17.00 

SM.90 
16.30 
IS.  70 
18.00 
17.00 

2 

3 

4 
5 

Simple  two  stage 

Compound  two  stage 

348      DIVEESIOX  QF   WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

An  impoi'tant  factor  in  the  determination  of  the  most  suitable 
power-development  project  for  Niagara  Falls  is  the  matter  of  rate 
of  absorption  of  the  jxjwer  produced.  The  estimates  heretofore 
given  were  all  made  while  the  war  was  in  progress,  and  it  api)eared 
almost  certain  that  any  power  developed  at  Niagara  Falls  would  be 
absorbed  as  rapidly  as  it  could  be  produced.  There  Avas  one  request 
for  700.000  horsepower  in  a  single  block.  Accordingly  the  rate  of 
construction  assumed  was  what  might  be  termed  rush-work  rate, 
and  the  power  was  supposed  to  be  absorbed  as  fast  as  available.  If 
the  power  was  absorbed  less  rapidly,  however,  construction  interest 
would  increase,  and  the  increase  would  be  greater  in  the  single- 
stage  than  in  the  two-stage  plan,  largely  because,  in  the  latter  case^ 
development  of  the  second  stage  could  be  delayed  a  longer  time.  A 
larger  proportionate  number  of  horsepower  hours  would  be  sold 
during  the  first  few  years  from  the  two-stage  than  from  the  single- 
stage  plant,  the  ratio  increasing  as  the  rate  of  absorption  decreased. 

Table  No.  44  has  been  prepared  to  show  the  different  rates  of  con- 
struction interest  for  the  various  propositions  based  on  two  widely 
different  rates  of  absorption  of  power.  The  high  rate  of  absorption 
is  that  assumed  in  the  original  computation  in  each  case.  For  the 
power-canal  proposition,  for  example,  it  was  243,000  horsepoAver  at 
the  end  of  two  and  one-half  years  and  139,000  horsepower  each  year 
thereafter  until  completion.  The  low  rate  of  absorption  of  power 
assumed  was  15,000  horsepower  first  absorbed  at  the  same  time  as 
the  first  power  in  the  other  case,  and  a  uniform  rate  of  60,000  horse- 
power per  annum  thereafter  until  completion  of  the  plant.  Rates 
of  construction  interest  are  on  the  entire  construction  cost,  le.ss 
interest,  as  given  in  the  estimate  summaries. 


Tabi.k  No.  44 


-Rates  of  con  at  met  ion  interest,  f<lioirin(j  larintion  iritli  <h<in(ic  in 
rate  of  nhsorption  of  poirer. 


No. 


Proposition. 


Rate  of  construction 
interest. 


Total  cost,  I 
less  construe- 1 
tion  interest. 


At  origi-      At  power 
nally  as-     absorption 

sumedrate  rate  of  00,000 
of  power    horsepower 

absorption,    per  year. 


Power  canal: 

First  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second. . . 

Second  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second . 
Simple  two-stage: 

Upper  stage  only 

Lower  stage  only 

Compound  two-stage: 

Upi)er  stage  only 

Lower  stage  only 


»40, 351,000 
40,351,000 

29,4r>5,000 
27,409,000 

20,174,000 
31,46<'),000 


Per  cent. 


1» 
19 


AMiat  a  hydroelectric  generating  station  has  to  sell  is  electric 
energy,  and  this  is  a  capacity  to  do  work.  Rate  of  Avork  is  expressed 
customarily  in  horsepoAver  or  in  kilowatts,  and  electric  energy  in 
kilowatt  hours,  horsepoAver  hours,  or  horsepoAver  j^ears.  The  revenue 
dej>ends,  of  course,  somewhat  on  the  form  of  selling  contracts,  but 
in  general  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  ultimate  amount  of  rcAenue 
depends  \cry   largely   on   the   number  of  kilowatt  liours   produced. 


DIVERSION    01-'   WATKi;    FUUAI   .illCAT   l.AKl.S   A-\I>    XIACAKA    lllVKK.      oil) 

The  two-stage  proposition  has  an  a.lvaiita^'e,  .liirin<r  (he  lirst  few- 
years  after  construction  is  connnenccd.  over  tlie  sin«,'lc-staj;e  proposi- 
tion, because  i)ower  is  produced  so  nnicli  sooner.  .\s  time  j^oes  on. 
however,  the  total  production  by  the  single  stage  overtakes  and  sur- 
passes tiiat  by  the  two  stage.  The  first  20,000  cubic  feet  per  serond 
developnient  has  a  considerable  advantage  over  the  second  in  that 
power  will  continue  to  be  produced  by  the  i^resent  j>lants  until  the 
time  the  water  is  needed  for  the  new  stations.  This  early  advantiige 
of  the  tAvo-stage  proposition  is  larger,  and  continnes  longer,  when 
the  rate  of  construction  and  rate  of  power  absorption  are  low.  Thuw 
at  the  originally  assumed  rate  of  power  absoi-ption  the  total  j)ower 
production  by  the  power  canal  proposition  overtakes  that  by  the 
simple  two-stage  proposition  in  3^  years  after  commencement  of 
construction,  and  thereafter  is  greater,  its  advantages  continuing  to 
increase  slightl3^ 

At  the  60,000  horsepower  rate  of  absorption  the  point  of  equality 
is  reached  in  42J  years.  It  is  perhaps  somewhat  more  correct  to 
compare  the  propositions  on  the  basis  of  total  amount  of  energy 
produced  per  dollar  of  construction  cost.  On  this  basis  the  jxywei- 
canal  proposition  overtakes  the  simple  two-stage  proposition  in  3^ 
years  at  the  original  rate  of  power  consumption,  and  in  7^ 
years  at  the  60,000  horsepower  per  annum  rate  of  al>sorption. 
In  point  of  power  production  per  dollar  of  construction  cost  the 
power  canal  proposition  overtakes  the  compound  two-stage  prop- 
position  at  the  high  rate  of  absorption  of  power  in  2f  years,  and 
at  the  low  rate  of  absorption  in  9^  years.  The  whole  compari- 
son is  very  unstable,  depending  upon  the  estimates  of  cost  of  con- 
struction and  time  of  construction,  a  very  important  factor  being 
the  estimate  of  length  of  time  taken  to  produce  first  power  in  each 
case.  The  computations  which  Avere  made  and  the  curves  which 
were  plotted  while  studying  this  matter  indicate  definitely  that  on 
the  assumptions  of  the  estimates  the  power  canal  proposition  is  con- 
siderably superior  to  the  simple  two-stage  proposition  as  regard.^ 
total  output  per  dollar  invested,  for  any  reasonable  assumption  of 
rate  of  power  absorption,  readily  surpassing  the  latter  in  12  years 
or  less,  depending  upon  the  rate  of  absorption.  The  pressure  tunnel 
is  about  midway  between  the  two  in  this  respect.  Considering  the 
compound  two-stage  proposition  it  appears  that  the  pressure  tunnel 
project  is  a  little  better,  and  the  power  canal  project  considerably 
better  at  a  high  rate  of  power  absorption,  but  at  a  very  low  ratu  of 
absorption  the  compound  two-stage  proposition  considerably  sur- 
passes the  pressure  tunnel  project,  and  falls  very  little  behind  the 
power  canal  project. 

There  is  one  more  consideration  worthy  of  note,  in  case  con- 
struction operations  on  a  proposed  power  develo]3inent  were  for  any 
reason  suspended  before  completion,  the  unproductive  expenditure 
then  existing  would  be  smaller  for  the  two-stage  than  for  the  smgle- 
stage  propositions,  unless  they  were  very  nearly  completed. 

There  is  a  question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  power-development 
propositions  should  be  required  to  assmne  any  part  of  the  expense 
of  constructing  remedial  works  just  above  Horseshoe  Falls  or  else- 
where in  Niagara  River. 


350      DR^ERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES   AXD  NIAGARA  RIVER, 

To  sum  up  the  comparison  of  the  single-stage  and  two-stage 
propositions,  there  is  shown  in  favor  of  the  single-stage  proposition: 

1.  Lower  construction  cost  per  horsepower. 

2.  Lower  unit  cost  of  power  production. 

3.  (iroater  total  financial  return  per  dollar  invested,  except  in  case 
absorption  of  the  power  developed  takes  place  at  a  very  slow  rate. 

There  is  shown  in  favor  of  the  two-stage  proposition: 

1.  Increasing  advantage  as  rate  of  power  absorption  decreases. 

2.  Superiority  of  compound  two-stage  proposition  at  very  low 
power-absorption  rate. 

3.  Easier  financing. 

4.  P'irst  power  produced  sooner. 

5.  Better  credit  maintained. 

6.  Total  return  from  sale  of  power  greater  for  first  few  years. 

7.  In  case  of  suspension  of  construction  activities  before  comple- 
tion there  would  be — 

(a)  Smaller  capital  cost  per  horsepower  produced. 

(b)  Less  unproductive  expenditure  carried. 

A  study  of  the  foregoing  presentation  of  estimates,  facts,  and 
ideas  and  the  comparison  and  discussion  of  them  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  for  utilizing  the  present  authorized  diversion  of  20.000 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  from  Niagara  River  above  the  falls 
there  is,  on  the  whole  very  little  to  choose  between  the  compound 
two-stage  proposition  and  the  power-canal  proposition. 

The  study  further  shows  that  for  a  second  development,  designed 
to  utilize  an  additional  and  similar  diversion  of  20,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  a  power-canal  project  similar  to  that  presented  is  much 
cheaper  than  any  other  scheme. 

The  power  canal  proposed  would  not  be  navigable,  and  it  could 
not  properly  be  made  a  part  of  a  navigable  waterway.  No  combi- 
nation of  power  development  with  navigable  canal  from  upper  to 
lower  river  is  justifiable  on  the  basis  of  power  production.  The 
La  Salle  to  Lewiston  route  is  the  best  for  a  ship  canal.  It  is  cheaper 
to  construct  this  canal  of  200-foot  width  and  30-foot  depth  for  navi- 
gation use  only,  and  also  the  power-canal  proposition,  than  to  con- 
struct the  combined  power  and  ship-canal  proposition.  The  com- 
bined proposition  would  no  doubt  have  more  ice  difficulties  than  the 
power-canal  proposition. 

In  Section  E  of  the  report  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  40.000  cubic 
feet  per  second  may  safely  be  diverted  around  the  Whirlpool  and 
Lower  Rapids,  this  being  the  total  for  both  sides.  The  wisdom  of 
diverting  any  more  is  doubted,  and  it  is  felt  that  this  amount  should 
be  diverted  first  and  observation  of  the  resultant  effects  noted  before 
further  diversions  are  permitted.  It  was  also  pointed  out  that  at 
least  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  might  be  diverted  around  the  Falls 
from  the  Chippawa-Crrass  Island  Pool  to  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  Pool, 
the  latter  diversion  being  permissible  only  on  condition  that  adequate 
remedial  works  be  constructed  just  a])ove  Horseslioe  Falls. 

The  studies  given  in  the  preceding  pages  indicate  that  if  a  new 
treaty  should  authorize  such  a  diversion,  equally  divided  between  the 
two  countries,  the  most  economical  method  of  utilizing  the  jxjrtions 
on  the  American  side  would  be  to  complete  the  upper  stage  of  the 
compound  two-stage  proposition  to  care  for  a  diversion  of  20,000 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIACAllA  RIVEH.     .'if)! 

cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Chippawa-CTrass  Tslainl  Pool  to  thi* 
Maid  of  the  IMist  Pool,  and  then,  whvu  tiic  niarkot  for  power  wun 
right,  construct  a  sinn;le-stage  devel()j)nient  to  ""iro.  for  a  diversion 
of  20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Chi])])awa-(trass  Island 
Pool  to  the  lower  gorge  at  Riverdale  Cemetery.  Tiie  construction 
of  the  lower-stage  portion  of  the  compound  two-stage  propo>ition 
and  the  building  of  another  single-stage  plant  to  care  for  a  thini 
20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  remain  as  interesting  possibilities  f(tr 
the  future,  which  might  ultimately  be  built  in  case  observation  an'l 
study  of  the  effects  of  increased  diversion  over  a  period  of  years 
should  show  these  projects  to  be  desirable. 

W.  S.  Richmond. 


Appendix  E. 
EFFECTS  OF  DIVERSIONS  UPON  LAKE  LEVELS. 


[Section  G  of  Mr.  Richnioiul'.s  report.] 
1.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES, 

The  Great  Lakes  are  essentially  a  series  of  natural  reservoirs  in 
which  are  stored  larjre  volumes  of  water  collected  from  their  respec- 
tive drainage  l^asins.  The  connecting  and  outflow  rivers  are  the 
overflows  ft)r  these  reservoirs.  The  amounts  of  water  in  storage  are 
dependent  upon  the  differences  between  supply  and  overflow  and 
are  measured  by  the  heights  of  water  in  the  reservoirs.  Variations 
in  lake  levels  thus  register  the  variable  differences  betAveen  net  sup- 
ply and  discharge.  When  the  rate  of  supply  to  a  lake  is  greater  than 
the  discharge,  the  amount  of  storage  increases  and  the  stage  of  the 
lake  rises,  and  when  less  the  storage  decreases  and  the  lake  falls. 
Except  when  obstructed  by  ice,  the  outfloAv  or  discharge  through  the 
natural  outlet  increases  or  decreases  with  the  head  or  stage  of  water 
in  the  lake  and  with  the  slope  of  the  outflowii^c  stream.  LTnder 
these  natural  laws  there  is  a  constant  tendency  toward  equalization 
of  supply  and  discharge.  For  instance,  if  the  supply,  which  is 
usually  variable  from  month  to  month  and  from  year  to  year,  should 
become  constant,  the  stage  of  water  in  the  lake  would  soon  reach  and 
remain  at  a  height  whereby  the  discharge  would  exactly  equal  the 
suppl3^  If  the  supply  should  be  increased  or  decreased  by  a  constant 
amount,  the  level  of  the  lake  would  gradually  change  until  a  new 
level  was  reached  where  the  supply  and  discharge  would  again  be 
equal.  There  is  the  same  natural  tendency  toward  equalization  when 
through  natural  or  artificial  agencies  the  capacity  of  the  outlet  or 
outlets  is  changed.  Assuming  that  the  stage  of  a  lake  is  at  a  height 
where  the  supply  and  discharge  are  equal,  if  the  outlet  is  enlarged 
or  an  additional  outlet  is  created,  the  discharge  must  necessarily  be 
incn^ased  for  a  time,  and  as  the  supply  is  unaffected,  the  storage  is 
diminished  and  the  stage  of  water  falls.  AVith  the  falling  stage  the 
discha»"re  dc-reases  until  the  rates  of  supply  and  discharge  become 
efjuai.  With  a  variable  supply  the  effect  is  fundamentally  the  same, 
although  it  may  be  miisked  by  the  changes  in  level  caused  by  the 
change  in  supply.  For  instance,  if  when  the  outlet  is  enlarged,  the 
siipjily  happens  to  increase  by  a  greater  amount  or  faster  than  the 
simultaneous  increase  in  capacity  of  discharge,  the  result  is  an  in- 
creasing stage.  However,  the  increase  in  stage  in  such  case  is  less 
than  it  would  have  been  without  the  change  in  outflow  conditions 
and  the  lowering  effect  is  real  although  not  apparent. 

Such  is  the  effect  of  uncompensated  diversions  from  the  Great 
Lakes.     The  water  supply  to  each  lake  de^jends  on  the  inflow  of 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   IClAdAKA   KIVJ.U.     353 

streams,  seepage  from  adjacent  groun.l,  laiiifnll  <m  tlie  lake  stirfa«-e, 
iind  evaporation  from  the  lalcc  surfaro.  'J'lie  .supply  of  (he  inll.)\vin<: 
streams  depends  primarily  on  rainfall  on  and  evaporation  fnmi  their 
dramage  basins.  In  each  drainage  basin  the  run-olF  and  evaporation 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  topography,  character  of  the  soil,  extent 
and  character  of  the  vegetation,  and  the  prevailing  winds  and  tem- 
peratures. If  the  net  supply  were  constant,  or  if  it  were  precisely 
measurable,  the  levels  of  the  lakes  could  be  made  to  show  i)y  dirc-t 
observation  the  effects  of  diversions.  (Jauge  records  for  this  purpose 
would  necessarily  extend  over  considerable  periods  of  time  to  elemi- 
nate  effects  of  wind  and  atmosi)heric  pressure.  Wind  effects  reach  u 
maximum  on  Lake  Erie,  where,  during  storms,  the  ea.stern  end  is 
sometimes  15  feet  higher  than  the  western  end.  Hecause  the  su|)|>lv 
is  variable  and  only  roughly  determinable,  its  effects  on  water  levels 
can  not  be  separated  from  that  of  diversions,  and  hence  the  latter 
can  be  measured  or  demonstrated  only  in  an  indirect  way.  However, 
there  is  a  direct  relationship  between  the  water  levels  anil  the  natural 
capacity  for  discharge,  and,  through  the  determination  of  this  rela- 
tionship, it  is  possible  to  ascertain  with  certainty  the  etfects  on  water 
levels  of  changes  in  outflow  conditions  or  of  artificial  diversions. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  a  simple  hypothetical  case.  Consider  a 
small  pond  or  artificial  reservoir  whose  sole  supply  of  water  is  from 
a  single  brook  and  whose  sole  outlet  is  over  a  fixed  weir  or  dam  at 
the  opposite  end. 

Assuming  that  the  inflow  is  constant  and  that  there  are  no  losses 
in  the  pond,  it  is  obvious  that  the  outflow  over  the  dam  will  be  con- 
stant and  will  equal  the  supply  from  the  brook;  also  the  depth  of 
water  over  the  crest  of  the  dam,  which  is  measured  by  the  height  of 
water  in  the  pond,  will  remain  constant.  This  general  condition 
holds  true  for  any  constant  supply  regardless  of  its  amount,  but 
manifestly  the  depth  of  water  over  the  dam  will  not  be  the  sjinie  for 
different  rates  of  supply.  If  by  any  means  the  sui)])ly  fiom  the 
brook  or  its  equivalent,  the  discharge  over  the  dam,  is  measured,  the 
depth  or  level  of  water  at  the  time  of  measurement  will  mark  the 
stage  which  corresponds  with  the  measured  rate  of  supjily  or  dis- 
charge. If  measurements  are  repeated  for  other  rates  of  supply  or 
discharge,  and  the  corresponding  heights  of  water  observed,  ad<li- 
tional  equivalents  of  stage  and  discharge  are  determined,  and  when 
the  number  of  such  measurements  is  sufficient  to  pint  a  grajihical 
curve  or  derive  an  empirical  equation  of  relationship  between  stage 
and  discharge,  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  dam  is  known  for 
any  stage  within  the  limits  of  observation. 

in  this  suppositious  case,  consider  that  the  curve  or  e(|uation  of 
relationship  between  stage  and  dischaige  has  been  established  and 
that  for  discharges  of  1,000  and  GOO  cubic  feet  per  second  the  stages 
of  water  are  4  feet  and  3  feet,  respectively,  above  the  cre.<?t  of  the 
dam.  Suppose  a  second  outlet  is  created  and  that  when  uniform 
flow  has  been  established  it  is  determined  that  the  flow  through  tiie 
second  outlet  is  400  cubic  feet  por  second  an-l  the  sImlm'  of  water  is  :\ 
feet.  Manifestly  the  flow  over  the  dam  at  the  original  outlet  is  000 
cubic  feet  per  second  and  the  supply,  which  is  equal  to  the  total  dis- 
charge, is  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second.    AVithout  the  second  outlet  the 

27886—21 23 


354      DIVEKSIOX   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  IXIAGARA  RH'ER. 

Stage  would  be  4  feet,  with  it  the  stage  is  3  feet,  hence  the  lowering 
caused  by  the  second  outlet  is  1  foot. 

Conditions  on  the  Great  Lakes  are  essentiall}^  the  same  as  those 
considered  above.  The  Lakes  themselves  correspond  to  the  pond,  the 
outflow  rivers  correspond  to  the  outlet  at  the  dam,  and  diversions 
from  the  Lakes  are  the  same  in  effect  as  the  discharge  through  a  new 
outlet.  Long  series  of  discharge  measurements  in  the  outflow  rivers 
have  been  made  by  the  United  States  Lake  Survey  Office  and  the 
results  have  furnished  discharge  equations  based  on  stages  in  the 
Lakes.  B}^  means  of  these  discharge  equations  the  effect  upon  the 
levels  of  the  Lakes  for  any  change  in  outflow  conditions  maj'  be 
determined. 

Diversions  from  the  Great  Lakes  may  be  divided  into  three  classes 
in  respect  to  their  effect  upon  water  levels,  namely,  {a)  those  which 
are  returned  to  the  same  body  or  level  of  water  from  which  they  are 
diverted,  and  which  consequently  have  no  permanent  effect  upon  the 
water  levels,  {l>)  those  which  are  returned  to  a  lower  level  of  water 
in  the  Great  Lakes  basin  and  which,  unless  compensated  for,  lower 
the  levels  of  those  bodies  of  water  at  and  somewhat  upstream  from 
the  point  of  withdrawal  and  all  the  others  downstream  from  them  to 
but  not  bej'ond  the  body  of  water  to  which  they  are  returned,  and 
{c)  those  which  are  permanently  removed  from  the  basin  and  which 
lower  water  levels  at  and,  in  some  cases,  upstream  from  the  point  of 
withdrawal  and  all  those  downstream  through  the  lower  lakes  and 
rivers  to  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  upper  limits  of  effects  produced 
by  the  latter  two  classes  of  diversions  are  the  uppermost  levels  of 
water  which  are  dependent  upon  or  are  effected  b}^  the  levels  at  the 
points  of  withdrawal. 

Examples  of  the  three  classes  of  diversions  and  the  limits  of  their 
effects  on  water  levels  are  as  follows : 

(«)  "Water  pumped  from  Lake  Michigan  at  Milwaukee  for  the 
flushing  of  Milwaukee  River,  or  water  pumped  for  sanitary  purposes 
at  Duluth,  Toledo,  Cleveland,  and  other  cities  similarly  situated,  is 
returned  directly  to  the  Lakes,  and  obviously  does  not  change  the  net 
supply  to  these  Lakes  or  the  volume  of  outflow  through  their  natural 
outlets,  and  hence  does  not  affect  their  levels. 

{h)  Diversions  from  Lake  Erie,  through  the  Welland  Canal  lower 
the  waters  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  from  the  head  of  Lake  Michigan  and 
the  foot  of  St.  Marj's  Falls  down  to  the  lower  end  of  Niagara  River. 
As  the  water  is  returned  to  Lake  Ontario  they  do  not  affect  the  levels 
of  that  lake  nor  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 

(e)  The  diversion  from  Lake  Michigan  through  the  Chicago  Drain- 
age Canal  lowers  all  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  Great  Lakes  s^^stem  down 
to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  with  the  exception  of  Lake  Superior  and 
St.  Marys  River  above  the  foot  of  St.  Marj^s  Falls. 

2.    OUTLETS  OF  THE  LAKES  AND  FORMULAS  OF  DISCHARGE. 

St.  Marys  River. — ^The  natural  outflow  from  Lake  Superior  is 
through  the  St.  Marys  River,  and  the  level  of  the  lake  was  originally 
determined  by  the  natural  discharging  capacity  of  St.  Marys  Falls. 
These  rapids,  with  a  fall  of  about  19  feet  in  less  than  a  mile,  form 
l>ractically  a  free  overfall  weir ;  in  other  words,  changes  in  the  level  of 
the  water  at  their  foot  have  no  effect  upon  their  discharging  capacity. 


DIVEESION    OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   LAKES   ANI»    NIACAKA    RIVKI;.      355 

The  natural  flo^v  has  been  ehanfred  by  tlie  const iMictinn  <tf  the  pirrs  of 
the  international  railroad  bi'itl<r('.  by  lillin;^  in  alonji  »'itlicr  shore  by 
the  construction  of  canals  and  locks  on  Itolli  sides  of  the  river,  by  tl»e 
diversion  of  Avater  for  power  purposes,  and  by  the  constructi(»n  of 
regulating  works  in  the  river  above  the  international  bridge. 

Measurements  of  the  flow  of  the  river  have  been  made  l»v  tlje 
Lake  Sur\^ey  Office  in  1896,  1899,  1900,  1901.  19(ir>.  and  1908,' each 
series  of  measurements  determining  the  relation  between  stage  and 
flow  for  the  particular  time  in  wliich  they  were  made.  Since  the 
time  of  the  last  measurements  the  restrictions  have  been  increased, 
until  at  the  present  time  there  is  only  about  25  per  cent  of  the  orig- 
inal area  and  33  per  cent  of  the  original  discharging  cai)acity  open 
to  free  flow.  Twenty-two  per  cent  of  the  area  and  11  per  cent  of 
the  discharge  is  obstructed  by  the  head  race  of  the  United  States 
Power  Station,  formerly  owned  and  operated  l)y  the  ("handler- 
Dunbar  Water  Power  Co.,  and  by  the  permanent  .structures  of  the 
controlling  works,  while  53  per  cent  of  the  area  and  50  per  cent  of 
the  original  capacity  of  discharge  are  under  direct  control  by  means 
of  the  movable  gates  of  the  regulating  works.  Present  plans  con- 
template further^extension  of  controlling  works  to  the  full  wi<Uii  of 
the  open  river,  and  a  portion  of  these  works  are  under  construction. 
It  is  probable  that  the  outflow  from  Lake  Superior  will  be  brought 
under  full  control  at  some  not  far  distant  date. 

iSt.    Clair    River. — The    natural    outlet    from    Lakes    Michigan- 
Huron  is  through  the  St.  Clair  River,  which  is  relatively  broad  and 
deep  with  but  little  fall.    The  flow  through  the  river  depends,  there- 
fore, not  onlv  upon  the  elevation  of  Lake  Huron,  but  also  upon  the 
elevation  of  Lake  St.  Clair,  which  in  turn  depends  upon  the  eleva- 
tion of  Lake  Erie.    Measurements  of  the  flow  of  the  St.  Clair  Kiver 
have  been  made  bv  the  United   States  Lake   Survey   during  two 
periods,  each  covering  several  seasons,  the  first  1S99-190-J.  the  sec- 
ond 1908-1910.    As  there  was  no  material  change  in  the  regimen  of 
the  river  between  these  periods,  all  of  the  measurements  were  available 
for  the  determination  of  a  law  of  discharge.    As  the  stage  of  Lake  ^t. 
Clair  usually  follows  that  of  Lake  Huron  rather  closely,  the  'btj;'"^"- 
tiation  of  headwater  and  back-water  effects  is  somewhat  diflirult. 
Using  a  modified  formula  for  a  submerged  weir  an  equation  has  been 
derived  by  the  Lake  Survey  Office  which  fits  the  observations  excel- 
entlv  ancT  appears  to  be  satisfactory.    This  equation,  which  applies  to 
pTeslrcondilions  and  is  good  at  least  as  far  back  as  190:^  and  possibly 
1895,  is  as  follows :  .  o-roz/w  r.ATnno. 

Discharge  cubic  feet  per  second  St.  \'^^]\^]\^^=^^-'^  ((H-..G..51)-f 
1.25(h-567.51))(H-h)i 


m  w 
and 


hich  H  is  the  elevation  above  sea  level  on  the  l' ';■•'  •.''j"*;"'  f.^'J^ 
h  is  the  elevation  above  sea  level  on  the  St.  (  lau   I  la(s  (  anal 

JllWeleva«™ofI.UeHu^^^^^^^^^ 

't:  Jirde^Si^nfatS^rrK  by  me'ans  of  a  Known  b,w  of  relat.on- 
ship.    The  modified  formula  is :  .  qoon^/TT'  "^fi7^.n^4- 

Dis'charge  cubic  feet  per  =«™"d  S^t^f^^rm^'hTr         '^     -..6,...0)  + 

1  135(h-567.50)  )(H -h)» 
in  .hich  H'  is  the  elevation  abov.  sea  level  on  Harbor  Beach  gauge 
and  h  is  the  elevation  at  St.  Clair  t  lats. 


350      DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM   GRKAT   LAKES   AND   NIAGARA   RR'ER. 

Ihtt'oit  R'nu  r. — The  Detroit  Rirer  may  be  considered  a  continuation 
of  the  St.  Chiir  Kiver.  and  hence  a  section  of  the  dischar<j:e  channel 
from  Lake  Huron.  Lake  St.  (Uair  beinfr  merely  an  expansion  of  this 
channel  with  comparatively  small  stora<re  capacity.  Some  measure- 
ments of  tiie  How  in  the  Detroit  River  were  made  by  the  Lake  Survey 
in  1J)()1-19():2.  but  they  are  too  few  in  number  and  do  not  cover  a  suffi- 
cient ranire  in  statres  to  establish  a  law  of  flow. 

As  tlie  local  supply  to  Lake  St.  Clair  is  small  and  fairly  uniform 
tlurintj  the  summer  montlis.  it  is  jiossible  to  determine  an  aj^proximate 
(H>fhar*re  formula  for  the  Detroit  River  from  the  equation  for  the  St. 
Clair  River.  I*  rom  the  monthly  mean  water  levels  at  Harbor  Beach 
and  St.  Clair  Flats.  June  to  November,  inclusive,  for  the  years  1912- 
15)18.  inclusive,  during  which  period  there  is  no  evidence  of  chancre  in 
the  reiremen  of  either  river,  the  discharge  of  the  St.  Clair  River  for 
each  month  has  been  computed:  and  Avith  these  values  of  the  discharjore 
and  the  corresjjondiiiir  observed  elevations  at  St.  Clair  Flats  and 
Cleveland,  an  equation  has  been  derived  in  terms  of  these  latter  gauges. 
This  equation  is : 
Dischai'ire  cubic  feet  per  second  Detroit  River=10TC7  ((h-567.25)  + 

0.44(h'-567.25))(h-h')^ 
in  which  h  is  the  elevation  above  sea  level  at  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal 
gauge  and  h'  the  elevation  above  sea  level  on  the  Cleveland  gauge. 

The  values  jriven  by  this  equation  do  not  include  the  local  supply  io 
Lake  St.  Clair  and  St.  Clair  River.  oAving  to  the  manner  of  its  deriva- 
tion. 

C'liancjes  in  regimen  in  the  St.  Clair  and  Detroit  Rivers. — It  ap- 
pears probable  that  there  have  been  some  changes  in  the  regimen  of 
the  St.  Clair  and  the  Detroit  Rivers  since  the  first  gauge  records  on 
these  rivers  were  obtained.  In  the  case  of  the  St.  Clair  River  these 
have  probably  not  been  large,  and  there  have  been  no  changes  of 
moment  due  to  improvements  for  navigation  purposes  since  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  at  St,  Clair  Flats.  Small  changes  in  the 
regimen  apparently  occur  from  year  to  year  due  largely  to  movement 
of  the  material  which  overlies  the  true  bottom.  During  storms  some 
material,  principally  sand  and  gravel,  is  brought  into  the  river  from 
the  shores  of  Lake  Huron,  and  is  carried  from  point  to  point  down 
the  river  by  varying  velocity  and  direction  of  the  current.  Bars  are 
built  up  along  the  shores  in  the  rapids  at  the  head  of  the  river  in  the 
fall,  but  are  of  short  duration.  Dredging  on  Black  River  Shoal  and 
in  the  r'\f'r  al)o\e  it  I'UUeai's  to  have  l)nt  little  eiiVct  on  th'^  depth. 
the  material  exca^-ated  being  re])laced  within  a  short  time.  There  is 
evidence  in  the  measurements  of  the  flow  indicating  that  these  small 
clianges  occur  from  year  to  year,  but  arc  only  temporarj\  The 
measurements  of  flow  made  in  1902  compared  with  those  made  in 
1901  .t^how  a  change  in  discharge  capacity  of  about  3  per  cent,  while 
the  measui-ements  of  1909  and  1910  are  about  midway  between  those 
of  1901  and  1902.  In  1898-99  four  sections  were  established  near 
tlie  liead  of  the  river,  and  were  very  carefully  sounded.  Soundings 
made  since  on  these  sections  indicate  that  there  has  been  no  measure- 
able  change  in  the  rross-section  of  the  river. 

In  the  Detroit  River  there  has  prol^ably  been  less  change  in  dis- 
charging capacity  due  to  natural  causes  than  in  the  St.  Clair  River, 
but  the  changes  due  to  improvements  for  navigation  and  other  pur- 
poses have  undoubtedly  been  larger.    The  construction  in  1872  of  the 


DIVERSION    OF   WATKU    FltO.M    CIM'-AT    I.AKKS   AND    NIACAKA    UlVl.i:.      ;{:,7 

bridge  at  Trenton  west  of  (irosse  Isle  and  the  pier  exteiidin^r  some 
1,800  feet  into  the  main  channel  from  Stoiiv  Uhiinl  iiiiitcnallN  de- 
creased the  cross-section  of  the  river,  and  the  encroachinjr  (UkIv  lino 
along  the  Detroit  river  front  and  some  hirge  (ills  on  the  Canadian 
side  have  further  lessened  the  discharging  cai)acitv.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  Belle  Isle  bridge  in  isM)  »>l)stni(  led  ;m  Mpprecinl.le  i.a't  «.f 
the  cross-section  of  the  channel  west  of  Belle  Isle,  and  must  have 
had  some  effect  on  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  river.  On  the 
other  hand,  dredging  at  Lime  Kiln  Crossing*  and  at  other  points  has 
tended  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  river.  Thus  the  Detroit  Kiver 
has  undergone  a  number  of  minor  changes  in  regimen,  the  effect  of 
which  has  been  compensating  to  a  consideridile  e.\i»  iit 

The  greatest  change  in  regimen  and  the  only  one  (.f  whi-h  the 
effects  were  directly  observed  Avas  that  occurring  in  the  years  1!>0H- 
1911,  wdien  the  cofferdam  around  the  u])per  section  of  the  Living- 
stone Channel  was  in  place.  This  cofferdam,  liy  decreasing  the  cross- 
section  of  the  river,  east  of  (n'osse  Isle,  caused  an  appreciable  back 
w^ater  in  the  upper  Detroit  River  and  Lake  St.  Clair.  Tiie  rise  at 
St.  Clair  Flats  w^as  observed  to  be  0.28  foot.  When  this  cofferdam 
was  cut,  in  1912,  Lake  St.  Clair  dropped  back  to  its  natural  level, 
thus  showing  that  the  remaining  portU)ns  of  the  cofferdam.  t(«/eiher 
Avith  the  iudicious  placing  of  spoil,  had  exactly  balanced  tiie  effe.t  of 
the  new  channel. 

That  there  has  been  any  large  change  in  the  discharging  capacity 
of  the  St.  Clair-Detroit  River  appears  improbable.  The  elevation  of 
the  su^'fji  p  of  Lak"  St.  (laiT-.  hm'r  bet\v;'en  r>!d<es  Ihiron  nnd  Ivrie, 
depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  elevations  of  these  two  larger  lakes. 
Any  change  in  the  regimen  of  either  river  will  cause  a  change  in  the 
relative  elevation  of  tjake  St.  Clair.  This  is  illustrated  nearly  every 
winter  at  times  when  one  or  the  other  of  the  rivers  is  blocked  with 
ice.  The  elevation  of  the  surface  of  Lake  St.  Clair  therefore  be- 
comes an  index  of  any  change  in  the  regimen  of  either  river. 

By  means  of  the  equations  of  discharge  of  the  two  rivers  the  nor- 
mal elevations  of  Lake  St.  Clair  may  be  computed  for  any  particular 
stages  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie.  On  Plate  Xo.  52  is  shown  the 
difference  between  the  observed  and  the  computed  elevations  of  I-ake 
St.  Clair  in  periods  of  three  years,  each  year  consisting  of  the  six 
summer  months.  June  to  November,  inclusive.  This  plate  sliows  a 
rise  in  Lake  St.  Clair  from  1872  to  1881  of  about  0.2  foot  which 
might  be  caused  by  an  increased  flow  in  the  St.  Clair  River  or  a  de- 
creased flow  in  the  Detroit  River  of  about  12,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, or  6  per  cent  in  the  discharge.  From  1883  to  1889  there  appears 
to  be  a  ioweriuo-  of  .duxit  0  2.")  lo'it  i'l  Lake  St.  Chnr  "liirh  ,-(»ire. 
sponds  with  an  opposite  change  of  about  15,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, or  7  i^'n-  cent  in  the  disch;ir.</e.  Fmpi  ls^!>  t<>  l"^'-'"'  ^h"  'c\  ■■!  <<( 
Lake  St.  Clair  shows  a  rise  of  about  0.15  foot  corresix)nding  to  a 
change  of  9,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  4  per  cent  in  the  discharge. 
Since  1895  there  appears  to  have  been  no  change  ex.e^it  those  due  to 
the  construction  of  the  cofferdam  at  the  Livingstone  C  ut  in  1908  and 

its  opening  in  1912.  ■,,..,      i,       i-    i     • 

Whether  or  not  these  are  real  changes  is  doubt inl.  I.iit  litll-  is 
known  of  the  accuracy  of  the  gauge  at  St.  Clair  Flats  in  the  earlier 
years  The  first  levels  were  run  to  this  gauge  in  19():{.  and  the  «-h>v.i- 
tion  of  its  zero  determined  at  that  time  has  been  u-ed   for  all  the 


358      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

earlier  readings.  Precise  levels  run  in  1903  and  again  in  1917  show 
a  settlement  diirino:  this  period  of  about  O.-l  foot.  It  seems  quite 
probable  tlierefore  that  there  was  some  settlement  prior  to  1903.  The 
rise  in  the  observed  elevations  of  Lake  St.  Clair  from  1887  to  1895 
shown  on  the  plate  may  easily  be  due  to  such  settlement.  The 
changes  prior  to  1887  are  not  easily  explained.  From  1872  to  1883 
a  rise  is  shown  equal  in  magnitude  to  that  caused  by  the  cofferdams 
at  the  Livingstone  Cut,  and  extending  over  a  longer  period,  while 
from  1883  to  1889  there  is  a  drop  greater  than  this  rise.  There  is 
no  record  of  artificial  changes  in  either  river  that  will  account  for 
such  changes  in  Lake  St.  Clair  levels  and  it  appears  improbable  that 
natural  causes  could  produce  such  eifects.  The  natural  conclusion  is 
that  the  records  of  Lake  St.  Clair  levels  prior  to  1903  are  of  little 
value  in  determining  changes  in  regimen  in  the  channel  between 
Lakes  Huron  and  Erie. 

The  comparative  elevations  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie  offer  no  bet- 
ter evidence.  While  the  net  local  supply  of  Lake  Erie  is  only  about 
10  per  cent  of  its  total  supply,  the  percentage  variation  in  the  former 
is  much  greater  than  the  percentage  variation  in  the  flow  from  Lake 
Huron,  and  hence  the  changes  in  elevation  of  Lake  Erie  are  not 
closely  dependent  upon  the  fluctuations  of  Lake  Huron.  This  is 
particular!}'  true  on  account  of  the  comparatively  small  storage 
capacity  of  Lake  Erie  where  a  change  of  10  per  cent  in  the  local 
supph'  during  a  year  will  change  its  stage  about  3  inches. 

By  grouping  several  years,  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  this  varia- 
tion in  net  supply,  and  comparing  the  mean  stages  of  Lake  Erie  with 
the  elevations  of  Lake  Huron  for  corresponding  periods,  there  is 
found  to  be  a  somewhat  close  relationship  between  the  two.  Plate 
Xo.  53  shows  the  mean  elevations  of  Lake  Erie  (June  to  Xovember, 
inclusive)  in  chronological  periods  of  four  years  from  1860  to  1918, 
plotted  against  the  elevations  of  Lake  Huron  for  the  same  periods. 
If.  by  such  grouping,  the  variation  in  local  supply  were  eliminated, 
and  the  ice  effects,  which  will  be  discussed  later,  were  to  average  the 
same  for  all  groups,  then  these  points  would  either  fall  in  one  line 
on  the  plot  or  by  deviating  therefrom  would  indicate  positively  and 
accurately  the  effects  of  changes  in  regimen  of  the  channel  between 
the  tAvo  lakes.  Because  (he  variation'^  in  net  local  S)ipply  and  in  ice 
effects  can  not  be  eliminated  in  grouping  the  ol)servations  the  jioints 
scatter  and  the  indications  are  not  conclusive.  It  will  l)e  noted  that 
there  is  a  slight  tendency  for  the  levels  prior  to  1889  and  those  sub- 
sequent to  that  date  to  fall  on  lines  parallel  to  each  other.  Avith  Lake 
Huron  about  three-tenths  foot  lower  during  the  latter  period  for  the 
same  elevation  of  Lake  Erie.  This  is  not  well  established,  however, 
as  the  stages  during  the  two  periods  do  not  overlaji.  and  a  single  line 
tlirf)ugh  all  observations  fits  almost  as  well.  Whether  or  not  there 
has  been  any  marked  change  in  the  level  of  Lake  Huron  due  to 
change  in  regimen  of  its  outflow  channel  is  still  a  mooted  question 
and  i)roba})ly  will  remain  so  unless  the  stages  of  the  lakes  should 
return  to  the  high  levels  of  the  eighties.  It  is  reasonably  certain, 
however,  that  tliere  has  been  no  great  amount  of  change  in  the  dis- 
charging capacity  of  the  St.  Clair  and  Detroit  Rivers. 

Nhirjnra  River. — The  natural  outlet  from  Lake  Erie  is  through 
tho  Niagara  River.  The  outflow  is  controlled  by  the  section  of  river 
about  19  miles  lonjr  with  a  fall  of  some  10  feet  between  Lake  Erie 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIACAHA   lUVEU.     359 

and  the  first  cascade  above  Niagara  Falls.  The  outflow  is  usually 
considered  as  that  over  a  free  overfall  weir,  depend iii<_'  ciilin-lv  upoli 
the  elevation  of  Lake  Erie,  but  this  is  not  strirtlv  true.  A  more 
accurate  conception  is  that  of  flow  over  a  subnier^it'd  weir  with  its 
headwater  in  Lake  Erie  and  its  tail-water  tlie  river  from  the  vicinity 
of  Austin  Street  to  the  first  cascade.  As  the  upper  portion  of  the 
river  lies  through  limestone  rock,  natural  ciiaugi's  in  reginu-n  must 
be  very  slow,  and  are  inappreciable  since  tlie  establishment  of  gauges 
on  the  lakes.  Measurements  of  the  flow  have  been  made  at  three  sec- 
tions in  the  years  1899.  1900,  1907,  190S,  and  1013.  The  acc('j)tod 
equation  for  the  flow  of  the  river  is — 

Discharge  cubic  feet  per  second,  Niagara  Eiver=3904(II-r»r)S.:]7)'^ 

in  which  H  is  the  elevation  above  sea  level  on  the  Buffalo  gauge. 

This  formula  is  not  quite  accurate  during  ra])idly  chaniring  stages, 
as  the  flow  is  affected  by  the  elevation  of  the  Avater  surface  in  the 
river  below  Austin  Street  and  owing  to  the  storage  capacity  in  the 
Niagara  River  above  the  Falls  the  stage  at  Austin  Street  does  not 
respond  instantly  to  changes  in  elevation  of  Lake  Erie  at  Bull'alo. 
For  a  change  in  the  elevation  of  the  water  surface  of  0.10  foot 
at  Austin  Street  with  respect  to  Lake  Erie  stages,  the  discharge  is 
affected  by  approximately  three-fourths  of  1  per  cent. 

St.  Lawrence  River. — The  natural  outflow  from  Lake  Ontario  is 
through  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  first  G8  miles  of  this  river  from 
Lake  Ontario  to  Ogdensburg  is  broad  and  deep,  with  but  little  fall, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  an  arm  of  the  lake.  A  short  distance  below 
Ogdensburg  are  the  Galop  Rapids,  the  first  of  the  series  of  rapids 
by  means  of  which  the  water  falls  240  feet  to  sea  level.  The  (ialop 
Rapids,  with  a  fall  of  some  IG  feet,  form  the  weir  controlling  the 
outflow  from  Lake  Ontario.  This  weir  is  considered  of  the  free  over- 
fall type,  inasmuch  as  changes  in  the  elevation  of  the  water  surface 
below  have  no  appreciable  effect  upon  its  discharging  ca])acity. 

The  discharging  capacity  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  has  changed 
from  time  to  time,  due  to  improvements  for  navigation.  l*revious 
to  1883  the  records  of  gauge  heights  on  the  river  are  not  sufficiently 
complete  to  determine  the  relationship  between  the  sloi)e  and  the 
discharge  with  anv  degree  of  certainty.  In  1881  the  deepening  of 
the  canals  and  the"^  reconstruction  of  the  locks  began  and  for  several 
years  conditions  were  in  a  transitory  state.  By  1888  a  condition  of 
relative  stabilitv  was  reached,  and  conditions  remained  ])ractically 
constant  until  1897.  In  1897  work  was  begun  on  the  North  Cut  at 
the  head  of  the  Galop  Rapids,  where  a  cofferdam  was  built  and  the 
channel  was  excavated  in  the  dry.  Late  in  1899  the  cofferdam  was 
cut,  and  in  May,  1900,  the  North  Cut  was  opened  to  navigation.  In 
September  and  October,  1903,  the  channel  between  Adams  and  Gal«)p 
Islands,  known  as  the  Gut,  was  closed  by  a  dam  which  maternilly 
reduced  the  flow  of  the  river.  Since  1901  there  have  be.>n  no  known 
changes  affecting  the  outflow  from  Lake  Ontario. 

Measurements  of  discharge  have  been  made  by  V)f^  i^'V)^'  ^'Vn'.7 
Office  in  six  separate  seasons,  namely,  1900,  1901.  190S  UMl.  lOl.i, 
and  1914  The  first  two  were  before  the  oonstructK.n  of  the  dur  1  )am 
and  the  last  four  subsequent  thereto.    By  means  of  the  measurements 


800      DIVERSION   OF   WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  aXD  NIAGARA  RR'ER. 

anil  the  records  of  «raiin:es  on  the  river  (lischai-o:e  equations  have  been 
determined  in  the  Lake  Survey  Office  representing  the  rehitionship 
l)etween  the  vohime  of  flow  and  Lake  (3ntario  stages  subsequent  to 
18S7.  This  jK'riod  has  been  divided  into  four  epochs,  the  first,  1888- 
1897,  being  the  condition  foHowing  the  completion  of  iSt.  Lawrence 
(finals  and  prior  to  the  Avoi'k  on  the  North  Cut:  the  second,  1899- 
1900.  being  the  condition  while  the  cofferdam  was  in  ])lace  around 
the  North  Cut:  the  third,  1900-1902,  being  the  condition  just  prior 
to  the  construction  of  the  (lut  Dam ;  and  the  fourth,  1901:  to  date, 
being  the  present  condition.  The  equations  of  discharge  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  for  the  four  epochs  are  as  follows : 

1888-1897,  discharge  cubic  feet  per  second  =  3729  (H-229.53)3/2 
1S98-1899.  discharge  cubic  feet  per  second  =  3650  (H-229.44)^/2 
1900-1902.  discharge  cubic  feet  per  second  =  3728  (H-229.50)3/2 
1904-1918.  discharge  cubic  feet  per  second  =  3428  (H-229.13)V2 
in  which  H  is  the  elevation  above  sea  level  on  the  Oswego  gauge. 

a.    EFFECT  OF  ICE  ()X  RIVER  FLOW   AND  LAKE  LEVELS. 

The  ecfuations  for  determining  the  flow  through  the  various  con- 
necting rivers  of  the  (ireat  Lakes  system  apply  only  during  open- 
season  conditions.  During  the  winter  months,  when  there  is  more  or 
less  ice  in  the  rivers,  the  Aoay  is  retarded,  at  times  as  much  as  50  per 
cent  of  the  normal  flow,  and  during  these  periods  the  equations  do 
not  give  the  discharge.  There  are  methods,  hoAvever.  by  which  an 
approximation  to  the  flow  during  ice  periods  ma}'  be  made. 

'^Y.  Marys  River  ice  e-ffects. — The  retardation  of  flow  in  the  St. 
Marys  River  is  due  to  the  ice  cover  on  the  river  from  Lake  Su])erior 
to  the  head  of  the  rapids,  ice  jams  in  the  rai)ids  occurring  infre- 
quently, if  at  all.  It  can  be  shown  that  during  the  winter  mcmths 
tlie  elevation  of  the  gauge  at  the  head  of  the  rapids  (southwestern 
pier)  averages  about  0.13  foot  lower  than  it  does  in  the  summer  for 
the  same  stage  of  Lake  Superior.  This  corresponds  to  a  retardation 
in  the  flow  of  the  river  of  about  2,800  cubic  feet  per  second  for  these 
three  months.  The  effect  on  the  level  of  Lake  Superior  is  very  small, 
amounting  at  most  to  a  few  hundredths  of  a  foot. 

•<t.  (^ 'lair- Detroit  River  ice  effects. — The  St.  Clair  and  the  Detroit 
Rivers  are  normally  covered  with  ice  during  the  winter  months,  ex- 
cejjt  in  the  vicinity  of  Port  Huron  and  of  Detroit,  where  the  ice  is 
brolccn  up  by  ferry  boats.  In  addition  to  the  normal  ice  cover,  jams 
or  blockades  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  at  times  hold  back  large 
quantities  of  Avater.  Blockades  usually  form  in  the  Detroit  River  in 
late  December  or  early  January,  folloAved  in  Februarv  and  ^farch  by 
ice  jams  in  the  St.  Clair  River.*  These  latter  continue  into  A])ril  and 
occasionally  into  May.  It  has  Iteen  reported  that  in  1819  and  in  1840 
the  St.  Clair  River  was  blocked  Avith  ice  in  June.  After  the  breaking 
of  the  blockade  in  the  St.  Clair  River  each  year  there  is  frequently  a 
blockade  of  short  duration  in  the  Detroit  River. 

If  botli  the  St.  Clair  and  tlie  Detroit  Rivers  Avere  never  blocked 
with  ice  at  the  same  time,  the  actual  flow  through  the  rivers  coidd  be 
computed  by  means  of  the  equation  for  that  river  Avhich  Avas  free  of 
ice.  It  appears  probable.  hoAvever,  that  this  condition  rarely  exists, 
although  it  is  unusual  for  large  l)lockades  to  appear  in  both  rivers  at 
f)nco. 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER  FROM   GREAT  LAKES   AND    NIACJAIJA    RIVEI'..      Si]l 

During  the  winter  of  1!)00-01  niouMirciiiciits  of  the  (low  in  tin-  St. 
Clair  Kiver  were  miide  while  the  rivi-r  ^vils  hiociu'd  with  ici'.  From 
these  observations  combined  with  those  made  under  icc-fn-c  condi- 
tions, the  flow  of  the  river  lias  been  relVrrcd  to  the  sta;rc  at  the  (irand 
Trunk  Eailway  gauge  ((i.  T.  li.)  and  to  the  fall  from  that  gauge  to 
the  gauge  at  the  mouth  of  Black  Kivei-  (M.  l'>.  IJ.).  The  flow  iv  ex- 
pressed by  the  empirical  formula  : 

Discharge  cubic  feet  per  seconds  ((i.  T.  li.   .M.  !'..  il.)    ' 
(2:39ro0+2()3"2U  (Ci.  T.  K.-niO.O)  ). 

This  equation  may  be  used  for  computing  the  How  of  the  liver  dur- 
ing the  winters  fnmi  1900  to  190(),  inclusive,  during  which  the  mouth 
of  Black  Eiver  gauge  was  maintained.  If  there  is  no  ice  in  the  river 
between  the  Grand  Trunk  llailroad  gauge  ami  the  Dry  Dock  gauge, 
the  elevations  at  mouth  of  Black  Kiver  may  l)e  computiMJ  from 
G.  T.  R.  and  Drv  Dock.  The  Dry  Dock  gauge  was  maiutained  until 
the  summer  of  1909,  when  it  was  discontinued. 

For  the  years  1900-1902,  during  which  period  their  can  l»e  no 
question  of  the  accuracy  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Kailroad  and  the  Mtuith 
of  Black  River  gauges,  the  average  retardation  of  flow  for  si.x 
months,  computed  from  these  gauges  Avas  24,r)00  cubic  feet  per  second. 
For  the  same  period  a  comparison  of  the  computed  discharges 
of  the  St.  Clair  and  Detroit  Rivers  shows  a  retardation  of  IT.tiOO 
cubic  feet  per  second  or  28  per  cent  too  small.  This  difference  is 
undoubtedh'  due  to  the  presence  of  ice  in  both  rivers  at  the  same 
time  and  shoAvs  that  a  comparison  of  the  computed  discharges  of  the 
two  rivers  can  not  be  relied  upon  for  the  determination  <d"  the  full 
effect  of  ice. 

In  the  Detroit  River  the  reach  from  AVindmill  I'oint  to  Fort 
Wayne  is  usuallj^  free  from  ice  blockades,  although  there  is  normally 
an  ice  cover  over  portions  of  the  reach.  An  empirical  formula  giv- 
ing the  flow  of  the  Detroit  River  in  terms  of  the  gauges  at  Wind- 
mill Point  and  Fort  Wayne  has  been  derived,  and  may  be  used  to 
approximate  the  winter  flow.    This  equation  is  as  follows: 

Discharge  cubic  feet  per  second=.(W.  P.-Ft.  W.)i 
( 192.900+25,850  (W.  P. -574.0) ) . 

Using  this  equation  for  the  period  1906-1918,  the  mean  six  months' 
retardation  of  flow  is  17,600  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  corresixuid- 
ing  mean  determined  by  a  comparison  of  St.  Clair  and  Detroit  Kiver 
discharges  is  13,900.  In  this  case  the  latter  method  gives  results  21 
per  cent  less  than  the  former. 

The  average  yearly  retardation  due  to  ice  in  cultic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, as  computed  in  various  methods,  is  shown  below  : 

(a)  By    Grand   Trunk   Railroad    and    Mouth    of    Black    River   piiiges. 
1900-1904 :— x7,— ;— tT- 12.*J(K) 

(b)  By   Grand   Trunk  Railroad   and   Mouth   of   Black   River   gauges, 
]^9Q0_!^]^909 "'  *"^ 

(c)  Bv  Windmill  Point  and  Fort  Wayne  gauges,  190G-1918 8.^ 

(d)  From  best  data  for  each  year,  1900-1918 "•  '"" 

,.  10,200 

Mean 

It  may  therefore  be  assumed  that  the  average  yearly  retardation 
due  to  ice  in  the  St.  Clair  and  Detroit  Rivers  amounts  to  about 
10,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  12  months. 


362    diversio:n^  of  water  from  great  lakes  and  Niagara  rr'er. 

The  maximum  retardation  of  flow  in  this  period  occurred  in 
April,  1918,  and  amounted  to  92,400  cubic  feet  per  second  for  the 
month.  For  the  5  daj^s,  April  22-26,  inclusive,  the  retardation  was 
115,300  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  was  54  per  cent  of  the  normal 
flow  for  the  stages  existing  in  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie. 

The  determination  of  ice  effects  as  described  above  shows  that 
the  average  retardation  of  flow  in  the  St.  Clair-Detroit  Rivers  of 
10,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  the  year  is  distributed  as  follows : 

Cubic  feet 
per  s;econd. 

December 6,  200 

January 37,  500 

February 42,  500 

March 28,  000 

April 14,  300 

May 1,  500 

Total 120,  000 

(An  average  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second  per  annum.) 

Ice  in  the  St.  Clair-Detroit  River,  by  reducing  the  outflow  from 
Lake  Huron,  raises  the  level  of  Lake  Huron,  and  lowers  the  level 
of  Lake  Erie.  When  the  ice  goes  out,  Lake  Huron  has  a  supernor- 
mal elevation,  and  Lake  Erie  a  subnormal  elevation.  The  increased 
elevation  of  Lake  Huron  and  the  increased  fall  in  the  river  causes 
an  increased  flow,  tending  to  restore  both  lakes  to  the  normal  ele- 
vation. 

On  account  of  the  great  area  of  Lake  Michigan-Huron  it  takes 
a  long  time  for  the  lake  to  lose  the  excess  elevation  caused  by  the 
ice.  Xinetj'  per  cent  will  be  lost  in  about  four  years.  In  10  months 
about  32  per  cent  is  lost.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  Lake  Huron 
is  always  at  a  higher  stage,  due  to  the  annual  ice  blockades,  than  it 
would  be  if  there  were  never  any  ice  in  the  rivers. 

Lake  Erie,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  relativeh'  small  area,  and 
recovers  its  normal  elevation  much  more  quickly  than  does  Lake 
^lichigan-Huron.  In  10  months  about  93  per  cent  of  the  depres- 
sion caused  by  ice  is  recovered. 

On  plates  Nos.  54  and  56,  curves  A  show  for  Lakes  Michigan- 
Huron,  and  for  Lake  Erie  the  mean  annual  change  in  elevation  com- 
puted from  the  monthly  means  of  50  years.  1860  to  1909.  These 
curves  correspond  to  a  mean  open  season  outflow  from  Lake  Huron 
of  198,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  to  mean  outflow  from  Lake 
Erie  of  198,500  cubic  feet  per  second  plus  11,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, the  mean  annual  local  supply,  or  a  total  of  209,500  cubic  feet 
per  second. 

If,  through  a  sudden  change  of  climate,  the  formation  of  ice  in 
the  connectmg  rivers  should  be  stopped,  the  resulting  annual  curve 
for  the  first  year  is  shown  on  plates  Nos.  54  and  56,  marked  "  C." 
This  curve  is  based  on  the  same  mean  local  supply  to  both  lakes,  but 
(Aving  to  the  excess  elevation  of  Lake  Huron,  the  mean  flow  out  of 
Lake  Huron  and  into  Lake  Erie  is  204,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
wliile  the  mean  outflow  from  Lake  Erie  is  215,000  cul)ic  feet  per  sec- 
ond. If  the  ice-free  condition  continues  indefinitely  with  the  same 
average  net  supply  the  lake  levels  will  reach  a  new  point  of  equilib- 
rium at  which  the  outflow  from  each  lake  will  be  the  same  as  for 
curves  A.     The  annual  fluctuation  for  this  condition  is  shown  by 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA   RIVKIl.     303 

the  curves  marked  "  B."  The  iiieau  yearly  elovuLion  of  Luke  Huron 
will  be  0.48  foot  less  than  it  was  under 'the  ice  condition,  and  the 
stage  for  every  month  will  be  less.  Lake  Erie  will  stand  at  the 
same  mean  elevation,  but  will  be  higher  during  Februarv,  March, 
April,  May,  and  June,  and  lower  during  the  other  months  than  it 
was  with  ice  in  the  St.  Clair-Detroit  Kiver. 

On  plate  No.  55  is  shown  the  fall  between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake 
Erie  as  it  exists  under  the  present  conditions,  and  as  it  would  be 
under  the  conditions  explained  above.  It  will  be  .seen  that  the  fall 
between  the  two  lakes  in  one  year  without  ice  approaches  very 
closely  to  what  it  would  ultimately  become  under  a  perpetual  ice- 
free  condition. 

Niagara  River  ice  effects. — With  the  data  available  at  the  pres- 
-ent  time,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  retardation  of  flow  through 
the  outlet  of  Lake  Erie,  due  to  the  presence  of  ice  in  the  Niagara 
Elver.  A  few  measurements  of  river  flow  made  by  the  Deep  Water- 
ways Commission  in  1898  indicate  that  at  times  the  retardation  may 
reach  10  per  cent,  although  it  is  usually  much  less.  There  is  at  times 
some  ice  lodged  against  the  piers  of  the  International  Bridge  and 
against  the  waterworks  intake.  The  partial  ice  cover  on  the  river 
between  the  bridge  and  Niagara  Falls,  together  Avith  ice  jams  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Falls,  undoubtedly  cause  some  backwater.  If  an 
average  retardation  of  3  per  cent  of  the  normal  flow  for  three 
months  is  assumed,  the  maximum  eifect  on  the  surface  of  Lake  Erie 
would  amount  to  about  0.18  foot  in  depth,  and  the  cifect  on  the 
yearly  mean  stage  would  be  about  0.07  foot. 

&t.  Lawrence  River  ice  effects. — The  effect  of  ice  on  the  flow  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  Kiver  may  be  approximated  verv  closely  from 
records  of  the  numerous  gauges  along  the  river.  This  river  may  be 
considered  as  a  series  of  pools  between  which  the  rapids  form  meas- 
uring weirs.  The  three  upper  rapids  have  been  calibrated.  The 
initial  weir,  which  controls  the  outflow  from  Lake  Ontario,  is 
formed  by  the  Galop  Rapids.  Discharge  over  this  weir  may  be  com- 
puted by  means  of  any  gauge  on  Lake  Ontario,  by  the  gauge  at  On;- 
densburg,  or  by  the  gauge  at  Lock  27  of  the  Canadian  Canals.  As 
there  is  normally  an  ice  cover  from  Lake  Ontario  to  tiie  head  of 
the  rapids,  the  gauge  at  Lock  27  is  the  most  accurate  measure  of  the 
discharge  over  this  weir  during  the  winter  months.  The  flow  over 
the  second  weir,  Rapide  Plat,  is  measured  by  tlie  stage  of  water  at 
Lock  24.  For  the  third  weir,  the  Sault  Rapids,  there  are  four  gauges 
available.  Immediately  at  the  head  of  the  Rapids  is  the  gauge  at 
Lock  21.  At  Lock  22  of  the  Farrans  Point  Canal  tiiere  are  two 
gauges,  and  at  the  foot  of  Rapide  Plat  is  the  gauge  at  Lock  23.  The 
equation  of  discharge  has  been  Avritten  in  terms  of  tlie  latter  gauge, 
as  the  others  appear  to  have  been  affected  at  one  time  or  another 
either  by  settlement  or  by  changes  in  the  local  conditions.  While 
there  undoubtedly  is  more  or  less  ice  between  the  gauge  at  Lock  23 
and  the  head  of  the  Sault  Rapids,  yet  an  attempt  to  use  any  of  the 
other  gauges  would  introduce  errors  greater  than  the   retardation 

If  any  of  the  three  weirs  is  blocked  by  ice.  its  discharging  capacity 
for  a  o-iVen  gauge-heiirht  is  reduced,  and  the  flow  computed  from  the 
obseiwed  elevation  on  die  gauge  will  be  too  large.  It  is  not  likely  that 
all  three  rapids  will  be  blocked  at  the  same  time,  and  the  equation 


36-4      DmiRSION   OF  water   from  great  lakes  and  NIAGARA  RH'ER. 

frivin^  the  least  flow  approximates  the  actual  discharge.  This  mini- 
iimm  flow  subtracted  from  the  flow  as  computed  by  the  Oswego  gauge 
gives  the  amount  of  water  held  back  l)y  the  ice.  This  method  t^nds  to 
give  results  somewhat  too  small,  as  there  probably  is  some  retardation 
at  all  of  the  rapids  simultaneously.  The  mean  retardation  of  flow 
due  to  ice,  computed  in  the  manner  explained  above,  for  29  3'ears, 
1888  to  1916,  is  as  follows: 

Cubic  foet  per 
second. 

December 3,  600 

Jaiuiarv  9, 900 

Fehruarv  19. 100 

March  J_ 13, 800 

April 6, 400 

Total 52,800 

(An  average  of  4,400  cubic  feer  per  second  iier  annum.) 

If  the  outflow  from  Lake  Ontario  is  reduced  while  the  total  sup- 
ply to  the  lake  remains  the  same,  the  elevation  of  the  lake  surface  will 
rise  and  will  continue  to  rise  as  long  as  the  outflow  is  retarded  by 
ice.  When  the  ice  goes  out,  the  lake  has  an  excess  elevation.  As  the 
outflow  is  above  normal  the  lake  begins  to  lose  its  excess  height.  On 
account  of  the  small  area  of  Lake  Ontario  and  the  large  outflow,  the 
time  neces.saiy  to  lose  this  excess  height  is  relatively  short,  and  at  the 
end  of  10  months  about  98  per  cent  will  have  been  lost. 

On  jDlate  Xo.  57  curve  A  shows  the  mean  annual  fluctuation  of  the 
surface  of  Lake  Ontario  for  50  years.  This  curve  corresponds  to  an 
outflow  through  the  St.  Lawrence  River  of  237,600  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

If  ice  should  cease  to  form  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  the  out- 
flow during  the  winter  would  be  increased  and  the  mean  lake  surface 
would  fall,  until  a  stage  was  reached  at  which  the  outflow  during 
the  year  would  again  equal  the  total  supply.  When  this  condition 
is  reached,  the  mean  average  fluctuations  of  the  lake  would  be  as 
shown  by  curve  B  on  jDlate  No.  57.  This  curve  averages  0.21  foot 
below  curve  A,  this  difference  being  the  average  amount  the  surface 
of  the  lake  is  held  up  by  the  presence  of  ice.  The  fluctuation  dur- 
ing the  first  ice-free  year  is  shown  by  curve  C.  It  will  be  noted  that 
this  curve  joins  curve  B  and  coincides  with  it  during  the  last  three 
months  of  the  year.  This  indicates  that  the  storage  of  water  in  Lake 
Ontario  on  account  of  winter  ice  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River  is  prac 
tically  all  discharged  during  one  ice-free  year. 

4.  HYDROLOGICAL  DATA. 

During  recent  years  the  Lake  Survey  Office  has  compiled  the  rec- 
ords of  rainfall  in  the  Great  Lakes  Basin  as  reported  by  the  volun- 
tary cooperative  observers  of  the  weather  bureaus  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  by  means  of  a  system  of  weigliling  the 
ob.servatirtns  has  determined  the  mean  monthly  rainfall  since  1900 
for  the  drainage  area  of  each  of  the  (hvat  Lakes.  There  has  also 
been  determined  the  mean  monthly  rainfall  over  the  lakes  themselves, 
in  contrast  to  that  over  the  land  areas,  by  weighting  observations 
taken  at  points  along  the  shores.  This  appears  to  be  the  best 
method  of  arriving  at  values  for  such  rainfall,  inasmuch  as  there 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER    FROM   (JRKAT    I.AKKS   AM.    XlACAltA    lIlVKIt.      305 

have  been  no  direct  ohservatioiis  ever  the  water  aivas.  ( )j,  ,,11  of 
the  hikes,  with  the  exce])tion  of  Lake  Ontario,  the  differences  between 
rainfall  on  the  lake  surface  as  thus  determined  and  that  on  th*'  land 
areas  are  small  and  appear  to  be  accidental.  In  the  case  <>t'  Lake 
Ontario  there  is  a  marked  difference,  the  annual  precipitation  alon.r 
the  lake  shores  avera«rin<r  nearly  2  inches  less  than  in  the  interior.  "^ 

Compdations  have  also  been  made  of  the  How  of  stream.s  trib- 
wtarj  to  the  Great  Lakes,  as  measured  and  reiM.rtcMl  bv  the  I'nitejl 
States  (Teoh)0:ical  Survey  and  the  Ilvdroelcctric  IN. w.-r  Commission 
of  Ontario.  Canada,  utilizin^r  all  the  available  data,  'ihe  di.stribu- 
tion  of  these  records  over  the  drainage  areas  is  not  what  coidd  be 
desired,  there  being  hirge  areas  in  which  no  measurements  have  been 
made.  This  data  is  also  subject  to  errors  due  to  methoils  of  mea.s- 
nrement,  instability  of  gauges,  etc.,  and  it  is  suspected  from  a  study 
of  the  records  themselves  that  corrections  have  been  made  to  the 
discharge  formulas  from  time  to  time  without  ai.plying  the  cor- 
rections to  values  previously  published,  and  that  b)r  some  jx-rioils 
the  discharge  of  certain  streams  as  published  has  include<l  the  flow 
through  by-passes  or  side  streams.  Avhile  in  other  years  these  have 
heen  omitted. 

From  these  data  of  rainfall  and  run-off  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  show,  as  far  as  possible,  the  source  of  the  water  passing  down 
through  the  Great  Lakes  and  to  show  the  correlation  of  the  dis- 
charge measurements  on  the  various  connecting  rivers  l)y  means  of 
the  meteorological  data.  The  results  of  this  analysis  are  embodied 
in  Table  No.  45,  which  has  been  compiled  for  a  l')-year  period, 
1905-1914,  inclusive.  In  this  taldc  the  quantities  are  not  all  of  ecjual 
accuracy.  The  areas  of  the  lake  surfaces  and  the  drainage  areas 
are  the  results  of  very  careful  measurements  from  the  best  available 
•charts.  They  are  probably  accurate  within  a  small  percentage.  The 
rainfall  in  columns  g  and  h  are  weighted  means  derived  from  ob- 
servations at  several  hundred  stations,  and  probably  are  not  largely 
in  error.  The  rainfall  on  the  lake  surfaces  has  been  taken  the 
same  as  the  averages  for  the  corres]:)onding  land  areas,  with  the 
exception  of  that  on  the  surface  of  Lake  Ontario.  For  this  lake 
the  observations  at  the  shore  stations  indicate  a  mean  annual  rain- 
fall of  31.75  inches,  which  is  nearly  2  inches  less  tlian  the  mean 
of  observations  in  the  adjoining  drainage  areas.  This  value  of  ^1.75 
inches  rainfall  has  been  used  for  the  Avater  area  of  Lake  Ontario. 
The  run-off  from  the  land  areas  has  been  expressed  an<l  computed 
as  percentages  of  the  corresponding  rainfall.  There  is.  of  course, 
no  fixed  percentage  relationship  betv.-een  rainfall  and  run-otT.  but 
the  values  here  given  are  averages  derived  from  weighted  means  of 
all  observations  within  the  respective  l)asins  during  the  perio<l  cov- 
ered, and  give  practically  the  same  results  as  would  be  obtained  from 
the  data  through  any  more  complicated  method  of  deduction. 

The  amount  of  water  flowing  out  of  any  lake  must,  of  nei-essity. 
be  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  water  entering  the  lake  from  the  lake 
above,  the  local  gross  supplv,  the  storage  in  the  lake,  and  the  water 
lost  by  evaporation.  All  of  these  factors  are  known  with  some 
degree  of  certainty,  except  the  evaporation  from  the  lake  surface. 
Accepting  the  other  factors  as  correct,  this  one  may  be  computed, 
and  from  the  reasonableness  of  these  computed  values  the  accuracy 
of  the  other  factors  may  be  judged. 


366      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RR-ER. 

The  outflow  from  Lake  Superior  has  been  taken  from  records 
kept  by  the  United  States  Engineer  office  at  Sault  St.  Marie.  The 
tlow  through  the  St.  Clair  Kiver  is  computed  by  means  of  the  Lake 
Survey  ecjuation  for  open-river  conditions,  and  the  result  corrected 
by  subtracting  10.000  cubic  feet  per  second  to  allow  for  the  retarda- 
tion of  flow  during  the  winter  months.  The  outflow  through  the 
Sanitary  Canal  at  Chicago  is  taken  as  5.850  cubic  feet  per  second,. 
Avhich  corresponds  to  the  mean  diversion  during  the  period. 

The  outflow  from  Lake  Erie  is  the  flow  through  the  Niagara  River, 
computed  by  the  Lake  Survey  equation,  corrected  by  subtracting 
1.500  cubic  feet  per  second  for  the  retardation  due  to  ice  in  winter^ 
and  by  adding  3.500  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  estimated  flow  through 
the  "Welland  Canal  and  other  outlets.  The  outflow  from  Lake  On- 
tario is  the  discharge  through  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  computed  by 
the  Lake  Survey  equation  for  open  flow,  corrected  by  subtracting 
4.400  cubic  feet  per  second  for  the  retardation  due  to  ice. 

The  values  for  the  evaporation,  which  are  derived  as  residuals 
from  the  other  factors,  are  found  to  be  reasonably  harmonious  ana 
to  agree  fairly  well  with  the  very  meager  data  of  evaporation  in; 
the  lakes  district.  These  values  show  beyond  doubt  that  the  dis- 
charges in  the  outflow  channels  of  the  Great  Lakes  as  determined 
by  the  adopted  discharge  formulas  are  consistent  with  each  other, 
and  that  there  is  no  ground  for  the  theory  advanced  by  some  engi- 
neers that  there  is  a  large  subterranean  flow  from  Lake  Erie  to 
Lake  Ontario. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER.     .'UiT 


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1 

DIVEESION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIACAUA   UIVKK.     3(iU 
5.  EFFECTS    OF    FRESENT    DlMiKSIoNS. 

The  ultimate  effect  of  diversions  upon  the  level  of  a  lal«'  or  l.o.ly 
from  which  they  are  drawn  is  a  direct  functic.n  of  tlic  aiiioiiiit  or  rate 
of  the  diversions  and  the  increment  of  dischar^ro  tlii-oM<,di  the  nvain 
outlet.  WJien  these  values  are  known  with  some  d(>^M-e«''"of  acciirncv 
the  lowering  effect  of  the  diversions  can  he  determined  with  equal 
accuracy.  For  the  outlets  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  e( [nations  of  dis- 
charge have  been  detei-niined  for  o])on-S('asoM  flow  hv  long  scries  of 
measurements  in  the  outflow  channels,  and  the  increnients  of  flow  f<jr 
such  conditions  are  well  established.  The  effects  of  winter  ice  upon 
the  average  flow  through  the  outflow  channels  can  be  roiiglily  ap- 
proximated from  direct  measurements  which  have  been  niafle  or'from 
a  study  of  gauge  relations  and  slopes  as  has  been  shown  in  a  preceding 
article,  but  the  effects  of  ice  upon  the  increnients  of  flow  is  not  deter- 
minable from  existing  data.  In  the  discussion  of  ice  effects  an  average 
retardation  of  ice  has  been  applied  to  the  open-season  discharge  values 
without  regard  to  the  stage  of  water  in  the  lakes  or  the  amounts  of 
discharge.  In  effect  this  method  considers  that  the  increments  of 
open-season  flow  continue  through  the  ice  season.  In  the  following 
discussion  of  the  effects  upon  water  levels  of  diversions  from  the  lakes 
and  rivers,  the  increments  of  discharge  determined  by  the  ecpuitions 
of  open-season  flow  have  also  been  used  without  correction  for  winter 
conditions  for  the  reason  that  the  amounts  of  such  corrections  are 
indeterminate.  It  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  the  increments  are 
smaller  in  the  winter  than  in  the  summer  and  that  therefore  the 
effects  of  diversions  are  actually  larger  than  herein  shown. 

Diversions  from  Lake  Superior. — With  the  exception  of  temporary 
withdrawals  of  water  from  Lake  Superior  for  water  supjfly  of  the 
cities  around  the  lake,  all  present  diversions  from  this  lake  are  made 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich.,  and  Ontario. 
These  diversions  have  been  fully  described  previously  in  this  report, 
those  pertaining  to  the  navigation  canals  in  Section  A  and  those  per- 
taining to  power  development  in  Section  C.  The  present  diversions 
are  estimated  at  about  44,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which  1.000  is 
used  for  navigation  and  43,000  for  power  development.  The  water 
is  all  returned  to  the  St.  Marys  River  just  below  the  rapids,  and  con- 
sequently these  diversions,  even  if  uncompensated,  would  not,  in  the 
long  run,  affect  the  mean  levels  of  the  lower  river  or  the  lakes  beyond. 
With  conditions  in  the  St.  Marys  River  as  they  Avere  in  ISOG.  Lake 
Superior  would  have  been  lowered  nearly  3  feet  by  the  present  diver- 
sions. That  the  surface  of  the  lake  has  not  been  lowered  liy  this 
amount  has  been  due  to  obstructions  placed  in  the  channel  and  to  the 
building  of  compensating  works.  At  the  same  time  any  appreciable 
effects  on  the  mean  annual  levels  downstream  have  l)een  prevented. 

The  building  of  the  piers  of  the  International  Bridge  m  1RS7  and 
the  fills  made  along  the  bridge  line,  which  closed  some  of  the  small 
channels  among  the  islands  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  obstructed 
about  2,300  square  feet  of  the  cross-section  of  the  river.  In  I'^'^O  tlie 
power  canal,  constructed  on  the  Canadian  side,  further  obstructed 
about  1,600  square  feet.  In  1892  the  dike  built  by  the  (  handler- 
Dunbar  Water  Power  Co.  for  the  Edison  Sault  pcnyer  canal  ob- 
structed the  flow  through  spans  1  and  2  of  the  bridge.  I  hese  various 
obstructions  undoubtedly  raised  the  level  of  Lake  Superior,  but  their 
27880—21 24 


370      DIVERSIOX  OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

effect  can  only  be  computed  theoretically,  as  no  measurements  of  the 
How  of  the  river  Avere  made  until  1S9G.  It  appears  probable  that 
chantres  prior  to  IbOO  had  raided  the  level  of  Lake  Superior  about 
0.7  foot.     Diversions  in  1896  were  as  follows: 

Cubic  fpet  per  second. 

Naviiration  canals 400 

Lako  Superior  Power  Co 3,800 

Cliandh-r-Dunbar  Power  Co 1,  065 

Total 5,265 

Tiiis  diversion  would  loAver  Lake  Superior  by  about  0.35  foot, 
leavin<r  the  lake  level  still  three  or  four-tenths  of  a  foot  higher  than 
it  was  before  1888. 

In  1901  compensating  works  were  constructed  on  the  Canadian 
side  of  the  river  above  spans  9  and  10  of  the  International  Bridge. 
As  the  cofferdam  above  these  gates  was  not  removed  until  1914, 
these  works  shut  off  most  of  the  floAv  that  formerly  passed  through 
spans  9  and  10. 

In  1909  a  series  of  measurements  of  the  flow  of  the  river  was  made 
from  the  International  Bridge,  and  at  the  same  time  the  flow  through 
the  various  diversion  canals  was  accurately  determined.  The  diver- 
sions at  that  time  were  as  follows : 

Cubic  feet 
per  second. 

Navigation   canals 6.50 

Lake  Superior  Power  Co 6,130 

Michigan-Lake  Superior  Power  Co 12,300 

Chandler-Dunbar  Power  Co 980 

Total 20,  060 

For  a  stage  of  601.85  at  the  southwest  pier  gauge  the  total  flow  of 
the  river  in  1896  Avas  75.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  For  the  same 
stage  in  1909  the  total  flow  was  75,100  cubic  feet  per  second.  It 
appears  therefore  that  between  1896  and  1909  the  loAvering  of  Lake 
Superior,  due  to  diversions  of  Avater,  had  been  almost  exactly  com- 
pensated by  obstructions  to  the  flow,  and  that  the  level  of  the  lake 
Avas  still  some  three  or  four  tenths  of  a  foot  above  its  nornuil  for  the 
period  prior  to  1888. 

In  1911  the  United  States  built  a  cofferdam  above  spans  3  and  4 
of  tlie  bridge  and  a  dike  doAvnstream  from  the  north  end  of  span  4, 
making  a  ncAv  headrace  for  the  Government  poAver  plant.  To  com- 
pensate for  the  flow  so  obstructed  .sluice  gates  Avere  erected  along 
the  lower  end  of  the  forebay.  By  the  use  of  these  gates  the  floAv 
through  these  spans  of  the  bridge  can  be  maintained  at  a  normal 
value  unless  the  u.se  of  Avater  through  the  i)OAver  house  .should  exceed 
the  normal  flow. 

In  1914  the  question  of  increased  use  of  Avater  for  power  puri)()ses 
and  the  construction  of  compensating  Avorks  Avas  brought  Ijefore  the 
International  Joint  Commission  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  commission  approved  a  i)lan  calling  for  putting  into  operating 
condition  the  four  gates  built  in  1901  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the 
river,  the  construction  of  12  additional  gates  extending  from  the 
south  end  of  the  four  l)uilt  in  1901  to  a  point  above  pier  5  of  the 
bridge,  and  the  construction  of  a  dike  above  span  5  connecting  the 
end  of  the  gates  Avith  the  dike  of  the  headrace  of  the  United  States 
poAver  j>lant. 


DIVERSION    or   WATER   FROM   CiRKAT   LAKHS   ANI»    N1A(;ARA    UIVKK.      .'HI 

The  eight  urates  above  spans  0  and  7  of  the  hrid^'c  wnv  hiiill  l.y 
the  Michigan  Northern  Power  Co.  ()ctol)er.  1!U4.  to  Scptenilu'r.  1:»h"".. 
Since  the  completion  of  these  jrates  tlicy  liavt*  Ih'.mi  openitiMl  iin<U'r 
the  direction  of  the  board  of  control  created  in  accordance  wdh  the 
order  of  the  International  Joint  Coniniission  foi-  the  i)iii-|»ove  of  re<;ii- 
hitin<i-  the  level  of  Lake  Superior  and.  s)  far  as  practicable,  con- 
trolling the  How  in  the  lower  river  in  the  intei-ests  of  navJL'alion. 

The  remaining  four  gates  are  now  being  built  by  Canadian  inter- 
ests above  span  8  of  the  bridge.  The  construction  (d"  the  pr<»po«.e(I 
dike  above  si)an  5  awaits  the  completion  of  the  power  d<'\ch»piMent 
on  the  Canadian  side  to  the  full  proposed  use  of  onedialf  the  low- 
water  flow. 

When  the  compensating  works  are  completed  and  the  .se\eial  power 
canals  enlarged  to  their  proposed  cai)acity.  it  is  expected  tliat  the 
needs  of  navigation  can  be  served,  a  mininnim  of  (')(»,( i(K»  cubic  feet 
per  second  can  be  used  for  power  and  the  level  of  I^ake  Sni>erior 
can  be  regulated  within  a  maximum  range  of  '2.:>  feet,  and  ordi- 
narily within  a  range  of  1.5  feet,  or  between  el<'\ations  (iO-J.l  and 
603.6. 

The  compensating  gates  built  in  1901-02  on  the  Canadian  >':de  of 
the  river  above  span  9  of  the  bridge,  now  known  as  gates  1  to  4, 
consist  of  Stoney  gates  of  steel,  each  54  feet  ^^},  inches  long,  and  12 
feet  11|  inches  high,  lifting  vertically  lietween  piers,  haviuT  clear 
openings  of  52  feet  3  inches.  The  gates  are  operated  i)V  hand  from 
steel  towers  erected  on  the  piers.  The  piers  are  of  cou'-rete  with 
brick  facing  and  cut-stone  starling,  coping,  and  quoins.  They  are 
9  feet  wide,  57  feet  long,  and  20  feet  high.  The  sills  are  of  oak. 
embedded  in  a  concrete  paving  or  apron.  The  elevation  of  tiu'  sills 
is  591.2  feet. 

Compensating  gates  9  to  16,  completed  and  opened  in  Septeml;er. 
1916,  above  spans  6  and  7  of  the  bridges,  are  Stoney  gates  of  the 
same  type  and  dimensions  as  gates  1  to  4,  with  similar  piers  except 
that  the  latter  are  entirely  of  concrete.  These  gates  are  -hown  on 
photographs  Nos.  169  and  170. 

Compensating  gates  5  to  8,  now  under  construction  above  .-|)an 
8  of  the  bridge,  are  of  the  same  type  and  dimensions  as  the  others 
except  that  the  sills  are  at  elevation  590.2  feet,  or  1  foot  lower  thnn 
the  other  gates. 

There  are  three  sluice  gates  in  the  T'nited  States  headrai-e.  built 
in  1911,  Avhich  form  a  component  part  of  the  compensating  wf)»-ks. 
They  are  Stoney  gates  of  the  same  general  type  as  those  des'-rib-MJ 
above,  each  34  feet  4  inches  long  and  15  feet  high,  with  a  clear  open- 
ing between  piers  of  33  feet.  The  j^iers  are  of  concrete.  IC)  feet  wide 
and  28  feet  long.  Thev  are  provided  with  steel-roller  tracks.  The 
sills  at  elevation  588.07  feet  are  of  oak,  12  by  24  inches,  .^ct  in  the  con- 
crete apron,  which  is  paved  with  vitrified  brick.  In  connection  with 
these  gates  there  are  two  ice  runs  16  feet  wide  with  sills  at  elevation 
598.07  feet,  which  are  closed  bv  stop  logs  su|)iiorted  by  concrtte  pi^rs. 
There  is  also  an  oAcrflow  weir  of  c(mcrete  15()  feet  long  with  its  crest 
at  elevation  603.07  feet.  Tiiese  gates  are  ilhistrate.l  in  photoL'raphs 
Nos.  52  and  171. 

Diversions  from  Lakes  MichUian-Ilurou. — Aside  from  small  sani- 
tary diversions  of  purely  local  significance  the  only  diversions  from 


872      DIVERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RI\'ER. 

Lakes  Michigran-Hiiron  are  tho.se  of  the  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  and 
the  Bhuk  Eiver  Canal  at  Port  Huron. 

Chicago  ISanHai'y  Canal. — The  Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  has  been 
fully  described  in  Sections  A.  B,  and  C  of  this  report.  Its  mean 
diversion  for  the  year  1917  was  about  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  construction  of  the  Calumet-Sag  Canal  is  nearly  finished.  An 
additional  diversion  of  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  through  this  canal 
is  proposed. 

An  ultimate  diversion  of  14,000  cubic  feet  per  second  through  both 
channels  is  contemplated. 

Diversions  of  water  from  Lake  Michigan  into  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley result  in  a  lowering  of  all  water  levels  of  the  Great  Lakes  from 
the  lower  .sill  of  the  locks  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  doAvn  to  tidewater  in 
the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  amount  of  lowering  on  each  lake  as 
derived  from  discharge  formula  adopted  by  the  Lake  Survey  office 
is  shown  in  Table  Xo.  46  for  various  amounts  of  diversions  up  to 
14.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  effect  on  the  lower  sills  of  locks  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  in  the  lower  St.  ]Mai-ys  River  is  practically  the 
same  as  for  Lakes  ISIichiiran-Huron.  The  lowering  at  points  along 
the  St.  Clair  and  the  Detroit  Rivers  is  somewhat  less  than  for 
either  Lake  Huron  or  Lake  Erie.  Effects  in  the  upper  Niagara 
River  decrease  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Falls,  amounting  at  Niagara 
Falls  to  about  60  per  cent  of  the  Lake  Erie  effect.  In  the  St.  Law- 
rence River  the  lowering  effect  varies  considerably  on  account  of  the 
variety  of  cross-sections  and  slopes.  The  maximum  above  Corn- 
wall is  on  the  lower  sill  of  Lock  25  of  the  Canadian  canals,  and 
this  effect  is  given  in  the  table.  It  is  claimed  that  the  effect  of  a 
diversion  of  10.000  cubic  feet  per  second  at  Chicago  on  the  level  of 
the  water  at  Montreal  is  somewhat  more  than  eight-tenths  of  a  foot, 
but  this  has  not  been  verified. 


Table  Xo.  46. 


-Lon-erinfi  of  lake  levels  in  feet  by  diversion  of  water  from  Lake 
Michigan  through  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 


Amount  of  diversion  at 
Chicago. 


Lakes  Michigan- 
Huron. 


Lake  St.  Clair. 


Lake  Erie. 


Cubic  feet  per  second. 


Low. 


2/100 
4,000 
0,000 
8,000 
10.000 
12,000 
14,000 


0.10 
.20 
.30 
.40 
.50 
.60 
.70 


Mean. 


0.10 
.20 
.29 
.39 
.49 
.59 
.68 


High. 


Low. 


0.10 
.19 
.28 
.38 
.48 
.57 
.67 


0.08 
.16 
.24 
.31 
.39 
.47 
.55 


Mean. 


0.08 
.16 
.24 
.32 
.40 
.48 
.56 


High. 


0.08 
.16 
.24 
.32 
.40 
.48 
.57 


Low. 


0.10 
.19 
.29 
.39 
.49 
.59 
.69 


Mean. 


0.09 
.18 
.28 
.37 
.46 
.55 


High. 


0.09 
.17 
.26 
.35 
.44 
.53 
.61 


Amount  of  diversion  at  Chicago. 

Lake  Ontario. 

St.  Lawrence  River  at 
Lock  No.  25. 

Cubic  feot  per  second. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

Low. 

Mean. 

0.14 

.28 
.42 
..'57 
.71 
.85 

High. 

0.10 
.20 
.30 
.40 
.50 
.60 
.70 

0.09 
.19 
.28 
.38 
.48 
.57 
.67 

0.09 
.18 
.27 
.36 
.46 
.55 
.64 

0.15 
.30 
.45 
.60 

.75 

90 

1.04 

0.13 

4,<»<)i) 

.27 

6,0IH) 

.41 

rR,fH')0 

.54 

10,000 

.68 

12,000 

.81 

11,000 

1.00  1           -9S 

DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   GREAT   LAKKS   AND    NIACAItA    IIIVKK.      873 
Elevations  of  tlio  Lakes  for  the  stiifres  reft-iicd  t<>  in  iliis  tnl.U'  iire  ns  folhiws: 


I  I 

llnrnii.  Krlo  ()iii(tr>i 


Low .'.Ty  •  . . ;  ., 

Mean '..'.'.['.['.[[.[['.'.'.[..[....        iihi!  '  ^»o!o 

High 5X2  ,  217. 5 

Black  River  Canal. — The  Black  River  Canal,  at  Port  Huron, 
Mich.,  has  been  described  in  .^ection  B  of  this  report.  lis  diversion 
is  estimated  at  about  400  cubic  feet  per  second.  Tlic  water  js  taken, 
from  Lake  Huron,  just  above  the  head  of  St.  C'hiir  Kivei-,  and  is  re- 
turned to  the  river  a  few  miles  downstream,  at  tlu'  moiitli  of  the 
Black  River.  Such  a  diversion  tends  to  cau.sc  a  lowerin*:  of  laUeji 
Michigan-Huron  and  of  the  St.  Clair  River  above  Bhick  River. 
The  diversion,  however,  is  so  small  that  the  effect  is  inapi»reciable. 
It  is  estimated  to  be  about  five  thousandths  of  a  foot  or  al)out  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch. 

Diversions  from  Lake  Erie — ^Yelland  Ccuial. — This  important 
waterway  has  been  described  in  Sections  A  and  C.  The  estimated 
diversion  in  1918  was  about  4,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  which  an 
average  of  900  was  used  for  navigation  and  the  rest  for  power  and 
sanitary  purposes.  This  diversion  low'ers  Lake  Erie  and  thi'  Xiagiu-a 
River  directly,  and.  by  reducing  the  backwater  on  the  comiecting 
rivers,  it  lowers  Lake  St.  Clair  and  Lakes  Michigan-Huron.  It 
has  no  effect  on  Lake  Superior,  Lake  Ontario,  or  the  St.  Lawrence 
River,    The  effect  on  each  lake  is  shown  in  Table  No.  47. 

Black  Rock  Ship  Canal. — This  canal  is  described  in  Section  A. 
The  estimated  diversion  is  700  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  the  water  is 
returned  to  the  Niagara  Ri\  er  i:)artly  at  the  foot  of  Squaw  Island 
and  partly  at  Tonawanda  the  effect  is  limited  to  Lake  P>rie  and  Lakes 
Michigan-Huron.  The  magnitude  of  these  effects  is  shown  in  Table 
No.  47.  It  seems  probable  that  the  construction  of  Bird  Island  Pier 
in  1823-1825,  in  connection  with  building  tlie  Erie  Canal,  cau.sed  a 
very  appreciable  rise  in  Lake  Erie,  but  no  data  on  this  i)oint  e.xist. 

New  York  State  Barge  Canal. — This  canal  is  descril)ed  in  Sec- 
tions A  and  C  of  this  report.  The  present  diversion  is  estimated  at 
about  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  water  is  diverted  from  the 
Niagara  River  and  most  of  it  eventually  finds  its  way  to  Lake 
Ontario.  The  diversion  causes  a  lowering  of  the  upper  Niagara 
Eiver  and  has  a  slight  effect  on  Lake  Erie  and  Lakes  Michigan- 
Huron.    The  magnitude  of  the  effects  is  shown  in  Table  No.  47. 

Diversions  at  Niagara  /^rtZ/.s.— Diversions  of  water  for  jx.wer  pur- 
poses at  Niagara  Falls,  above  the  fii-st  cascade  in  the  upper  rapids, 
lower  the  level  of  the'  water  in  the  Grass  Islan.l-Cluppawa  pmff. 
This  lowering  extends  in  diminished  amount  up  the  river.  At.  Aus- 
tin Street,  Buffalo,  it  amounts  to  about  one-fifth  of  the  lowering  at 
Chipi)aw^a  The  effect  of  the  lowering  is  the  same  as  that  produced 
by  lowering  the  tailwater  of  a  submerged  weir,  the  How  of  the  river 
being  increased  for  a  given  stage,  which  results  in  lowering  the  head- 
water, in  this  case.  Lake  Erie.  Through  the  disc^harire  measurement.s 
and  water-level  records  of  the  Niagara  River  it  has  been  determined 
that  diversions  at  Niagara  Falls,  above  tlie  ca.scades.  increases  the 


374      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVILR. 

flow  of  the  river  for  a  pxen  stage  of  Lake  Erie  by  about  10  per  cent 
of  the  amount  of  the  diversions. 

Diversions  below  the  first  cascade  affect  the  depth  of  water  be- 
tween the  point  of  with(h-awal  and  the  point  at  which  the  water  is 
returned,  but  have  no  effect  upon  tlie  kn-els  above  or  below  these 
points.  The  effects  of  the  Falls  and  rapids  have  been  fully  described 
in  Appendix  C  of  this  report. 

The  power  plants  on  the  United  States  side  of  the  river  both  draw 
their  water  from  above  the  first  cascade.  The  present  diversion 
throufrh  the  Niagara  plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  is  9.450 
cubic  feet  per  second  and  that  through  the  hydraulic  plant  of  the 
same  company  is  about  8,0(X)  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  diversion 
of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  is  at  the  first  cascade  and  does  not  have 
the  full  effect  of  an  equivalent  diversion  from  the  (Irass  Island- 
Chippawa  pool.  Observations  during  the  construction  of  the  intake 
indicate  that  the  effect  is  about  50  per  cent  of  a  like  diversion  from 
the  pool.  The  present  diversion  by  this  company  is  probably  about 
11,200  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  an  equivalent  of  5,600  cubic  feet  per 
second  drawn  from  the  Chippawa  pool.  The  total  present  diversion 
from  this  pool  therefore  can  be  considered  approximately  23.000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  A  diversion  of  this  amount  at  mean  stage 
would  lower  the  Chippaw^a  pool  0.59  feet  and  would  increase  the 
flow  of  the  Niagara  River  2.300  cubic  feet  per  second,  resulting  in 
lowering  the  surface  of  Lake  Erie  0.10  feet.  This  lowering,  by 
increasing  the  flow  through  the  St.  Clair-Detroit  Rivei-.  woidd  lower 
Lake  St.  Clair  and  Lake  Huron  by  small  amcMints.  The  effects 
of  the  Niagara  Falls  diversions  are  given  in  Table  No.  47. 

DlrersJons  from  Lake  0)>t(ino. — There  are  at  present  no  direct 
diversions  from  Lake  Ontario  nor  from  the  St.  Lawrence  Kiver 
above  the  (xaloj)  Rapids.  The  only  diversions  to  affect  the  level  of 
the  lake  are  therefore  those  at  Chicago,  where  the  water  is  perma- 
nentlv  witbth'awn  from  the  drainage  basin.  These  eil'ects.  whirh 
are  determined  from  the  increments  of  outflow  from  Lake  Ontaiio, 
are  shown  in  Table  No.  47. 

It  may  be  stated  that  the  construction  of  the  artificial  dam  closing 
the  channel,  known  as  "The  Gut,"  at  the  head  of  (lalop  Rapids, 
■uhirh  was  built  for  the  purpose  of  checking  cross  currents  in  the 
navigable  channel  of  the  river,  has  residted  in  raising  the  levels  of 
Lake  Ontario  at  mean  stage  al)()ut  0.50  foot.  This  amount  is  about 
50  per  cent  greater  than  the  lowering  caused  by  the  present  diversion 
at  Chicago,  so  that  in  so  far  as  the  levels  of  Lake  Ontario  antl  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  above  Galop  Rapids  are  concerned,  full  com- 
pensation has  already  been  eft'ected.  lielow  the  Galo])  Rajnds  the 
levels  of  the  St.  Lawrence  are  affected  by  the  Chicago  diversion,  and, 
in  addition,  there  are  small  uses  of  water  for  power  purposes  along 
the  Canadian  canals  and  at  Waddington.  N.  Y..  and  a  large  diversion 
at  Massena.  which  have  local  effects  extending  from  short  distances 
above  the  points  wliere  the  water  is  witlidrawn  to  where  it  is  ictnrned 
to  the  river. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKi:s   AND   NlAliAIlA   lUVEK.     MTf. 

TAnu:  No.  47. —Fffcct   in  feet  of  kiicoiuix  nsntcd  ilinrsinus  of   unitr  from    th- 

(licit I   i.nl.is. 


Diversion. 

Amount, 

(•nl)ic 

feel  iicr 

second. 

Michigaii-Huroii. 

St.  Clair. 

Kri.' 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

Low. 

Moan. 

0.35 
.09 
.01 
(') 
.05 

High. 

0.30 
.10 
.02 

(') 
.06 

Low.  I  Mean. 

'nid. 

Chicago  Drainage  Canal 

WcUand  Canal 

Black  Rock  Ship  Canal 

New  York  Stale  Barge  Canal. . 
Niagara  power  companies 

8,800 

4,  .500 

700 

1,000 

50,885 

0.44 
.02 

0) 
.01 

0.43 
.03 

.01 

0.42 
.04 

(') 
.02 

0.35 
.08 
.01 
(') 
.03 

0.  1.1 

.22 
.03 
.01 
.10 

U.  1! 
.21 

.oa 

.01 
.10 

.01 

.11 

Total  lowering 

.47 

.47 

.48       .47 

.50 

.54  1    .79 

.78 

.73 

1 

Diversion. 

Amount, 

cubic 
feet  per 
second. 

Niagara  River  at 
at  Chippawa. 

Ontario. 

8t.  Lawrence  RIvor 
at  Lock  No.  25. 

Low. 

Mean. 

0.23 
.12 

High. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

Low. 

Mean. 

High. 

Chicago  Drainage  Canal 

Welland  Canal 

8,800 

4,500 

700 

1.000 

50, 885 

0.24 
.12 

0.21 
.11 

0.44 

0.42 

0.39 

0.65 

0.02 

0.60 

Black  Rock  Ship  Canal 

New  York  State  Barge  Canal. . 

.a3 

.63 

.03 
.60 

.02 
.57 

Niagara  power  companies 

Total  lowering 

1.02 

.98 

.91 

.44 

.42 

.39  1    .65 

A9 

M\ 

.ov  j    .m        .__  1        .™ 

'  Inappreciable. 

Lake  Ontario  has  been  raised  about  0.56  foot  by  the  constriicf.nn  of  the  «;iir 
Dam,  which  is  .50  per  cent  more  tlian  the  lowering'  cnusetl  by  (liv('rslun>*  at 
Chicago. 

Stages  at  tlie  Lalves  referred  to  in  thi.s  table  are  as  follows: 


Ontario. 


Low. 
Mean 
High 


Massena  Canal. — In  1917  and  1918  the  St.  Lawrence  River  Power 
Co.  constracted  certain  new  works  at  the  head  of  its  power  canal. 
These  were  desifjned  to  increase  the  head  upon  the  power  hou.se  ami  to 
prevent  the  ice  troubles  which  custouiarily  reduce  the  outi)ut  each 
winter  to  less  than  one-third  the  normal  o])en  season  output. 

The  works  affectin<>-  the  river  levels  were  a  dre<lo;o(l  channel  throuirh 
Dodo;es  Shoal  between  Talcotts  Point  and  Delaney  Islaml.  and  a 
submero:ed  weir  across  the  South  Sau.lt  ("hannel  ju.st  down.streain 
from  the  entrance  to  the  ]Massena  Canal.  The  dred.Lnn»r  was  done  lii-st. 
and  it  is  estimated  that  it  resulted  in  a  lowerinfr  of  tlie  river  surface 
two  or  three  tenths  of  a  foot  at  Locks  21  and  -1^  of  the  Canadiiin  canals. 
The  subsequent  construction  of  the  siil>merired  weir  resulted  in  n  com- 
plete restoraticm  of  the  orijrinal  levels,  and  it  is  thoujrlit  that  eleva- 
tions in  this  part  of  the  river  are  now  a  little  hiirher  than  they  were 
before  the  works  were  commenced.  The  ori.Lnnal  ellVct  of  the  diver- 
sion through  the  ^Massena  Canal,  and  of  the  con.st ruction  in  the  South 
Sault  Channel  near  the  canal  entrance,  have  never  been  accurately 
determined. 


376      DIVEESIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD  XIAG.VRA  EI\'ER. 
6.  EFFECT   OF   PROPOSED   DIVERSIONS. 

The  effect  on  water  levels  of  the  proposed  increase  of  diversions 
throug-h  the  navigation  and  power  canals  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  will  be 
completely  cared  for  by  the  regulating  works  which  are  now  in  place 
or  have  been  planned,  and  therefore  needs  no  special  mention. 

The  only  proposed  change  in  diversions  from  Lakes  Michigan- 
Huron,  so  far  as  known,  is  the  increase  to  14,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
in  the  diversion  through  the  enlarged  Chicago  Sanitarv'  and  Ship 
Canal,  which  is  planned  by  the  sanitary  district  of  Chicago,  provid- 
ing proper  authority  can  be  obtained.  '  The  increase  to  14,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  will  add  considerably  to  the  present  effect  on  water 
levels  of  this  diversion,  causing  an  additional  lowering  on  all  the  lakes 
below  Lake  Superior  of  from  two  to  three  tenths  of  a  foot  with  a 
maximum  effect  at  Lock  25  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River  of  nearly  0.40 
foot.  The  computed  effects  of  this  additional  division  are  shown  in 
Table  Xo.  48. 

The  present  diversion  from  Lake  Erie  Avill  be  increased  upon  the 
completion  of  new  Welland  Ship  Canal,  it  being  estimated  that  the 
new  canal  will  require  the  use  of  about  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
more  water  than  is  used  for  the  operation  of  the  present  canal.  Unless 
compensated  for,  this  additional  diversion  will  cause  a  lowering  on 
Ljike  Erie  of  about  0.05  foot.  For  full  capacity  traffic  on  the  Xew 
lork  State  Barge  Canal  the  necessan^  water  siipplv  from  Niagara 
River,  as  estimated  by  the  State  engineer,  is  about 'l.200  cubic  feet 
per  second.  Adding  the  500  cubic  feet  per  second  diverted  down 
Eighteen  Mile  Creek  for  power  development  gives  a  total  of  1,700 
cubic  feet  per  second,  or  700  cubic  feet  per  second  more  than  is  now 
being  diverted.  The  effect  of  this  estimated  increase  upon  lake  levels 
is  shown  in  Table  No.  48. 

In  Section  D  of  this  report  the  proposed  future  diversion  for  power 
development  at  Niagara  Falls  is  given  as  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
To  obtain  the  Ijest  efficiency  it  would  be  desirable  that  this  should  all 
be  diverted  from  above  the  first  cascade.  Assuming  that  18,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  would  be  diverted  at  the  intake  of  the  Ontario  Power 
Co..  and  that  this  would  have  an  effect  on  water  levels  equivalent  to 
the  diversion  of  9.000  cubic  feet  per  second  from  above  the  cascade, 
the  effective  diversion  from  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  would  be  71,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  This  is  an  increase  of  48.000  cubic  feet  per 
second  over  the  present  diversion  from  this  pool.  The  result  would  be 
a  further  lowering  of  the  pool  by  about  1.25  feet.  The  effect  on  Lake 
Erie  and  the  other  lakes  is  shown  in  Table  No.  48. 

All  proposed  diversions  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  would  be  at 
pomts  l)elow  the  Galop  Rapids.  'J1iey  would  be  of  purely  local  effect, 
and  the  data  is  not  at  hand  for  com'puting  the  lowering  they  would 
cause. 

The  effect  on  water  levels  of  the  several  proposed  increases  in  diver- 
sions, namely,  from  Lake  Michiiran  at  Chicago,  from  Lake  P:rie 
through  the  Welland  Canal,  from  the  Nia<rara  River  through  the  New 
lork  State  Barge  Canal,  and  from  the  (rrass  Island-Chippawa  Pool 
of  the  Niagara  River  for  development  oi  power  at  Niagara  Falls,  are 
shown  for  mean  stages  of  the  Lakes  in  Table  No.  48. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA   RIVER.     377 

Table  No.  4S.— Effect,  in  fcvf.  at  iiinin  xtaar  uf  pmiiomd  divn-HiouM  from  the 

Great  Lakes. 


Diversion.    .                Proposed 
increase. 

i 
Lake     1     ,  „.  „ 

Niagara 
Lake      Rlvor  at 
Eric.         Chlp- 
1    pen  a. 

I,nkn 
Ontario. 

Bt.  Law- 
rence 
River  at 
Lock  26. 

Chicago  Sanitary  Canal 

Welland  Canal 

5,200 
1.000 

0. 25            0. 21 
.01              .02 

0.23          0.13 
.05               08 

0.24 

a  37 

New  York  State  Barge  Canal... 

700 
48,000 

.01              .02 
.22            1.25 

Niagara  Falls  Power  Co 

.03              .10 



Total  effect  of  proposed 
increases 

.29 
.47 

.33 
.50 

.61 
.76 

1                  1 

1.43             .24               .37 
9S               42                  02 

Total  effect  of  present  diversions 

Sum 

.76 

.83 

1.27 

2,41                m 

.9» 

7.    REMEDIAL  WORKS. 

Practically  all  the  commerce  of  the  Great  Lake.s  ori<^inate.s  oi-  ter- 
minates in  improved  harbors  or  passes  en  route  thr()u<rh  imi)r()ved 
canals  or  channels  where  the  draft  of  vessels  is  limited  by  tlie  dei)ths 
to  which  these  harbors  and  channels  have  been  improved.  The 
larger  vessels  of  the  lake  fleet  are  designed  and  built  to  utilize  the 
full  depths  provided  by  the  improvements.  It  is  obvious  that  any 
lowering  of  the  lake  surfaces  will  decrease  the  limiting  depths  and 
consequently  lessen  the  carrying  capacit}'  of  the  lake  fk'i't.  For  this 
reason  the  diversions  have  caused  and  are  now  causing  a  -erious  l<jss 
to  the  commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  nature  and  extent  of  which 
is  discussed  in  Section  H  1  of  this  report. 

There  are  three  general  methods  by  which  a  restoration  of  (lejUhs 
on  the  lakes  may  be  sought,  namely,  first,  the  deepening  of  all  har- 
bors and  channels  affected  by  the  artificial  lowering  of  water  levels; 
second,  the  construction  of  regulating  Avorks  in  the  outlets  of  the 
lakes  to  raise  the  levels  of  the  lakes  and  to  control  them  within  fixed 
limits;  and,  third,  the  contraction  of  the  outlets  by  mean>  of  li.xed 
obstructions  which  will  raise  the  levels  of  the  lakes  without  greatly 
affecting  their  natural  fluctuations. 

The  first  method  requires  a  large  amount  of  dredging  and  the  re- 
construction of  several  locks.  In  1907  the  International  Waterways 
Commission  estimated  that  the  cost  of  restoring  harbor  and  channel 
depths  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  to  care  for  a  diversion  of 
10,000  cubic  feet  per  second  through  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 
would  be  $12,500,000.  At  present  prices  this  figure  would  be  largely 
increased.  No  estimate  of  such  restoration  has  been  made  in  this 
investigation  for  the  reason  that  the  use  of  remedial  works  is  eon- 
sidered^much  more  satisfactory  and  very  much  less  e.\i)ensive.  Fur- 
thermore, deepening  the  river  channels  tends  to  increase  the  dis- 
charge of  the  lake  above  and  thcreliy  lower  its  level  thus  increasing 
to  some  extent  the  undesirable  condition  which  it  is  intended  to  over- 
come. ,,  ^  .  ,     .  11      r-       t 

The  Board  of  Engineers  on  "Deep  waterways  between  the  (Treat 
Lakes  and  the  Atlantic  tidewaters,"  in  its  report  of  elune  .30.  1000, 
House  Document  No.  149,  Fifty-sixth  Congress,  second  session, 
presented  a  plan  for  the  regulation  of  Lake  Erie  between  fixed  levels 
by  works  at  the  head  of  Niagara  River.    It  was  proposed  to  build  a 


378      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVliR. 

combination  of  submerged  weirs  and  stoney  gates,  by  means  of  which 
Lake  Erie  was  to  be  raised  about  3  feet  above  the  low-water  level 
and  held  continuously  within  about  0.6  foot  of  the  adopted  level. 
Tlie  impossibility  and  also  the  undesirability  of  such  regulation 
are  clearl}'  .<hown  in  a  report  of  the  International  Waterways  Com- 
mission. House  Document  No.  779,  Sixty-first  Congress,  second  ses- 
sion. The  water  supply  of  this  lake  is  so  extremei}'  irregular  that 
its  amount  can  not  be  predicted  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  and 
without  advance  knowledge  of  the  supply  close  regulation  can  not  be 
maintained. 

Any  great  variation  above  the  proposed  level  woukl  cause  serious 
damage  on  low-lying  lands  adjoining  the  lake,  particularly  in  the 
vicinity  of  Buffalo,  where  the  fluctuations  due  to  wind  are  now  as 
much  as  S  feet.  Other  objections  expressed  in  House  Document  No. 
779  are  that  the  regulating  works  would  aggravate  ice  jams  at  the 
head  of  the  Niagara  during  the  winter  season,  thereby  causing 
greater  fluctuations  in  water  levels  at  Bufi'alo  with  consequent  dam- 
age to  property,  and  that  the  closed  season  at  Buffalo  would  be  pro- 
longed by  the  holding  back  of  ice  fields  in  the  spring  which  other- 
wise would  pass  down  the  river. 

It  is  possible  to  regulate  Lake  Erie  within  a  larger  range  than 
proposed  by  the  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  AVaterways.  and  if  the 
capacity  of  the  river  were  enlarged  at  low-water  stage  the  regulated 
level  could  be  lower.  This,  however,  would  not  obviate  the  probable 
troubles  with  ice.  and  the  regulation  would  so  change  the  outflow 
from  Lake  Erie  as  to  be  detrimental  to  levels  of  Lake  Ontario  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Regulation  of  the  level  of  Lakes  Michigan 
and  Huron,  if  feasible,  would  better  conditions  on  those  lakes  and  in 
the  lower  St.  Marys  River,  but  the  change  in  outflow  caused  by  such 
regulation  would  likewise  increase  the  fluctuations  in  the  lower 
lakes  and  rivers  to  the  detriment  of  navigation.  ^Moreover,  the  con- 
struction of  regulating  works  in  the  St.  Clair  River  must  of  neces 
sity  cause  a  serious  obstruction  to  navigation. 

A  study  of  hydraulic  conditions  on  the  Great  Lakes  shows  clearh'' 
the  close  interdependence  of  their  levels  and  the  system  by  which 
nature  regulates  those  levels.  Whether  the  system  can  be  improved 
upon  by  human  agency  sufficiently  to  justify  the  construction  and 
operation  costs  is  problematical.  Any  change  involving  artificial 
storage  to  be  generally  beneficial  would  retjuire  cooperative  regu- 
lation of  all  of  the  lakes  and  rivers,  with  an  intricate  sj'stem  for 
balancing  the  variable  and  erratic  supply  from  the  various  drainage 
basins.  Such  regulation  would  involve  tremendous  costs  and  the 
whole  works  Avould  be  more  or  less  ex[)eriinental. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  regulation  will  ultimately  be  resorted  to 
when  the  various  interests  about  the  Great  Lakes  have  become  more 
va]ual)le  and  when  experience,  experiment,  and  further  study  have 
indicated  more  certainly  its  desirability.  In  such  case  regulation 
of  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River  would  possibly  best  be 
undertaken  fir>t. 

On  the  other  liand.  it  is  perfectly  feasible  to  raise  the  surface  of 
any  of  the  lakes  without  interfering  apj)reciably  with  its  natural 
fluctuations  or  its  average  monthly  flow,  and  hence  without  affect- 
ing levels  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  below.    This  is  illustrated  by  the 


DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM   OREAT   LAKES   AND    XIACAHA    RIVEK.      379 

artificial  raisin«:  of  Lake  Ontario,  eausi'd  hv  the  coiistruction  of  tlic 
"Gut  Dam";  where,  however,  the  biiil(lin<r  of  this  (lain  above  low- 
water  level  has  decreased  the  iiicrenieiit  of  disdiarj:,.  :ii,d  iucrea.sed 
to  some  extent  the  fluctuations  on  Lake  Ontario. 

Li  the  report  of  a  special  board  of  eii<rineers  uj)on  watcruav  from 
Lockport,  111.,  to  the  mouth  of  Illinois  Kiver,  House  Docinnent  No. 
762,  Sixtj'-third  Congress,  second  session,  are  presented  pbuis  for 
compensating  the  levels  of  Lakes  Erie,  Michigan,  and  Huron  f(.r  a 
diversion  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second  at  Chicago.  These  plans 
propose  the  construction  of  three  .submeiged  weirs  in  the  upper 
Niagara  River  near  Squaw  Island  and  a  series  of  six  weirs  in  the 
St.  Clair  Eiver,  spaced  one-half  mile  apart  over  a  stretch  extend- 
ing downstream  some  3  miles  from  the  mouth  of  P>lack  Kiver.  These 
weirs  are  -i  to  6  feet  high  and  are  designed  to  raise  Lake  Erie  0.45 
foot  or  5.4  inches,  and  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  0.47  foot  or  5.C 
inches.  The  estimated  cost  is  $475,000,  with  a  possible  annual  ex- 
penditure of  $15,000  for  maintenance.  These  estimates  are  based  on 
prices  of  labor  and  materials  much  lower  than  now  obtain. 

That  this  method  of  compensation  is  practicable  and  that  the  de- 
sired results  can  be  obtained  at  a  comparatively  reasonable  i-ost  is  be- 
yond question.  Furthermore,  structures  of  this  nature  would  offer  a 
minimum  interference  with  navigation  and  would  have  little  tend- 
ency to  retard  the  movement  of  ice. 

To  compensate  for  the  loss  of  elevation  on  water  levels  above  the 
head  of  Niagara  River  resulting  from  all  diversions,  present  and  pro- 
spective, would  require,  as  shown  in  Table  No.  48,  the  raising  of  Lake 
Erie  1.27  feet,  Lake  St.  Clair  0.83  foot,  and  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron 
'0.7G  foot.  This  would  necessitate  nuicli  more  extensive  works  than 
those  planned  in  the  report  just  referred  to :  and  because  of  the  amount 
of  back  water  rec{uired  and  the  limiting  sections  in  which  to  work,  it 
might  be  necessary  to  adopt  additional  means  of  contracting  the  chan- 
nels than  by  weirs  alone. 

There  is  a  wide  range  in  the  matter  of  details  and  locations  of  com- 
pensating works  that  would  be  practical  and  would  give  the  full  com- 
pensation desired.  The  selection  of  the  best  and  most  economical 
method  is  largely  a  matter  of  engineering  judgment. 

St.  Lawrence  River. — The  diversion  at  Chicago  is  the  only  one  which 
lowers  the  whole  St.  Lawrence  River.  At  mean  stage  the  lowering  due 
to  a  diversion  of  14,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is  0.(56  foot  at  the  head  of 
the  river  and  the  effect  is  practically  unchanged  as  far  down  as  Ogdens- 
iurg.  Below  Ogdensburg  the  river  is  a  succession  of  rapids  and  ixxds, 
and  the  amount  of  lowering  changes  greatly  from  point  to  point.  The 
value  of  0.99  foot  at  Lock  25  is  the  greatest  that  has  been  computed  for 
any  point  above  St.  Regis,  although  it  is  possible  that  a  slightly  greater 
effect  may  exist  at  some  other  point.  Below  St.  Regis  the  stream  Hows 
entirely  through  Canadian  territory,  and  detailed  hyilraulic  data  is 
not  available.  It  is  said  that  at  some  places  in  this  part  of  the  river 
the  lowering  is  15  or  20  per  cent  greater  than  at  Lock  25.  Below  Mon- 
treal there  are  no  rapids  and  the  slope  is  small.  The  effects  of  diver- 
sion in  this  part  of  the  river  decrease  toward  the  ocean. 

In  this  investigation  no  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  matter 
■of  compensating^ works  downstream  from  St.  Regis.  For  the  reai-h 
-between  St.  Regis  and  Ogdensburg  the  data  is  very  scanty  and  any 


380      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RR-ER^ 

detailed  study  would  require  extensive  surveys.  The  traffic  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  is  comparatively  small,  beino;  less  than  5  per  cent  of 
the  traffic  on  the  upper  lakes,  and  only  about  one-third  of  this  is 
in  United  States  vessels.  For  these  reasons  it  was  not  thou<i:ht  ad- 
visable to  make  a  detailed  study  of  compensating  works  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  River.  In  general,  it  can  be  said  that  such  works  are 
entirely  feasible  and  present  no  especial  difficulties  of  construction. 
At  the  head  of  each  rapids  an  obstruction  of  some  sort  must  be 
built,  probably  in  the  nature  of  a  narrowing  of  the  river.  This  will 
raise  the  water  in  the  pool  above.  The  increased  velocity  caused 
by  tiie  obstruction  will  do  no  damage,  as  there  is  no  upbound  navi- 
gation in  any  of  the  rapids,  and  the  bottoms  of  all  are  composed  of 
ledge  rock  or  large  bowlders  which  would  not  be  sul)je(t  to  erosion 
by  the  moderately  increased  velocities. 

Pro'i)osed  works  at  Ogden  Island. — The  New  York  &  Ontario- 
Power  Co.  is  promoting  a  scheme  for  developing  power  in  the  "  Little 
River"'  behind  Ogden  Island  by  rebuilding  the  old  dam,  removing 
the  causeway,  and  enlarging  the  entrance  channel,  as  explained  in 
Section  C.  To  compensate  for  the  lowering  of  more  than  2  feet, 
which  the  proposed  diversion  of  nearly  30,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
would  cause  in  the  pool  between  Lock  24  and  Lock  25.  the  company 
proposes  to  build  a  training  wall  between  Canada  Island  and  the, 
foot  of  O^den  Island,  and  also  to  construct  a  submerged  weir  be- 
tween Ogden  Island  and  the  head  of  the  INIorrisburg  Canal.  The 
depth  of  water  on  the  weir  is  to  be  22  feet  at  low  stage.  Detailed 
plans  of  the  proposed  works  are  not  available,  but  it  is  belicA'ed  that 
sufficient  compensation  is  not  provided.  The  project  is  now  before 
the  International  Joint  Commission  for  investigation. 

Lal-e  Ontario. — Fluctuations  of  stage  are  practically  the  same 
in  Lake  Ontario  and  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River  above  Ogdensburg. 
and  in  studies  of  this  nature  this  part  of  the  river  can  be  considered 
to  be  merely  an  arm  of  the  lake. 

It  is  required  to  raise  the  level  of  the  lake  0.66  foot.  The  building 
of  the  Gut  Dam  has  already  caused  a  rise  of  0.56,  and  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful if  compensation  for  the  remaining  tenth  of  a  foot  is  worth  while. 
If  it  is  desired,  it  merely  requires  a  further  obstruction  at  the  head 
of  the  American  channel  of  the  Galop  Rapids.  Because  of  lack  of 
data  on  slopes  and  velocities  at  this  point  no  definite  plan  or  esti- 
mate can  be  formulated,  but  it  is  apparent  that  nothing  extremely 
elaborate  or  expensive  would  be  required. 

Niagara  River. — The  restoration  of  levels  in  Lake  Ontario  will 
also  compensate  for  the  lowering  of  the  navigable  portions  of  the 
Niagara  River  below  the  Falls. 

On  the  upper  river  it  is  required  to  raise  the  level  2.41  feet  at 
C'hippawa.  This  can  ho.  done  by  an  obstruction  above  the  first  cas- 
cade. On  the  Canadian  side  this  obstruction  should  be  placed  below 
the  month  of  Chippawa  Creek  in  order  to  maintain  the  full  head  on 
power  plants  drawing  water  from  this  creek  and  to  preserve  the 
navigalile  depth  in  it.  For  similar  reasons  the  American  end  of  the 
obstruction  should  be  Ijelow  Port  Day.  The  preservation  of  the 
beauty  of  the  American  Falls  requires  that  little  or  none  of  the 
obstruction  should  be  so  placed  as  to  obstruct  the  channel  approach- 
ing the  American   Rapids.     This  matter  is  treated  more  fully  in 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA   KIVEK.     881 

Section  E  3  of  this  report.  These  considerations  indicate  tliut  the 
obstruction  should  extend  from  helow  Cliii)|)a\va  Creek  north  to 
within  ])erhaps  1,500  feet  of  Port  Day  ajid  thm  west  to  the  hv.ui  of 
Goat  Ishmd. 

With  the  construction  of  new  Xia<2:ara  i)ow('r  i)hnils  hu-fxe  amounts 
of  excavated  rock  will  be  available.  It  mi<;ht  fairly  be  reijuired 
as  one  of  the  conditions  of  the  permits  for  water  diversion  that  tho 
companies  place  part  of  this  rock  in  the  river  at  desi^jnated  spots. 
The  required  amount  can  easily  be  determined  by  trial  if  water  <rau'res 
are  maintained  at  Chippawa  and  BuiTalo.  Tlie  cost  to  tiie  (iovern- 
ment  would  be  only  that  of  ins]:)ection  and  supervision. 

It  should  be  stated  that  durinir  the  past  year  material  fhvfl^'ed 
from  the  new  approach  channel  to  Port  Day  has  been  dumped 
below  the  Port  Day-Chippaw%a  line  and  that  this  has  raised  the 
water  level  at  Port  Day.  Study  of  the  o-au^a's  shows  tiiat  the  eifect 
of  such  dumping-  prior  to  Marcli,  1919,  has  been  to  raise  the  water 
at  Port  Day  about  half  a  foot.  This  compensates  for  nearly  one-half 
of  the  lowering  which  has  thus  far  occurred  at  this  point.  It  com- 
pensates fully  for  all  the  loAvering  caused  by  the  American  ])ower 
companies.  Spoil  is  being  de])osited  similarly  on  the  ('ana<Iian  sifle 
by  the  Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission  of  Ontario. 

The  obstruction  described  in  the  preceding  i)aragra])]i  wouhl  in 
a  measure  be  similar  to  the  submerged  rock  weir  descrilied  on  j^age 
34,  House  of  Representatives  Document  Xo.  762,  Sixty-third  Con- 
gress, second  session.  It  would  be  somewhat  le>s  regular  in  form, 
and  would  not  extend  across  the  channel  leading  to  the  American 
Falls.  Moreover,  it  would  be  a  less  pretentious  and  expensive  weir 
than  the  concrete  weir  proposed  by  the  International  Waterways 
Commission  in  Senate  Document  No,  118,  Sixty-third  Congn-s-;.  first 
session,  and  would  rais-e  the  Chippawa-Grass  Island  jiool  SO  )>er 
cent  as  much.  Its  location  is  less  objectionable  than  that  of  the  com- 
mission's weir,  being  downstream  from  Cliippawa  Creek  antl  Port 
Day.  It  is  also  less  objectionable,  in  that  it  will  not  cause  as  high 
water,  and  therefore  will  not  flood  low-lying  lands  in  the  vicinity. 
The  weir  advocated  by  the  commission  was  designed  to  create  a 
generous  backwater  effect  on  Lake  Erie,  while  the  obstruction  herein 
proposed  is  designed  to  care  for  the  Niagara  River  only,  the  suli- 
merged  weirs  near  the  head  of  the  riA^er  creating  the  necessary  back- 
water effect  on  the  lake. 

Lake  EHe. — Works  Avhich  raise  the  Niagara  River  2.41  feet  at 
Chippaw^a  will  cause  a  backAvater  effect  at  Austin  .Street  sufficient 
to  produce  a  rise  of  0A2  foot  in  Lake  Erie.  As  the  total  lowering 
of  Lake  Erie  caused  by  the  present  and  prospective  diversions  is 
1.27  feet,  works  must  be  built  near  the  head  of  the  river  sufficient  to 
produce  a  further  rise  of  0.85  foot  in  the  lake. 

Hydraulic  studies  showed  that  this  could  lie  accomplishe<l  by  five 
submerged  dikes  or  weirs  built  across  the  river  abreast  of  S.piaw 
Island.  The  first  would  be  located  4,450  feet  above  the  International 
Bridge  and  the  fifth  2.150  feet  beloAV  it.  the  other  three  being  s_paced 
evenly  betw^een  them.  At  these  sections  the  river  is  from  1.770  to 
2,350  feet  wide,  with  maximum  depths  of  from  34  to  45  feet  at  mean 
stage,  and  with  mean  velocities  of  from  4  to  4.8  feet  per  second. 


382      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RH'ER. 

There  is  very  little  navigation  in  this  section  of  the  river,  as  the 
frreater  number  of  do\vn bound  vessels  and  practically  all  upbound 
vessels  use  the  Black  Kock  Canal  and  lock.  The  most  restricted  sec- 
tion is  at  the  old  waterworks  intake  al)out  S.()()0  feet  above  the  bridge. 
Here  the  greatest  depth  is  18  feet  at  standard  low  water  and  the  mean 
velociy  is  about  9.1  feet  per  second.  No  serious  obstruction  to  navi- 
gation will  occur  if  the  depths  and  velocities  at  the  compensating 
works  are  kept  within  these  limits. 

The  works  actually  designed  consist  of  rock  dikes  15  feet  wide  on 
the  crest  with  2  to  1  side  slopes.  Their  crests  are  15  feet  below 
standard  low  water.  Near  one  shore  the  dike  is  higher,  extending  to 
Avithin  G  feet  of  the  surface  at  standard  low  water.  This  high  part  is 
on  the  American  side  in  the  tAvo  upstream  sections  and  on  the  Cana- 
dian side  in  the  other  three.  Its  length  varies  from  67  to  767  feet. 
The  mean  velocity  over  each  of  these  dikes  is  8  feet  per  second  at  mean 
stage.  It  will  be  observed  that  any  vessel  wdiich  can  pass  the  water- 
works intake  safely  will  have  no  difficulty  in  passing  these  works. 
Ice  and  drift  will  pass  freely. 

The  bottom  and  Canadian  shore  of  this  part  of  the  river  consist  of 
ledge  rock  and  large  bowlders  and  will  not  be  subject  to  scour.  Xear 
the  Squaw  Island  end  of  each  dike  protection  against  scour  will  be 
needed  as  the  material  there  is  sand,  gravel,  and  clay. 

The  estimated  effect  of  these  Avorks  is  to  raise  the  river  1.9  feet 
at  the  upstream  weir  and  to  raise  Lake  Erie  0.85  foot.  The  hydraulic 
problems  involved  are  very  complex  and  do  not  admit  of  an  exact 
solution.  Several  different  methods  of  computing  the  effect  haA^e 
been  tried  and  their  results  compared.  It  is  believed  that  the  figures 
given  above  are  reasonable,  erring,  if  at  all.  upon  the  side  of  safety. 
"\^Tien  the  Avorks  are  constructed  the  effect  can  be  closely  Avatclied  by 
gauge  comparisons  and  the  desired  amount  of  compensation  can  be 
obtained  by  small  changes  in  the  original  plans. 

The  weirs  as  designed  contain  about  185,000  cubic  yards  of  mate- 
rial.   The  cost  is  roughly  estimated  at  $2,000,000. 

Detroit  River. — "When  Lake  Erie  is  raised  1.27  feet  by  the  tAvo  sets 
of  compensating  Avorks  in  the  Niagara  River,  Avhich  haAe  just  been 
described.  Lake  St.  Clair  aa^II  be  raised  0.55  foot.  As  the  total  loAA-er- 
ing  of  Lake  St.  Clair  by  the  present  and  prosi)ective  diA-ersions  is 
0.83  foot,  there  remains  0.28  foot  to  be  compensated  for  in  that  lake. 
The  further  compensation  needed  on  the  Detroit  River  varies  from 
0.28  foot  at  the  upper  end  to  zero  at  the  mouth.  In  the  dredged 
channels  in  the  lower  part  of  the  river  the  loAvering  Avould  not  exceed 
one-tenth  of  a  foot.  This  could  be  compensated  for  by  an  obstruc- 
tion Avest  of  Grosse  Isle,  but  only  at  the  expense  of  increasing  the 
current  through  the  channels  Avhere  the  present  current  causes  con- 
siderable annoyance  to  vessel  men.  xVs  the  lowering  is  very  small,  it 
Avill  jH-obably  be  most  satisfactory  to  leave  it  uncompensated. 

From  the  foot  of  Fighting  Island  to' the  head  of  the  river  the 
resultant  loAvering  Avill  be  from  0.10  to  0.28  foot.  As  the  depths  are 
ample  in  this  part  of  the  river,  there  is  no  need  for  any  compensation. 
Lake  St.  (Jlmr. — There  are  several  methods  by  Avhich  Lake  St. 
Clair  can  be  raised  the  required  amount  of  0.28  foot.  It  is  im- 
portant that  this  compensation  should  be  c()mi)lete,  for  Lake  St. 
Clair  is  now  the  ])oint  of  limiting  deptii  in  the  (ireat  Lakes  Avater- 
AA'ay,  and  any  shoaling  there  has  very  serious  effects. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES   AND   XIACAlIA   lUVKi:.     .^s.i 

Submerofcd  weirs  in  the  deeper  sections  of  the  Detroit  Kivcr  l.clow 
Belle  Isle  could  be  desi^nied  to  i)i-o(hice  the  reciiiired  cfrcct.  luit 
ATould  be  somewhat  objectionid)le  on  account  of  the  incicascd  and 
variable  currents  that  woukl  be  created  alon<r  the  l)usv  dock  front 
of  Detroit.  Anothei-  plan  would  be  the  partial  closiufj  o^  the  channels 
on  the  American  side  of  Belle  Isle  and  the  Canadian  side  ..f  Pei-he 
Island,  with  such  additional  contraction  of  the  main  channel  as 
might  be  required.  The  channel  north  of  Belh'  Isle  is  sehlom  used 
by  anything  but  pleasure  craft,  and  might  well  be  ch)S.'d  except 
for  a  narrow  channel  Avhich  would  permit  tlie  passage  of  the  smaller 
boats,  ice,  and  suiHcicnt  water  to  keej)  the  American  channel  clean. 
To  avoid  unsightliness,  a  dam  in  this  locality  should  be  below  low- 
water  or  be  built  as  an  artistic  causeway  from"  the  head  of  the  island 
to  the  mainland.  The  principal  objection  to  this  plan  is  the  danger 
that  the  increased  velocities  would  scour  the  soft  bottom  of  the  main 
channel  and  thus  lessen  the  compensation. 

The  full  details  and  estimates  of  compensating  worlcs  in  the  De- 
troit River  are  not  possible  with  the  data  now  available,  nor  is  it 
possible,  without  a  special  survey  and  a  thorough  study  of  conditif»ns, 
to  say  that  a  plan  can  be  devised  that  will  not  be  sni)ject  to  si-ri«ius 
objections. 

An  alternative  and  probably  a  better  and  cheai)er  method  of  re- 
storing depths  in  Lake  St.  Clair  would  be  by  dredging  of  the  chan- 
nels 0.28  foot  deeper.  This  additional  dredging  would  rec^piire  the 
moving  of  about  800,000  cubic  vards  of  material  at  a  cost  of  perhaps 
$160,000. 

St.  Clair  River. — If  compensating  works  on  the  Detroit  River 
are  omitted  and  the  depths  in  Lake  St.  Clair  are  restored  by  dredging, 
the  rise  in  Lake  St.  Clair  caused  by  the  Niagara  works  will  be  (».o5 
foot.  This  will  cause  a  rise  in  Lake  Huron  of  O.IG  foot.  The  un- 
compensated lowering  will  be  0.28  foot  in  Lake  St.  Clair  and  0.60 
foot  in  Lake  Huron.  In  the  St.  Clair  River  the  lowering  will  be 
between  these  limits. 

On  the  St.  Clair  River  below  Port  Huron  there  are  a  numl^er  of 
small  towns  and  villages  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  These  have 
docking  facilities  for  vessels  drawing  from  10  to  15  feet  of  water. 
The  actual  navigation  at  these  ports  is  very  small  and  the  danuige 
resulting  from  a  small  reduction  in  the  available  depths  would  be 
trifling.  In  any  particular  place  a  small  amount  of  dredging  would 
restore  the  original  depth  if  it  were  thought  worth  wliile. 

There  are  also  a  few  places  where  the  main  ship  channel  has  been 
deepened  by  dredging  and  v>diere  a  little  additional  dredging  might 
be  required'^  to  maintain  the  project  depth.  It  is  estimated  that  this 
dredging  would  not  cost  more  than  $50,000. 

At  the  head  of  the  river  the  cities  of  Port  Huron,  Sarnia.  and  Point 
Edward  are  all  important  ports  used  by  vessels  of  the  larger  type. 
The  matter  of  maintaining  the  depths'  at  these  ports  need  not  be 
discussed  here,  as  the  project  suggested  in  the  next  paragraph  for 
compensating  Lake  Huron  will  do  all  that  is  needed. 

Lake  Huron.— To  raise  Lake  Huron  0.50  foot  by  means  of  compen- 
sating works  near  the  head  of  St.  Clair  River  wouM  recpiire  contrac- 
tion of  this  outlet  sufficient  to  hold  back  about  15,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  of  flow  at  mean  stage,  or  nearly  8  per  cent  of  the  natural 
discharge. 


384      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RI\T:R. 

It  is  believed  safe  to  assume  that  a  minimum  depth  of  25  feet  at 
standard  low  water  and  a  maximum  velocity  of  -U  feet  per  second 
would  in  no  way  prove  detrimental  to  navigation.  It  is  practicable 
to  provide  the  compensation  and  to  keep  within  the  limits  named  by 
improvements  in  the  St.  Clair  River  below  the  mouth  of  Black  River. 
A  series  of  submerged  weirs  with  crests  25  feet  below  low  water 
would  serve  the  purpose.  It  is  estimated  that  11  sets  of  weirs  spaced 
about  one-third  of  a  mile  apart  and  containing  a  total  of  about 
290.000  cubic  yards  of  stone,  will  raise  the  level  of  the  river  above  the 
upper  weir  an  amount  sufficient  to  back  up  Lake  Huron  the  full 
amount  required.  Bank  protection  would  be  required  at  the  ends 
of  the  weirs.    The  cost  would  probably  not  exceed  $1,500,000. 

The  preceding  discussion  of  compensating  works  on  the  various 
rivers  is  based  upon  the  idea  of  compensating  for  the  greatest  diver- 
sions that  are  now  seriously  contemplated,  if  it  should  be  definitely 
decided  that  some  of  these  diversions  shall  be  limited  to  smaller 
amounts  than  those  considered  here,  the  magnitude  and  cost  of  the 
works  would  be  correspondingly  reduced. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  construction  of  such  works  ought 
to  be  a  tentative  process.  A  certain  amount  of  work  should  be  done 
and  the  effect  observed.  Then  more  work  added,  and  so  on,  until 
the  required  amount  of  compensation  has  been  secured.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  highly  desirable  that  a  number  of  automatic  water 
gauges  be  installed  at  the  critical  points  on  the  various  rivers.  These 
should  preferably  be  installed  several  years  before  the  work  is  under- 
taken and  maintained  continuously  until  long  after  it  is  completed. 
The  gauges  now  maintained  by  the  Buffalo  and  Detroit  engineer 
districts  and  by  the  Lake  Survey  will  be  of  great  value  for  this  pur- 
pose but  will  be  quite  insufficient.  They  need  to  be  supplemented  by 
additional  gauges,  and  it  is  important  that  such  additional  gauges 
be  installed  long  before  the  proposed  work  is  undertaken. 

Several  proposals  not  here  discussed  have  been  made  for  regulat- 
ing certain  lake  levels  or  for  compensating  them.  Compensation 
without  regulation  is  effected  by  fixed  works  which  contract  the 
outflow  stream  at  the  bottom  or  the  sides  or  both.  Contraction  at  the 
sides  tends  to  increase  fluctuations  of  level  in  the  pool  above  with 
changes  of  discharge  through  the  outlet.  For  this  reason  such  works 
have  been  avoided  as  much  as  possible  in  the  projects  presented 
above,  although  they  are  somewhat  simpler,  and  are  frequently  sug- 
gested. The  term  controlling  works  denotes  movable  structures 
which  may  be  closed  to  effect  compensation,  and  opened  to  lessen  or 
eliminate  it.  Such  are  the  Stonej'  gates  at  the  Soo,  and  those  planned 
for  the  head  of  Niagara  River  by  the  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep 
Waterways. 

A  proposal  hasj  been  made  to  place  several  somewhat  similar  gates 
of  large  size  within  the  head  of  Niagara  River  not  far  above  the 
International  Bridge,  extending  only  part  way  across  the  river. 
Plans  for  these  works  are  presented  in  the  House  Document  No.  762, 
Sixty-third  Congress,  second  session,  page  35.  It  was  proposed  to 
operate  these  gates  so  as  to  reduce  the  night  flow  and  increase  the 
daylight  flow  of  Niagara  River,  as  well  as  permanently  to  raise  the 
level  of  Lake  Erie.  Somewhat  similar  gates  have  been  proposed  for 
the  St.  Lawrence  River,  witli  a  view  to  holding  up  the  levels  of  that 


Photograph    No.    172.— STEAMER    "B.    F.   JONES'     IN    THE    POE    LOCK 
Length,  530  feet;  breadth,  56.2  feet;  depth,  32  feet;  gross  tonnage.  6,939. 


Photograph    No.   173.— STEAMER   "  B.    F.  JONES"    IN   ST.  CLAIR   P  t  .' f 


Photograph    No.    174.-STEAMER    'J.    PIERPONT    MORGAN'    ENTERING    POL    LOCK. 
Lenoth   580  feet;    breadth,  58  feet;   depth,  27.4  feet;  gross  tonnage,  7.161. 


• 

"> 

\ 

. 

T-/ 

I 

— ^ 

..a^r' 

K  . 

u 

r^ 

^^£u^ 

"-! 

m^ 

hAHH 

^ 

i 

PACKAGE    FREIGHTEP 


P--:tcgrapt,   N?.  176.      PASSENGER    STEAMER     TIONESTA"    IN    ST.  CLAIR   RIVER. 
Length.  li-O  feet;   breadth,  45.2  feet;   depth.  28  feet;   gross  tonnage,  4,329. 


P^    •   .;r-:f  •    No.  177.      P/ 
Lergfh,  358.5  fee' 


;•>  ,  44    '">••.     i»;pth,  23.?   f' 


.    ST.  CLAIR  RIVER. 
jnnage,  4.244. 


Photograph   No.  1 78.— GOVERN  M  ENT    SURVEY   STEAMERS    IN    CLtvtLANu    h/- 


Photograph    No.    179.      LIGHTSHIP    IN    LAKE 


Photograph    No.    180.— A    WHALEBACK    OR    ■PIG.-    LIGHT 


■  .  LSACK.    LOADED. 
This  interesting  type  is  now  obsolete  and  fast  disappearing. 


•>r 


Photograph   No.  182.— EXCU  RSION    STEAMER      TASHMOO'   IN    ST.  CLAIR    RIVER. 
Le'-cth.  302.9  feet:    bresdtb,  37.6  feet:   depth    13.6  feet:    gross  tonnac^e,  1  344. 


Photograph   N 


AND    YACHT 


DIVERSION    or   WATER   FROM   CRKAT    l.AKK.S   AN1»    NlAciAUA    ItlVLR.      385 

river  and  Lake  Ontario,  and  also  of  diininishiiif^'  tlic  How  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  when  the  Ottawa  Kiver  is  in  flood,  and  iinn'usiiijz  it  whon 
the  Ottawa  is  low.  WhiU'  such  re«;idations  oi  river  llow  may  be 
found  desirable  in  the  fiitiue.  it  is  believed  that  the  tiiiif  has  not 
arrived  when  projects  for  such  rcLTidation  need  to  be  di>fuss('d  or 
their  practicability  studied.  Accordin«i;ly,  in  this  investigation  no 
serious  consideration  has  been  <];iven  them. 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs  the  intent  has  bern  to  imiitatc  in  a 
general  way  the  character  and  costs  of  works  whi«'h  seem  most  prac- 
ticable for  restoring  and  maintaining  lake  and  river  levels  in  the 
Great  Lakes  Basin.  Surveys  of  sites  ainl  further  study  and  design  of 
works  are  necessary  before  construction  is  undertaken.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  experiments  U]X)n  lai-ge-si/cd  models  of  sections  of  the 
rivers  and  the  controlling  works  would  lead  t<»  iniproxemeiits  in  de- 
sign fully  justifying  the  expense. 

The  woiks  herein  estimated  have  been  designed  to  care  for  the  full 
effects  not  only  of  present  diversions  but  of  proposed  divi-rsions. 
The  intention  is  to  compensate  for  losses  of  level,  and  not  to  raise 
levels  above  normal  elevations.  Accordingly  the  works  should  be 
installed  a  portion  at  a  time,  so  that  the  parts  complete<l  at  any  given 
time  will  compensate  only  for  the  effects  chargeable  to  diversions 

existing  up  to  that  time. 

^^'.  S.  IvKii.MoNi). 

27880—21 25 


Appendix  F. 
ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  DIVERSIONS. 


[Section   H   of   Mr.    Richmond's  n'i>ort.] 
1.    EFFECT  UPON  NAVIGATION. 

The  lowering  of  the  lake  levels,  discussed  in  Section  G  of  this  re- 
port, causes  a  loss  to  the  community  by  decreasing  the  load  draft 
of  the  Great  Lakes  shipping  and  thereby  increasing  the  cost  of 
transportation.  The  principal  loss  is  in  higher  freight  rates  imposed 
to  offset  decrease  of  revenue  to  the  vessel  owners  due  to  less  amount 
of  cargo  carried  on  each  trip  of  the  deep-draft  vessels.  An  attempt 
will  be  made  to  evaluate  the  loss  caused  by  a  lowering  of  one-tenth 
of  a  foot. 

The  interlake  navigation  channels,  as  improved  and  maintained 
by  the  United  States,  are  now  actually  20  to  22  feet  deep  at  low- 
water  datums,  2  feet  below  the  mean  levels  of  Lakes  Michigan- 
Huron,  and  1  foot  below  the  mean  level  of  Lake  Superior.  They 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows :  Interlake  channels,  St,  Marys  River, 
approach  above  canals  and  locks;  St.  Marys  Falls  Canals  and  Locks ; 
St.  Marys  River,  channels  and  approaches  below  locks;  Grays  Reef 
Passage,  Lake  Michigan;  Lake  Huron,  at  head  of  St.  Clair  River 
and  St.  Clair  River;  Lake  St.  Clair,  and  Flats  Canals;  Detroit 
River. 

The  entrances  to  the  terminal  or  principal  harbors,  as  improved 
and  maintained  by  the  United  States,  are  of  corresponding  depths. 
There  are  about  27  harbors  where  railroad  connections  and  terminal 
facilities  have  been  developed  and  where  interlake  commerce  is  car- 
ried on  in  vessels  drawing  19  feet  or  more  of  water.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  listed  in  Table  No.  49,  which  also  shows  the 
total  receipts  and  shipments  from  each  port  for  the  year  1917. 

Table  No.  49. — Total  receipts  and  shipments  of  freight  for  important  ports  of 
the  Great  Lakes  in  1917. 

Lake  Superior  :  s^'io't  tons. 

Duluth-Superior .^)2.  411,  824 

Two  Harbor-s    (Agate   Bay) 10,773,241 

Ashland 9,  .580.  085 

Presque  Isle   (Marquette  Bay) 2,801,312 

Ports  on  the  Keweenaw  waterway 2,183.274 

Marquette 1, 191,  024 

Lake  Michigan : 

.South  Chicago   (Calumet  Harbor) 10,269.304 

Milwaukee G,  802,  864 

Indiana  Harbor 2.  209, 165 

Chicago 1,  900,  687 

Lake  Huron : 

Calcite 4, 188, 285 

L.'ike  Erie: 

Buffalo 18,  925, 179 

Ashtabula 15,  992,  388 

Cleveland 14.  282.  687 

Toledo 13,  710,  238 

Conneaut 12,  9.36,  298 

Lorain 7,  529,  081 

386 


DIVERSION   OF  WATRR   IT.oM  f;RF..\T  I.AKES  AND  NIAOAHA  RIVKH.     3R7 


Lake  Erie — Contimie.l. 
Fa-\p 

Sandusky  

Huron 

Fairporl: 


ii'ir 


mil  and 
omcc  of 


8bort  toniL 
J.'J.VJ.MIO 

:;  s:;:{.:{:vs 

1(11.813 

Xone  of  the  other  deep-draft  ports  Imvc  a   Irci^'lit  Irallir  amomit- 
ing  to  1,000,000  tons  per  year. 

Other  hike  harbors  are  of  seconchirv  iini)()rtaiici' 
terminal  facilities  or  their  location  with  rcfiM-ciicc  to  th( 
supply  or  destination  of  bulk  freight  are  such  that  their  through 
commerce  at  the  present  time  is  inconsiderable.  These  iiarbors, 
which  may  be  called  local  harbors  to  distinguish  tlioni  from  the  in- 
terlake  harbors,  are  used  for  many  classes  of  local  traffic  by  diflfor- 
ent  sizes  of  vessels,  and  the  classes  of  such  traffic  and  the  sizes  of 
such  vessels  are  subject  to  changes  ranging  from  radical  increases  to 
marked  decreases  or  even  elimination.  It  lias  appeared  impractica- 
ble to  establish  any  standard  depth  for  such  local  harbor-^.  It  must 
be  understood  that  these  harbors  perform  a  very  necessary  purpose 
in  handling  local  traffic,  but  the  exi.sting  (lci)(hs  in  the  main  ship 
channels  are  ample  to  accommodate  all  this  commerce,  and  it  is  rar- 
ried  on  by  vessels  of  lesser  draft  than  those  carrying  the  great  bulk 
of  the  through  freight. 

Load  draft  is  primarily  controlled  by  natural  seaHiuai  tluctu- 
ations  of  lake  levels,  which  consist,  in  genei-al.  of — 

On  Lakes  Michigan-Huron,  and  Lake  Erie:  A  rise  in  Maiili  to 
June;  high  stage,  July  to  September:  fall,  in  October  to  I)ec<'mber; 
lowest  stage  in  January  to  February  (navigation  closed):  range 
from  1^  feet  below  to  one-half  foot  above  mean  lake  level. 

On  Lake  Superior:  A  fall,  in  March  to  April,  to  lowest  stage 
(navigation  being  opened);  rise  in  May  to  August:  high  stage  in 
September  and  October;  fall  in  November  to  February:  range  from 
three-fourths  foot  below  to  one-half  foot  above  mean  lake  level. 

The  draft  of  vessels  in  the  interest  of  avoiding  damage  to  vessels 
by  o-rounding,  as  aifecting  insurance,  and  the  accomidi.shment  of 
tran^sportation  of  the  estimated  amount  of  l)ulk  freight  to  Ije  de- 
livered during  the  season,  is  regulated  to  a  large  extent  by 
of  recommended  drafts,  issued  by  the  Lake  Cai-riers'  Associ; 
shown  in  Table  No.  50. 

Table  No.  dO.— Recommended  draft  for  Lair  firiffhtrr.9.  /.0/7 


notices 
Association,  as 


April 

June 

Aus.  23 

Sept.  5  to  end  of  sea- 
son. 

191S. 

Apr.  9 

Apr.21 

June  6 

Do 

Do 

Oct.  17 

Do 

Do 


20  feet  for  Lakes  St.  Clair  and  Erie ■.■•  v  ;  ••.■■•<;:  •Xi"V' 

20  feet  4  inches  for  Lake  Michipan:  20  feet  2  inches  for  Lakes  St.  Clair 
and  Erie.  ,,,  ,       j  .c.  • 

20  feet  10  inclies  for  Lakes  ^t.  C  air  and  Erie 

21  feet  lOinciiesfor  Lakes  St.  Clair  and  Krie 

21  feet  for  Lake  Michii:an 

19  feet  6  inclies  for  Lake  Superior 

'>0  feet  f.  inclies  for  Lake  PMpenor 

20  feet  H  inches  for  Lake  Michigan . . ..... ..... 

20  feet  i>  inches  for  Lakes  .-^t.  C  lair  and  trie... 

20  feet  for  Lake  Superior 

20  feet  for  T-ake  Mich ican......... 

-'Ofect  for  Lakes  St..  Clair  and  Erie ■ 


Fat. 
872. » 
573.  A 

.^73  « 

573  to  S 

673.  ft 


5HI.4 
WIS 
fvi  7 


^'2 


388      DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FROM   GRKAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  EIMUR. 
Taule  No.  50. — Recommended  draft  for  Lake  freighters,  1917 — Continued. 


Apr.  17. 
May  9... 
June"... 
June  13. 
Julv  1... 
Oct.  17.. 


Buffalo  Harbor. 


Ponncr 
Steel  Co. 


Ft.    in. 


18    6 


Above 

Ohio 

Street 

bridge. 


Ft.    in. 


19    3 


19  19 


Lehiph 
A'alley 
and  in- 
side 
docks. 


I-akc 
front 
docks. 


Ft.    in.  I  Ft. 


19    4 


19  C 

20  6 


19  8 

20  3 
20 


Ashta- 
bula 
Harbor. 


Ft.    in. 
20 
20    6 


20 


Conneaut 
Harbor. 


Ft.    in. 


19 
20    6 


No  recommendations  are  issued  for  harbors  at  Cleveland,  Lorain, 
Huron.  Sandusky,  or  Toledo. 

It  will  Ije  noted  that  the  above  recommended  drafts  for  the  inter- 
lake  waterway  are  not  uniformly  consistent  with  rise  and  fall  of 
water  level,  and  it  is  to  be  stated  that  these  four  harbors,  especially 
Buffalo  Harbor,  indicate  the  influence  of  inner  harbor  conditions 
upon  load  draft. 

Nearly  all  of  the  "  bulk  freight "  traffic  of  the  upper  lakes  is  carried 
in  large  vessels  of  from  3.000  to  15,000  short  tons  cargo  capacity. 
The  vessels  habitually  load  to  a  draft  of  19  feet  or  over,  depending 
upon  the  available  depth.  They  carry  the  greatest  possible  load 
which  they  can  get  over  the  critical  points  in  their  journey,  and 
every  lowering  of  the  lake  level  deprives  them  of  that  much  carrying 
capacity. 

The  following  study  of  the  effect  on  this  traffic  of  one-tenth  of  a 
foot  lowering  of  lake  level  is  based  upon  data  contained  in  the 
Statistical  Report  of  Lake  Commerce  Passing  Through  Canals  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich.,  and  Ontario,  the  List  of  Merchant  Ves- 
sels of  the  United  States,  ajid  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association. 

Since  the  building  of  the  first  500-foot  vessel,  the  Augustus  B.  Wol- 
vin,  in  190-i.  of  the  ships  expressly  built  for  the  bulk  freight  trade  of 
the 'upper  lakes  only  one  has  been  less  than  400  feet  in  length.  The 
fleet  now  consists  of  530  vessels  with  a  total  cargo  capacity  of  3.900,- 
000  short  tons  for  a  single  trip.  This  fleet  may  be  approximately 
classified  as  to  size  as  in  Table  51. 

Table  51. — Classification  of  Lake  freighters  by  size. 


Typical  dimen- 

In- 

sions. 

Cargo  ca- 

crease 
of  ca- 
pacity, 
in  short 
tons, 
per  0.1 
foot  of 

Per- 

Num- 
ber of 
vessels 
in  class. 

pacity, 
short 

tons,  at 
19  feet 
draft. 

centage 
of  total 
vearly 
freight 
carried. 

Regis- 
tered 

tonnage. 

Length 
overall. 

Beam. 

draft. 

280 

40 

85 

3,000 

31 

10 

2,400 

370 

45 

124 

5.. 500 

47 

10 

3,500 

460 

52 

158 

-,rm 

68 

34 

5,100 

570 

56 

121 

10,500 

92 

26 

6,800 

600 

60 

42 

12,000 

104 

20 

7,700 

DIVERSION   OF  WATER    FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAiiAHA   HIVKU.     389 

As  Table  51  shows,  at  the  (trdinarv  l<nul  tliiift  tlir  vih'<{  of  a 
reduction  of  one-tenth  of  a  foot  is  to  rechu'e  tin-  fivi;:lu  <  apm  ity  of 
the  vessels  by  from  81  to  104  short  tons.  Tin'  w«M|.rht»'(l  inraii.  husfd 
upon  the  percentaoes  of  the  total  yearly  freif^ht  carricil.  is  7r».G  hhurt 
tons  per  tenth  of  a  foot  of  draft,  or  ^V^  short  tons  |)er  inch. 

Of  the  42  vessels  in  the  C.OO-foot  class.  cii:ht  are  of  iiioic  than  «.000 
tons  register.    Table  52  oives  the  dimensions  of  the  three  largest. 

Tablk  52. — Dimension  of   the  3   Imycsl    fniyhl    rtMHch   tm    ihr   (hre*tt   lAiket. 


Name. 

Lenfrth 
over  all. 

Beam. 

Depth. 

32 
33 
33 

crwl  ! 

Ilftfic. 

'.of 

:    I  of 
Onft. 

W.  Grant  Morden 

ci: 

61J 

R.974 
8,003 
»,6(B 

13,721 
15. 148 

1  '.  -r> 

lf.7.» 

Col.  James  M.  Schoonmaker 

Wm.  P.  Snyder,  jr 

113.3 

m  2 

Photographs  Nos.  172  to  183  illustrate  the  various  types  of  ships 
used  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  amount  of  bulk  freight  shipped  varies  considerably  from  year 
to  year.  For  use  in  these  studies  the  mean  of  the  four  years  ending 
in  1918  has  been  taken.  The  chief  commodities  incliuled  in  this  class 
are  four — namely,  iron  ore,  grain,  limestone,  and  coal.  The  averages 
for  the  years  mentioned  were  as  in  Table  Xo.  53. 

Table  No.  53.— B«/A:  freight  carried  in  commerce  on  thr  Great  Lokes. 


I  PfTCtnt- 

Sliort  ton«.     OKOOf 
toUi). 


Iron  ore,  east  to  Lake  Michigan I  ^ . 

Iron  ore,  east  to  Lake  Erie 


Total  iron  ore . 


Grain,  east  from  Lake  Michigan. 
Grain,  east  from  Lake  Superior.. 


Total  grain. 


Stone,  west  to  Lake  Michigan. 
Stone,  east  to  Lake  Erie 


Total  stone. 


Coal,  west  to  Lake  Mieliigan . 
Coal,  west  to  Lake  Superior.. 


(«»I,IH»1 

,000,000 


4, 

6,000,  ono 


wi.mn 


Total  coal . . . 
Grand  total . 


10.3 


lis 


ft.a 


Bulk  freight  rates  are  subject  to  co..siaen.l.K.  nu,-.u;a,on  au.1  w..,-e 

states   ShiDpina-  Board)    as  "base   ratci,      U)   ami   mm      n 
^^Mr.  "    «  Slow^locks  "  pav  whatever  is  necessary  above  "  ban-  r. 

Slow  docks"  are   lose  not  only  deficient  in  transfer  facd.t.e^  ... 

hlow  ctocKS     die  uiu        .^,     ,  •    ,.  „^.,.^.^^   „  inner  harboi-s  or  where 
also  those  comparatively  ditlKUit  oi  a(<e. . 
depth  of  water  is  lacking. 


390      DIVERSION  OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 


Diiring  the  Avar  freijiht  rates,  like  everything  else,  arose  to  iiii- 
prececlented  heights,  reaching  a  maxiniuni  in  1918.  What  the  future 
rates  -will  be  is,  of  course.  unknoAvn,  but  it  appears  to  be  the  general 
opinion  that  they  will  decline  someAvhat,  although  a  return  to  prewar 
conditions  i.-=  not  to  be  expected.  At  the  beginning  of  the  1919  season 
rates  declined  10  or  15  per  cent  below  the  191S  level.  For  the  purpose 
of  this  study  rates  have  been  taken  at  To  per  cent  of  tlie  values  in 
1918.  Table  Xo.  54  gives  the  rates  prevailing  in  1918.  The  column 
heailed  '"  Mean  "  contains  the  mean  rate  obtained  by  weighting  each 
rate  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  traiKc  subject  to  it. 

Table  No.  .j4. — Estimated  Laic  freitjht  rates. 


Roule. 


Ore: 

To  Lake  Michigan.... 
To  Lake  Erie 

Grain: 

PYom  Lake  .Michigan 
Ftom  Lake  Superior. 

Coal: 

To  Lake  Micliigan 

To  Lake  Superior 

Stone: 

To  Lake  Michigan 

To  Lake  Krie 


Rate  per 

short 
ton,  1918. 


Weighted 
mean, 
1918. 


$0.76  \ 
.89   / 

L17  \ 
1.5.3   I 

.58   \ 
.48   I 

.10  ;/ 


$0.86 


1.41 


.Vdopted, 


SO.  65 
1.06 
.39 
.56 


Revenue 
per  0.1- 
fool  draft 
and  75.6 
sliort 
tons. 


$49. 14 
80.14 
29.  48 
42.34 


Weighting  each  value  in  the  last  column  by  the  per  cent  of  the 
total  freight  movement  which  that  commodity  constitutes,  the 
weighted  mean  value  of  the  revenue  lo.st  through  reduction  of  one- 
tenth  of  a  foot  in  the  available  draft  is  found  to  be  $44.57  for  each 
trip  of  a  loaded  vessel. 

As  the  fleet  of  530  vessels  has  a  total  capacity  of  3,900,000  short 
tons  per  trip,  the  mo\  ement  of  the  annual  shipment  of  97,000,000  tons 
requires  25  trips.  A  lowering  of  the  lake  level  of  one-tenth  of  a  foot 
would  cause  an  annual  loss  of  revenue  to  vessel  owners  in  25  single 
trips  of  530X25X44.57=$590,000,  and  this  loss  would  have  to  be 
made  good  by  an  increase  in  rates. 

The  normal  schedule  of  lake  freight  vessels  is  to  make  20  round 
trips  per  navigation  season  of  about  240  days.  This  is  not  fully 
realized,  due  to  delays  caused  by  sea  and  fog,  by  repairs  to  machinery, 
and  by  accidents  ranging  from  those  requiring  a  few  days  for  repairs 
to  hull,  to  wrecking,  and  consequent  withdrawal  from  the  fleet. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  while  the  normal  freight  movement  could  be 
accomplished  by  the  whole  fleet  making  17  ''going  trips"  with  iron 
ore  and  grain  and  stone,  and  by  8  ''return  trips"  with  coal,  it  is 
really  accomplished  by  some  of  the  fleet,  notably  the  larger  vessels, 
making  20  or  more  round  trips,  and  the  others  making  a  lesser  num- 
ber of  trips,  with  frequent  "  return  "  trips  without  cargo.  As  the 
above  figures  arc  all  leased  on  weighted  means,  the  correctness  of  the 
computation  is  not  affected  by  these  facts. 

Theie  is  one  circumstance  that  tends  to  reduce  tlie  alxtve  figure  a 
trifle.  AVhen  the  load  draft  of  a  boat  is  reduced  by  one-tenth  of  a 
foot,  there  is,  theoretically,  a  slight  reduction  in  the  coal  consump- 


DlVEr.SION   OF  WATER  FROM  GRKAT  l.AKKS  AND  NIAGABA   lllVKIl.     391 

tion  required  to  drive  the  boat  ut  its  iKjrmal  spei'd.  The  exiut  aiiiounl 
of  this  can  not  be  determined,  but  it  wouKI  si-ein  il-  ••  '•'  mhisI  be  very 
small  indeed. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  several  iieins  of  In--  ii  \r>sel  owners 
or  shippers  that  have  not  been  considrrcil.  If  the  avera^i*  vi-sk-I  loud 
is  reduced  75.6  tons  per  trip,  then  in  25  trips  the  ll»'«'t  will  rurry 
1,000,000  tons  less.  In  a  busy  season  this  iiiijrhl  load  to  extra  trips 
after  the  official  close  of  navigation  when  insurance  i.>>  hi^dier  and 
accidents  are  more  frequent.  It  mi<j:hl  even  lead  to  some  of  the 
freight  bein^:  shipped  by  rail  at  a  great  advaJice  in  rates. 

Further,  there  will  be  loss  to  the  secontl-class  shipping,  the  ves.sjls 
drawing  from  10  to  18  feet.  Many  of  these  tratle  into  second-cla.ss 
ports  where  depths  are  much  less  than  in  the  large  ports,  carrying 
the  greatest  cargo  that  the  depth  of  water  will  allow.  .\ny  lowc-ring 
of  lake  levels  reduces  their  carrying  capacity  exactly  as  m  the  "-a.-e 
of  the  bulk  freighters. 

Again,  there  will  be  some  vessels  which  are  just  able  to  carry  their 
full  loads  after  the  levels  have  been  lowered,  but  nevertheless  have  an 
appreciably  diminished  clearance  under  tlieir  keels.  'Hd^  leads  to 
losses  through  reduced  speeds  and  creates  gieater  probability  of  dam- 
age by  stranding  or  collision. 

These  four  items  are  all  small.  One  is  of  a  nature  tending  to  re- 
duce the  figure  of  $590,000  arrived  at  as  the  annual  loss  due  to  a  one- 
tenth  foot  reduction  in  lake  levels.  The  other  three  tend  to  i\\- 
crease  it.  .-it 

Nearly  all  the  traffic  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  is  carried  on  by 
vessels  loaded  to  the  greatest  draft  wliich  they  can  take  thnuigh  the 
locks  of  the  Canadian  canals.  The  available  informati(ui  about  this 
traffic  is  not  so  extensive  as  in  the  case  of  the  upper  lake  shipping, 
but  there  is  sufficient  data  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  result  of  lake 
lowering.  .  . 

The  ships  engaged  in  this  trade  are  limited  in  size  by  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  locks,  which  are  270  feet  long  from  center  to  center  of 
hollow  quoins.  45  feet  wide,  and  about  14  feet  deep  at  ordinary  low 
water  A  typical  vessel  of  this  .lass  is  of  l.GOO  tons  register;  length. 
250  feet  over  all;  beam,  40  feet:  molded  depth,  19  feet ;  max. mum 
cargo  capacity,  about  2,500  short  tons.  These  ve>sels  liabitually 
load  to  the  greatest  draft  which  they  ran  get  over  the  sills  of  the 
locks.  Any  lowering  of  lake  levels  causes  a  rorrespondiiig  reduction 
in  load  draft  and  cargo  capacity.  A  lowering  of  oiie-tentii  of  a  f.x.t 
reduces  the  capacity  by  about  23  short  tons  ,  , ,. .  i,.  ♦!». 

As  an  exainple  of  the  larger  vessels  biidt  for  the  .  anal  n^;  t«  he 
steamer  B.  L.  Barnes  may  be  mentioned.  She  is  2(»0  feet  "»S  «^^« 
all,  43.2-foot  beam,  and  21.5-foot  molded  <lepth.  Her  reg.stere.  t<m- 
nage  is  1.914  tons  and  maximum  .  argo  capaci  v  '^f\]^ll\  Jl'J^ 
creased  capacity  <lue  to  a  reduction  ..f  one-tenth  of  a  f<K.t  m  diaft  is 

^^Durili  the  war  vessels  of  over  2.500  tons  register  were  built  on 
th?LaS  and  passed  through  the  canals  for  use  ''"  ^  >*;^;;;-;;;.7/-«^ 
vessels  were  not  adapted  to  the  lake  tra.le  and  could  not  can>  heir 
full  cai^o  through  the  locks,  therefore  they  need  not  i>e  considered 

^"^The'^averaoe  freight  movement  on  the  St.  Lawrenre  canals  is  about 
3,7^0,000  shoiVtonS  per  year.    By  far  the  greater  part  of  this  con- 


392      PIVERSIOX   OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

sists.  in  about  equal  proportions,  of  coal  from  Lake  Ontario  and 
grain  from  Lake  Superior.  The  small  remainder  is  chiefly  lumber 
and  package  freight.  In  1917  and  1918  the  rate  for  coal  was  $1.50 
per  short  ton.  The  grain  rate  was  $3.26  per  short  ton  in  1917,  and  is 
understood  to  have  been  somewhat  higher  in  1918,  although  the 
exact  figure  is  not  at  hand.  For  the  years  following  the  war  the 
mean  rate  on  these  two  commodities  may  reasonably  be  considered 
$1.80  per  short  ton.  T'sing  this  figure,  the  loss  due  to  a  lake  lowering  of 
one-tenth  of  a  foot  is  23X$1.80=$41.40  for  each  trip  of  a  vessel. 

The  number  of  vessels  in  the  fleet  and  their  total  capacity  is  not 
known  nor  is  the  number  of  loaded  trips.  The  maximum  cargoes 
carried  are  about  2,600  tons.  It  is  probable  tliat  the  average  does 
not  exceed  2.200  tons. 

Adopting  this  figure,  the  loss  due  to  one-tenth  of  a  foot  lowering 
of  lake  level  is  $41.40  for  each  2.200  short  tons  of  freight  moved, 
or  about  $70,000  for  the  total  freight  moved  per  year.  This  is  the 
loss  to  ships  using  the  St.  Lawrence  canals  caused  by  a  lowering  of 
one-tenth  of  a  foot  at  any  of  the  locks  of  those  canals. 

Table  Xo.  47,  Section  Gl.  shoAvs  the  total  lowering  of  each  lake 
caused  by  all  the  existing  diversions.  At  mean  stage  the  lowering 
is  0.47  foot  on  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron.  0.7G  on  Lake  Erie,  and 
0.62  at  Lock  No.  25  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  If  the  whole  bulk 
freight  traffic  of  the  upper  lakes  entered  Lake  Erie  the  annual  loss 
caused  by  the  lowering  would  be  7.6X590.000— $4,484,000.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  only  about  88  per  cent  of  the  total  traffic  uses  this 
lake  and  the  loss  to  it  is  0.88X4,484.000=$3.946.000.  The  loss  to 
the  remaining  12  per  cent  on  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  is  0.12X 
4.7X590,000=$333.000.  The  loss  to  the  traffic  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
canals  is  6.2X70,000=$434,000.  The  total  loss  is  the  sum  of  those 
three  amounts,  or  $4,713,000  per  year. 

The  lowering  at  Lock  25  of  the  St.  Lawrence  canals  is  greater 
than  has  been  observed  at  any  other  point  along  that  part  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  Eiver  bordering  upon  the  United  States,  and  this 
lowering  has  been  used  in  the  above  comi)utation.  It  is  credibly 
reported  that  the  lowering  is  greater  in  the  })urely  Canadian  por- 
tions of  the  river.  If  the  lowering  said  to  occur  at  Montreal  is  con- 
sidered, the  total  loss  will  be  increased  from  $4,713,000  to  $4,758,000 
per  year. 

Table  No.  48,  Section  G3.  shoAvs  the  lowering  that  would  be  caused 
if  all  the  diversions  now  contemplated  should  bo  added  to  those 
already  existing.  The  amount  is  0.76  foot  for  Lakes  Michigan  and 
Huron,  1.27  for  Lake  P^ric.  and  0.99  for  Lock  25,  St.  Lawrence  canals. 
Computing  the  amount  of  this  loss  in  the  same  manner  as  above 
gives  a  total  of  $7,825,000  per  year.  If  the  reported  lowering  at 
Montreal  is  adopted  the  amount 'is  $7,913,000  per  year.  Capitalized 
at  5  per  cent  this  represents  an  investment  loss  of  $158,260,000. 

It  is  of  interest  to  compute  separately  the  effect  of  the  Chicago 
diversion.  The  present  diversion  of  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second 
through  the  sanitary  canal  lowers  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  0.43 
foot;  Lake  Erie,  0.41  foot:  and  Lock  25.  0.62  foot.  The  total  loss 
to  shipping  is  $2,866,000  per  year;  this  is  $326  per  year  for  each 
cubic  foot  per  second  diverted  or  $332  if  the  Montreal  figure  is  used. 


DIVEKSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAllAHA   lUVKIl.     393 

The  power  diversions  at  Niapani  Falls,  wliiili  an-  taken  fn.m  the 
Cluppawa-Grass  Island  pool,  lower  the  upper  lakes.  An  efTe<tive 
diversion  of  23,000  ciihic  feet  per  se<-(.n(l  lowers  Lakes  Mi.-hcMii 
and  Huron  0.01  foot:  Lake  P:rie.  0.10;  and  Lock  No.  -j:*,  none.  This 
amounts  to  a  loss  of  $52G.0O0  per  year,  or  $23  p«'r  year  for  each  eul.ic 
foot  per  second  di\erted. 

In  order  that  the  ma^niitudc  and  ini|)orlan.r  ,,1'  the  frei^rht  tiallic 
of  the  Great  Lakes  may  be  better  realized,  table  No.  55  has  Ix'on 
prepared.  This  is  a  comparison  of  the  total  net  re^isU^r  tonnajre  of 
ships  enterin<T  and  leavinp:  the  important  ports  of  the  worhl  in  the 
most  recent  year  for  which  liL^ures  are  at  hand  and  also  the  total 
passinof  through  the  most  inipoitant  waterways.  Figures  for  the 
Great  Lakes  are  from  the  Chief  of  Engineer's  lie'port  for  llMs.  nnd  t  he 
others  are  from  the  World  Almanac  for  1019. 


Table  No.   55. — Neti  registered   tonnage   entered   mid   elenrcd    from    important 
ports  or  passing  through  important  iratencai/.s  in  most  recent  year  for  ichich 

statistics  are  published. 


Port  or  waterway. 


Year. 


Net 
registered 
tonnage. 


Detroit  River ' 

St.  Marys  River  and-nanal '.. 
Duluth-SuperioT,    Minnesota 

and  Wisconsin' 

Hongkong-Victoria,  China 

Antwerp,  Belgium 

Hamburg,  Germanv 

New  York,  N.Y 

London,  England 

Liverpool,  England 

Lisbon,  Portugal 

Bufialo,  N.  Y.i 

Shanghai,  China 

Cardiff,  Wales 

Ashtabula,  Ohio ' 

Cleveland,  Ohioi 

Constantinople,  Turkey 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina 

Ports  on  Tyne  River,  Scotland 
Singapore,  Straits  Settlements 

Toledo,  Ohioi 

Gibraltar,  Gibraltar 

Suez  Canal 


1917 
1917 

1917 
1917 
1912 
1913 
1917 
1914 
1914 
1914 
1917 
1916 
1914 
1917 
1917 
1913 
1912 
1914 
1916 
1917 
1913 
1916 


69,267,723 
65,307,233 

39,689,131 
34,000,000 
27,479,000 
26,189,000 
26,100,000 
23,4.59,000 
22,772,000 
18,543,000 
17,363,868 
16,819,000 
16,223,000 
1.5,014,069 
15,080,058 
14,319,000 
14,247,000 
13,241,000 
13,224,000 
13,121,849 
12,476,000 
12,325,347 


Kobe,  Japan 

Conneaut,  Ohio ' 

Genoa,  Italy 

Naples,  Italy 

Two  Harbors.  Minn.' 

Montevideo,  UniRuay 

Colombo ,  ( 'cylon 

Moji,  Japan 

Southampton,  England . . 

Rio  Janeiro.  Hrar.il 

Marseilles,  France 

Rotterdam ,  Holland 

Piraeus,  Greece 

Havana,  Cuba 

Ashhland,  Wls.i 

Lorain,  Ohio' 

Trieste,  Austria 

Coponhaecn,  Denmark. . . 

Milwaukee,  Wis.' 

Yokohama ,  Japan 

Cape  Town,  South  Africa. 
Panama  Canal 


Yftir 


1910 

1917 

1914 

lOU 

1917 

1917 

1915 

1916 

19U 

191t. 

1916 

191- 

191 ; 

191' 

1917 

191 : 

191 

19r.' 

191- 

191'. 

191' 

HIT 


11. 
11. 

lo,4:..,'«x» 
io,i.'>»,ooo 

10,019,M3 
10,000,000 
9,776,000 

o.saz.ooo 

U,  31)7, 000 
S,ft«>,Otl0 

^.Ti'l.noo 


1  Ports  and  waterways  are  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  Detroit  River  is  the  most  used  wa- 
terway in  the  world,  while  the  ship  canals  at  the  Sault  are  a  clo.se 
second.  Either  of  these  carries  three  and  one-half  times  as  much 
freight  in  the  open  season  of  about  eight  and  one-half  nuui  h.s  as 
the  Panama  and  Suez  Canals  together  carry  in  a  ^"IVTo'.n/of  the 
leads  the  ports  of  the  world  by  a  deci.le.l  margin.  ;\"^^  ^^^  out  of  he 
40  leadini  ports  are  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Ihis  is  the  more  remnik- 
ablias  a'l  of  the  other  ports  are  ice-free  ^'VTf '^TonnlVfrC  rh 
the  Great  Lakes'  commerce  is  almost  completely  stopped  f.^r  n.  u  \y 

'  tt'louW  bVemphasized  that  the  Great  Lakes  waterway  is  a  na- 
tionalSset  which  benefits  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  annual  sav- 
ing m  freight  rates  due  to  tl-  -  of  Jake^   es.eh  -  H-.,;;^ j-)^. 

^^:f^:^^^'^^  ^^r  ijio^n  and  steel  trade  is  based  en- 


3[)4    in\Etii-Loy:  oi'  w'atkh  from  great  lakes  and  Niagara  kiver. 

tirely  on  this  waterway.  Xo  part  of  the  world  produces  iron  ore 
in  such  quantities  or  so  cheaply  as  the  northern  parts  of  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  The  great  coal  deposits  of  Pennsylvania 
and  ^^'erit  Virginia  offer  unequaled  supplies  of  fuel.  The  great  ad- 
vantage which  these  facts  offer  for  the  production  of  steel  is  handi- 
capped by  the  great  distance,  nearly  1,000  miles,  that  separates  the 
ore  from  the  fuel.  That,  in  spite  of  this  handicap,  the  United 
kTtates  has  become  the  greatest  and  cheapest  producer  of  steel  is  due 
very  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  development  of  the  bulk  freighter  of 
tiie  Crreat  Lakes  has  linked  the  iron  mines  with  the  coal  supply  by 
a  system  of  transportation  whose  cheapness  is  not  even  approached 
by  that  of  any  other  route.  Millions  of  tons  of  freight  have  been 
transported  at  rates  as  low  as  five-hundredths  of  a  cent  per  ton-mile. 
Kailroad  rates  on  similar  traffic  have  rarely  been  as  low  as  three- 
tenths  of  a  cent  per  ton-mile,  which  is  six  times  the  lake  rate.  The 
magnitude  of  this  industry  may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  the  total 
shipment  of  ore  in  lake  vessels  since  1855  amounts  to  over  three 
quarters  of  a  billion  long  tons.  The  record  year  was  1916,  in  which 
over  01.000,000  long  tons  were  carried.  Since  that  year  the  yearly 
movement  has  not  fallen  below  60,000,000  long  tons. 

This  is  a  condition  from  which  the  whole  country  benefits.  The 
steel  produced  from  this  ore  is  used  in  every  part  of  the  United 
States  and  forms  a  part  of  almost  ever}^  tool  of  our  civilization  from 
the  needle  to  the  locomotive.  It  is  generalh^  recognized  that  the 
volume  of  the  steel  trade  is  the  best  index  of  the  prosperity  of  the 
country. 

The  grain  and  coal  traffic  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  less  in  magnitude 
than  the  ore  traffic,  but  is  nevertheless  of  very  great  importance.  The 
grain  movement  varies  from  200,000,000  to  over  400,000,000  bushels 
per  annum.  This  grain,  about  70  per  cent  of  which  is  wheat,  comes 
from  the  grain-raising  States  of  the  INIiddle  West  and  Northwest  and 
from  the  western  Provinces  of  Canada.  It  forms  a  very  important 
2)art  of  the  food  supply  of  the  eastern  and  southeastern  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  the  eastern  parts  of  Canada,  while  a  considerable 
proportion  of  it  ultimately  goes  to  Europe.  The  freight  rates  are  ex- 
tremely low,  the  prewar  rate  from  Duluth  to  Buffalo  being  less  than 
five-hundredths  of  a  cent  per  ton-mile,  while  the  rate  for  1918  was  only 
two-tenths  of  a  cent  per  ton-mile.  The  Great  Lakes  thus  form  a  very 
important  factor  in  the  distribution  of  the  bread  supply,  their  service 
being  a  benefit  both  to  the  western  farmer  and  the  eastern  and  south- 
ern consumer. 

Of  the  coal  production  of  the  United  States,  more  than  two-thirds 
comes  from  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Oliio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 
l*ractically  none  is  produced  from  the  great  region  west  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  north  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  a  large  part  of  the  fuel 
supply  for  these  regions  is  shipped  b}-  way  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
Canada  is  also  largely  dependent  upon  the  United  States  for  coal,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  movement  of  coal  by  water  to  Canadian  ports 
on  Lakes  Superior,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  while  over  1,000,000  tons  per 
year  are  shipped  to  Montreal  from  American  ports  on  Lake  Ontario. 
About  one-quarter  of  a  million  tons  are  shipped  down  the  St.  Lawrence 
for  distribution  to  northern  Xew  York  and  New  England.  The  total 
shipments  of  coal  by  lake  average  about  30,000,000  tons  per  annum. 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKKS  AM)  NIAGARA  RIVEH.     395 

Coal  shipped  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Superior  ^ets  a.  reiiiarkul»ly 
low  rate,  as  it  goes  in  vessels  which  wonM  ullu'rwise  have  to  relurii 
in  ballast  for  their  next  cargo  of  ore.  In  I'JM  >liipiiu'nt>  from  liiitralo. 
amounting  to  over  1,000,000  tons,  paid  an  a\erage  rate  of  0.o;i2i>  cent 
2:)er  ton-mile,  Avhich  is  probably  a  record  for  ihc  cliea})  movement  of 
ireiglit.    Even  in  1U18  the  rate  was  only  0.05.".:.  cent  i>er  ton-mile. 

Coal  is  as  necessary  to  modern  imiustry  as  is  .sLeel,  and  in  the«>e 
northern  latitudes  it  is  as  much  a  necessity  of  life  as  wheat.  A  very 
large  part  of  the  northern  United  States  and  more  than  half  of  Canada 
depends  upon  the  lake  trade  for  coal.  This  coal  could  not  be  carricii 
b}'  rail  without  a  great  increase  in  railroad  eipiipment,  and  then  onlv 
at  a  much  higher  rate.  Anthracite  coal  delivered  at  Duluth  by  rail 
would  probabl}^  cost  $3  or  $-1  per  ton  more  than  if  <"nried  by  wa'u-r. 

2.    EFFECT  UPON  KirAltlAX    INTEUEfeTS. 

The  shore  line  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  their  ccmnccting  cha!inel.->  is 
more  than  8,300  miles  in  length.  Over  the  greater  part  of  this  ilis- 
tance  the  shore  has  the  following  characteristics:  A  sloping  •'  beach  " 
extends  from  some  distance  below  the  low-water  mark  to  above  ordi- 
nary high  water.  This  beach  may  consist  of  sand,  gravel,  bowlder.>5, 
or  even  of  ledge  rock.  Behind  it,  in  most  places,  is  a  sort  of  mound 
or  barrier  composed  of  material  cast  up  by  the  greatest  storra>.  If 
this  material  is  sand  it  may  be  built  up  by  the  winds  into  dunes  sev- 
eral hundred  feet  in  height.  Behind  the  mound  the  natural  upland 
country  is  found,  be  it  forest,  arable  land,  or  marsh. 

A  lowering  or  raising  of  the  lake  level  along  most  of  these  .«hoies 
has  no  effect  whatever  on  the  value  of  this  laiul.  It  merely  moves  the 
water  line  a  few  feet  up  or  down  the  beach,  covering  or  uncovering  a 
little  of  the  valueless  sand  or  gravel.  If  the  level  is  lowered  the  land- 
owner's holding  of  dry  land  is  increased  a  tritie  but  he  is  none  the 
richer  thereby.  No  marketable  grass  or  other  crop  will  grow  upon 
the  barren  strip  thus  exposed.  He  can  build  no  permanent  structure 
on  it  for,  whether  the  stage  be  high  or  low,  the  greatest  storms  will 
hurl  their  destructive  waves  clear  across  tlie  beach  to  the  barrier  in 
the  rear.  If  the  level  is  raised  the  owner  looses  a  few  s(iuare  feet  of 
land,  but  it  is  land  which  was  of  no  value  to  him  and  he  is  none  the 

poorer.  ,.       ,  *•    i 

The  above  statements  hold  true  over  by  far  the  greater  part  ol  the 
shore  line  of  the  Great  Lakes,  but  there  are  places  where  i-lumges  m 
the  level  of  the  lakes  are  a  matter  of  interest  to  the  ni)arian  owners. 
In  places  marshv  lands  adjoin  tlie  lakes  or  their  tributaries,  and  the 
value  is  increased  bv  low  stages  of  the  lakes.  Ihe  land  in  the  delta 
of  the  St.  Clair  Kiver  is  a  typical  example.  Here  are  many  .-.-luare 
miles  of  low,  wet  land  on  which  grows  a  heavy  croi.  of  coarse,  wild 
grasses.  In  wet  seasons  when  Lake  St.  Clair  is  high  these  can  not  be 
harvested,  but  if  the  lake  level  is  low  the  marsh  dries  out  enough 
to  carry  the  weight  of  men  and  horses  and  a  considerable  (pmntity  of 
what  IS  known  as  "  marsh  hay  "  is  gathered.  1  his  is  not  suitab  e  for 
stock  feed  but  has  a  small  market  value,  being  u.sed  largely  as  a  i,ack- 

"I'gfS^s  of  land  such  as  this  are  fjmnd  arcM.nd  ^^]^-^;^y 
on  Lake  Huron,  and  around   Maumee   Bay  on   Lake   Erie,     .^o.nc 


396      DWERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  A^'I)  ^•IAGARA  RIVER. 

is  also  found  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  and  the  east  shore 
of  Lake  MichiL^an.  and  there  is  a  very  little  on  Lake  Superior. 
Although  this  huul  amounts  to  a  good  many  square  miles,  the 
increase  of  value  at  low  stages  amounts  to  very  little,  as  the  crop 
brings  a  very  low  price  which  barely  pa.ys  for  harvesting  it  and 
over  much  of  this  area  marsh  hay  is  not  gathered  at  all. 

Wherever  land  of  this  type  is  found  there  is  usually  a  small  area 
of  land  of  a  much  more  valuable  nature.  This  is  rich,  black  muck 
wliich  can  be  used  to  raise  celery  and  other  valuable  truck  in  seasons 
of  low  water,  but  is  too  wet  for  successful  culture  in  other  years.  A 
low  stage  of  water  is  a  very  valuable  asset  to  the  owner  of  land  of 
this  type.  The  total  amount  of  sui-h  land  is  small.  The  most 
important  examples  are  at  Irondequoit  Bay  on  Lake  Ontario  and 
in  some  of  the  harbors  on  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 

Along  the  tributary  and  connecting  rivers  and  the  sheltered 
inlets  of  the  Great  Lakes  the  owner  of  the  riparian  lands  is  usually 
benefited  by  moderately  high  stages  of  water.  In  such  places 
nearly  every  riparian  owner  has  a  boat  of  some  sort,  and  small 
docks,  boat  houses,  dredged  slips,  and  similar  structures  are  found 
in  great  abundance.  These  are  usually  built  to  suit  the  prevailing 
stages  and  lose  a  great  deal  of  their  value  if  the  level  falls  to  a  lower 
stage.  In  summer-resort  districts,  such  as  the  Thousand  Islands  and 
the  St.  Clair  Flats,  hundreds  of  such  structures  are  to  be  found 
Avithin  a  few  miles.  The  advantage  due  to  higher  stages  is  not  uni- 
versal even  in  such  instances ;  for  in  places  like  Buffalo,  along  Buf- 
falo Creek,  the  damage  from  floods  is  increased  and  sites  for  liouses 
are  made  less  dry  and  desirable. 

It  has  been  the  general  experience  of  the  War  Department  that 
years  of  abnormally  high  water  cause  but  little  comment,  but  that 
every  season  of  unusually  low  stage  brings  a  great  number  of  com- 
plaints of  damages  done  and  requests  for  information  as  to  the  cause 
of  these  Ioav  levels  and  the  possibilities  of  preventing  them. 

With  the  data  at  hand  it  is  impossible  to  evaluate  these  effects  in 
dollars  and  cents.  It  is  believed  they  do  not  form  a  very  large  or 
important  factor  of  the  problem  of  lake  levels. 

3.    VALUE   TO    CHICAGO   OF   ITS    DI^'ERSI0N. 

There  are  no  impartial  studies  available  of  the  question  of  the 
value  to  Chicago  of  its  diversion. 

The  following  statements  are  taken  from  the  testimony  presented 
by  tlie  sanitary  district  in  the  case  of  United  States  v.  Sanitary  Dis- 
trict of  Chicago.  The  expert  witnesses  from  Avhose  testimony  this 
data  is  taken  were  men  of  eminence  in  their  several  professions  and 
their  testimony  bears  evidence  of  considerable  study.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  these  statements  were  entirely  of  an  ex 
parte  nature  and  intended  to  advance  the  cause  of  the  sanitary  dis- 
trict in  the  suit  in  which  they  were  presented. 

From  an  analysis  of  the  typhoid-fever  rate  for  the  13  years  pre- 
ceding the  opening  of  tlie  canal,  and  for  tlie  18  years  following,  it 
was  estimated  that  the  ])eople  of  the  sanitary  district  were  benefited 
to  the  amount  of  $10,237,000  per  year  by  tlie  reduction  of  sickness 


DIVERSION   OF   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKKS   AND   MAdARA   UiVKlt.     397 

v/hich  the  canal  had  effected.  The  avoraw  diversion  durinj:  the«e 
years  was  4,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  lleiicc  thi'  henetit.s  rt'ct'ivf<| 
amounted  to  $4,270  per  annum  for  ea<h  cul)ic  foot  per  second  of 
diversion.  Tliis,  however,  is  hardly  a  measure  of  the  vaUie  of  the 
diversion,  as  the  reduction  in  disease  could  have  been  accomplished 
in  some  other  manner. 

If  the  privilege  of  diverting  water  were  entirely  taken  away  from 
the  district,  the  work  on  the  main  canal,  including  the  power  hou.se, 
would  lose  its  value  almost  completely.  The  worlc  <»n  the  Chicago 
Kiver  would  retain  part  of  its  value. 

The  value  of  the  intercepting  sewers,  pumping  stations,  etc.,  would 
not  be  much  impaired.  The  following  figures,  cpioted  from  the  pub- 
lished record  of  the  evidence,  give  approximately  the  amount  of 
money  which  has  been  spent,  all  benefit  nf  win,])  u(.iil,l  l...  \,><t  if 
the  diversion  permit  was  stopped : 

Right    of   way $'j,  T"*". '""J 

Construction  of  main  channels  and  controlling  works 19,  S(ki,  <m«) 

Joliet  project l.tXiO.fMH) 

Interest,  damages,  general  overhead  (pro  rata  from  total  given  in 

report) -     R.iioO.ooi) 

Calumet  Sag  project 14.  :{(H).  ooo 

Electrical    development «i.  ^^'-  "'■'^ 

Total ---  58,700.000 

If  the  diversion  of  water  were  forbidden  this  amount  of  e.\i)endi- 
ture  would  become  useless.  Reduced  to  annual  charges  on  a  A\  per 
cent  interest  rate,  this  amounts  practicallv  to  $2,500,000. 

In  addition  the  sanitary  district  would  lose  the  21,000  horsepower 
now  generated  at  Lockport  and  the  3,350  horsepower  generated  at 
Joliet.  This  power  would  thereafter  have  to  be  generated  by  steam. 
The  increased  cost  might  well  be  $20  per  horsepower  per  year,  or 
about  $500,000  per  vear. 

This  makes  the  total  loss  due  to  the  cutting  off  of  the  present  tliver- 
sion  $3,000,000  per  vear.  To  this  must  be  added  the  cost  of  so  pun- 
fying  the  sewage  of  the  district  that  it  can  safely  l)e  discharged  into 
the  lake  and  of  filtering  the  water  supply  of  the  whole  district.  None 
of  the  witnesses  testified  directlv  on  this  matter,  but  their  testimony 
furnishes  a  basis  for  a  rough  estimate. 

One  witness  outlined  a  plan  for  the  treatment  .)f  the  .^ewa«:c  of 
1200  000  people  residing  in  the  Calumet  division  of  the  district  so 
that  it  would  be  fit  to  be  discharged  into  Lake  Michigan.  Hi.s  esti- 
mate of  the  construction  cost  was  $9,257,500  an.l  of  the  annual  cost 
of  operation  $419,000.  If  interest  on  the  cost  of  construction  is  as- 
^  ^       '    .         n  T  •  i.! —  -i.  n «^.,f  *!">  ♦'><"i  annual 


rate  would  be  $2,300,000  per  year.  ^  ^     ,  .       nUrntSon 

Another  witness  testified  that  the  cost  of  proper  water  fit  rat  ion 
works  with  a  capacity  of  520,000.000  gallons  per  day  wouM  be  ^U.- 
000,000,  and  the  cost  of  operation  $500,000  per  year.    \  s.ug  the  .same 
allowances  as  above,  this  would  give  an  annual  cost  of  ^J...3(    pe 
m  mon  gallons  per'day.     For  the  present  -';--l>^>7,f -,;;-> 
A«n  000  000  crnllons  Der  dav  the  annual  .-ost  w,.uld  be  about  M..00.0O.. 


398      PIVEESIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER, 

Combiniiifr  these  items  we  prot  the  following  figures  for  the  animal 
loss  which  Chicago  would  suffer  by  being  deprived  of  the  use  of  lake 
water  through  the  sanitary  canal : 

Interest  on  abandoned  investment $2,500,000 

Loss  by  change  from  electric  ixnver  to  steam 500,  000 

Cost  of  sewase  treatment 2.300,000 

Cost  of  water  filtration 1,700,000 

Total 7,  000.  000 

As  the  present  diversion  averages  about  8,800  cubic  feet  per  second, 
the  value  of  each  cubic  foot  per  second  may  be  taken  as  about  $800 
per  year. 

The  sanitary  district  has  a  permit  from  the  Secretary  of  War  au- 
thorizing it  to'divert  4.167  cubic  feet  per  second  down  the  canal.  The 
State  law  under  which  it  operates  requires  it  to  dilute  the  untreated 
sewage  at  the  rate  of  3^  cubic  feet  per  second  for  each  1,000  of  tribu- 
tary population.  Most  sanitary  engineers  agree  that  this  is  a  reason- 
able requirement.  Under  this  law  the  required  diversion  for  the 
present  population  would  be  about  8,500  cubic  feet  per  second.  If 
the  limits  of  the  permit  were  strictly  enforced  the  sanitary  district 
would  probably  find  it  best  to  treat  its  sewage  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  dilution  effected  by  4.167  cubic  feet  per  second  would  be  sufficient. 
Preliminary  estimates  of  the  cost  of  such  a  procedure  have  been  made 
by  the  engineers  of  the  district  and  are  published  in  the  record  of  the 
testimonv  of  the  case  of  United  States  v.  Sanitary  District  of  Chi- 
cago.   Table  Xo.  56  is  based  upon  this  testimony. 

Table  No.  56. — Estimate  of  value  to  Chicago  of  its  diversion. 


Item. 


DUution  required  by  State  law,  cubic  feet  per  second 

Cost  of  disposal  bv  legal  dilution,  capitalized  at  4i  per  cent. 

Cost  if  treated  and  diluted  by  4,167  cubic  feet  per  second 

Difference  in  capitalized  cost 

Difference  per  year 

Difference  per  cubic  foot  per  second  per  year 


Population  to  be  served. 


3,000,000  3,600,000  4,200,000 


10,000  I  12,000  '  14,000 

$62, 825, 600  I  $77, 720, 070  I  $80, 213, 900 

$259, 577, 871  $296, 208, 700  $333, 026, 400 

$196,752,271  '  $218,487,370  ;  $252,812,500 

$8,360,000  $9,280,000  1  $10,740,000 

$836  $773  $768 


It  Avill  be  observed  that  these  figures  for  the  yearly  value  of  a 
diversion  of  1  cubic  foot  per  second  are  fairly  comparable  to  the 
value  of  $800  derived  from  somewhat  different  premises. 

These  values  can  not  be  given  too  great  confidence.  The  evidence 
on  which  they  are  based  Avas  presented  with  the  desire  to  prove  that 
the  value  of  the  diversion  was  very  great.  The  ex  parte  nature  of 
this  data  should  be  kept  in  mind.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  these  costs  are  based  on  the  prices  of  materials  and 
labor  as  they  existed  seven  or  eight  years  ago.  since  which  time  the 
cost  of  many  of  the  items  involved  has  more  than  doubled. 

4.    VALUE  TO  PUBLIC  OF  EFFECT  ON  POWER  PRODUCTION. 

In  Section  F  of  this  report  it  has  been  shown  that  the  diversion  of 
20.000  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  Niagara  River  on  the  American 
side  as  autliorized  by  the  present  treaty  is  sufficient  to  operate  a 
power  development  Cvith  a  capacity  of  'nearly  GOO.OOO  horsepoAver. 
The  value  of  this  diversion  to  the  public  is  the  difference  between  the 


DIVEESION   OF  WATER   FRO.^E  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAIJARA   UIVKl!.     399 

selling  prico  of  this  powci-  iiiid  (li(>  s<'lliii<r  price  ,,f  tho  saint'  power 
if  it  were  developed  in  a  .steam  plant  without  tlic  diversion  «.f  anv 
water.    An  attempt  to  estimate  this  value  will  now  l«'  made. 

The  three  best  plans  for  using  this  diversion  are  t\uts^'  which  have 
been  entitled  the  "canal  project,"  the  "pressure-tunnel  pn.ject,'' 
and  the  "  compound  two-stage  project."  The  power  output  and  <-owts 
of  these  three  do  not  vary  greatly  and  acc(»r(iinglv  the  mean  <»f  the 
figures  given  for  these  three  projects  in  Section  F-IO  will  be  used. 
The  construction  costs  given  in  Section  F-10  do  not  include  "de- 
velopment expense"  or  "original  overhead  exi)en.se,"  arcordinjzly 
this  cost  has  been  increased  10  per  cent  to  cover  these  items.  The 
assumption  that  tlie  growth  of  the  electrochemical  industries  w<»uld 
bring  the  load  factor  up  to  90  per  cent  has  bet'U  made  sis  in  Se<'ti«»n 
F-10.  The  costs  of  producing  power  given  in  that  section  did  not 
include  any  profit  to  the  company.  The  selling  price  of  p(»wer  will 
be  fixed  by  some  regulative  commission  and  will  certainly  allow 
such  a  profit.  The  amount  of  3  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  plant  has 
therefore  been  added  to  cover  this  item. 

For  computing  the  cost  of  developing  this  amount  nf  |)()Wt'i-  by 
steam,  detailed  costs  were  obtained  from  two  of  the  largest  <-ompa- 
nies  in  the  Great  Lakes  district  which  generate  electricity  in  thi-^ 
manner.  The  means  of  the  various  items  given  by  the  two  c(»mpanies 
Avas  adopted  except  that  the  fixed  charges  were  increased  by  Oti  per 
cent  because  it  was  estimated  that  the  cost  of  building  a  ])laut  to- 
day would  be  that  much  more  than  the  cost  of  building  the  i)lants 
considered. 

Table  No.  57  gives  a  comparison  of  the  cost  of  steam-electric  power 
with  Niagara  power. 

T^lble  No.  .57. — Compdrotire  rosta  of  stcnni   ami   Jn/drmtlir  prnrrr  nt   yiagnra 

Falls,  N.  y. 


Cost  por  horsopoww 
vear. 


Item. 

I   St«am- 
electric. 


Nlasan. 


Coal-6  tons,  at  $4.50 !  •27.00 

other  operation  and  maiutenance  expense v:;\' i  .oS           ..  u 

Fixed  charges  (10  per  cent  on  Niagara  power,  13  per  cent  for  steam-clecfric) ;  I..BO           ii..w 

Profit,  3  per  cent  of  construction  cost ■  '■*•»"             * ''' 

Selling  price  of  power 

Selling  price  reduced  to  cents  per  kilowatt  hour 


tl.90 


.VI.  7n  18.  .V) 

.7s  .30 


These  are  prices  for  very  large  amounts  of  untrnnsformed  power 
sold  at  the  power-hou.se  switchboard  at  generator  voltage  av it h  a  load 
factor  of  90  per  cent.  The  cost  of  transformation,  transmission  and 
distribution,  as  well  as  advertising  and  selling  costs,  niu.'^t  be  ad<lt'd 
to  these  fiirures  to  get  the  price  actually  to  be  paid  ))y  the  co:i  umor. 
These  wilFvary  from  a  fcAv  tenths  of  a  cent  to  10  or  IT.  cents  per  kilo- 
watt hour,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  customer's  demand,  Init 
there  is  no  reason  why  these  items  should  not  be  substantndlv  e<|ual 
for  steam  or  hydraulic  power.  The  comparison  can  therefore  be 
made  directlv  from  the  figures  in  this  table. 


400      DIVERSION    OF   WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

The  saving  due  to  the  use  of  Niagara  power  instead  of  steam  is 
$31.20  per  horsepower  year.  The  diversion  of  20.000  cubic  feet  per 
second  produces  526,000  liorsepowor  (mean  of  the  three  projects). 
Then  the  total  saving  is  $16,410,000  per  year,  or  $820  per  cubic  foot 
per  second  per  year. 

This  is  the  vahie  that  the  American  diversion  at  Niagara  would 
have  if  the  full  treaty  amount  of  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second  Avere 
used  in  the  manner  proposed  in  Section  F.  The  value  of  the  present 
diversion  as  now  used  is,  of  course,  somewhat  less.  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  efficiency  of  the  present  j^lants  is  less  than  tliat  of  the 
plants  i^roposed,  the  cost  of  producing  power  is  also  less.  This  is 
because  the  present  plants  develoj)  only  the  easiest  and  cheapest  part 
of  the  total  head,  and  because  they  were  built  very  much  more 
cheaply  than  present  prices  would  permit.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
selling  price  corresponding  to  those  given  above  would  be  about 
$13  per  horsepower  j'ear.  The  saving  over  the  use  of  steam  power 
would  then  be  $37.70  per  horsepower  year.  The  present  diversion 
is  about  17,560  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  produces  about  247,000 
horsepower.  Hence  the  saving  is  $9,310,000  per  year,  or  $530  per 
cubic  foot  per  second  per  year. 

Data  for  the  Canadian  plants  is  not  available,  but  it  is  believed 
that  no  great  error  will  be  intoduced  if  $500  is  adopted  as  the  average 
for  all  the  plants  at  Niagara.  As  the  total  diversion  is  about  50,886 
cubic  feet  per  second,  the  total  saving  due  to  the  diversion  of  water 
at  Niagara  is,  in  round  numbers,  $25,000,000  per  year. 

These  figures  represent  the  actual  saving  in  money  effected.  There 
are  other  intangible  benefits  received  by  the  jmblic.  One  of  these  is 
the  saving  in  coal.  It  is  well  knoAvn  that  the  available  supph^  of 
coal  is  limited  and  must  ultimately  be  exhausted.  Also  at  present 
the  capacity  of  the  coal  mining  and  distributing  system  is  scarcely 
sufficient  to  supply  the  demand  for  this  fuel.  A  year  and  a  half  ago 
it  proved  for  a  time  quite  insufficient.  If  the  power  used  at  Niagara 
were  produced  from  coal  the  annual  consumption  would  be  increased 
by  nearly  four  million  tons,  which  Avould  cause  an  appreciable  in- 
crease in  the  rate  of  exhaustion  of  the  coal  supply,  and  in  the  tiiffi- 
culties  of  mining  and  distributing  the  annual  output  of  the  mines. 

If  the  Niagara  diversion  were  cut  off  the  building  of  steam  stations 
could  replace  the  power,  but  only  at  a  much  higher  price.  The  money 
loss  would  not  be  the  only  one.  The  public  has  been  greatly  benefited 
by  the  cheapness  of  Niagara  power  as  well  as  by  its  quantity.  The 
low  price  at  which  this  power  is  available  has  stimulated  the  electro- 
chemical industries  and  made  possible  the  development  of  new  prod- 
ucts. Many  of  the  products  made  at  the  Falls  would  not  be  pro- 
duced at  all  if  power  were  not  to  be  had  at  this  very  low  price. 
These  products  proved  invaluable  during  the  war. 

At  Massena,  Lock])ort,  111.,  and  other  places  where  the  Avater  of 
the  Great  Lakes  is  diverted  for  power  development  the  saving  in 
money  and  in  intangible  items  is  similar  in  nature,  but  less  in 
amount  than  at  Niagara  Falls.  The  data  for  an  estimate  are  not  at 
liand.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  value  of  the  water  used  for  power 
by  tlie  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  at  Lockport  is  $70  per  cubic 
foot  per  second  per  vear.  Tlic  weiglit  to  be  given  to  this  estimate 
is  not  known. 

W.  S.  Richmond. 


Appendix  G. 

INTERNATIONAL  AND  INTERSTATE  MATTERS 
INVOLVED. 


[Section  I  of  Mr.  Richmond's  report.] 
I,    INTERNATIONAL  MATTEES  INVOLVED. 

Historical. — Previous  to  the  appointment  of  tlie  International 
Waterways  Commission  there  Avas  no  international  supervision  of  the 
use  of  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes.  In  each  country  such  works 
were  built  and  such  water  diverted  as  was  desired.  Most  of  these  uses 
were  small,  and  no  serious  objections  were  raised,  the  effects  on  the 
other  countiy  beinsf  triflinof  in  each  case.  The  buildinjr  of  the 
Canadian  canals  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River  caused  decided  chancps 
along  that  stream,  but  at  the  time  American  interests  on  the  river 
were  very  small  and  no  protest  was  made.  In  the  same  way  the  de- 
velopment of  waterpower  at  Waddington  and  ISfassina  attracted  little 
attention  in  Canada.  The  buildinir  of  the  north  cut  at  the  head  of 
the  Galop  Canal  aroused  considerable  talk  on  both  sides  of  the  Lake 
Ontario  throuofh  fear  that  it  would  cause  serious  lowerinir  of  that 
lake.  Later  the  building  of  the  Gut  Dam  required  the  pei-mission  of 
the  United  States  because  part  of  it  was  located  on  this  side  of  the 
boundary.  None  of  these  events  led  to  the  institution  of  any  per- 
manent policy  of  control  of  international  waters. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  early  small  power  developments  at  Niajram 
and  on  the  Welland  Canal,  and  of  the  building  and  enlarging  of  the 
Welland  and  Erie  Canals  and  of  the  ship  canals  on  the  St.  Marys 
River.  In,  all  of  these  cases  the  damage  done  across  the  boundary 
line  was  small  and  usually  unnoticed. 

Between  1800  and  1905  this  state  of  affairs  was  radically  aKered. 
The  construction  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  and  of  the  large 
power  developments  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  at  Niagara  Ealls. 
aroused  public  interest  in  the  use  of  lake  waters,  while  the  occurrence 
of  unusually  low  lake  stages  in  the  early  nineties  alarmed  the  ship- 
ping interests.  Studies  of  the  relation  between  diversions  and  lake 
lowering  were  undertaken  bv  the  Government.  The  acritation  led  to 
the  appointment  of  the  International  Waterwavs  Commission  in 
1902.  and  resulted  ultimately  in  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  1910 
and  the  appointment  of  the  International  Joint  Commission. 

G-pneral  frmcifles  of  covfrol  of  rlivrrfiiona. — In  the  joint  report  of 
the  International  Waterways  Commission,  dated  Afav  '^.  lOOr..  six  gen- 
eral principles  were  laid  down  as  "  applicable  to  all  diverisons  or  ii«es 
of  waters  adjacent  to  the  international  boundary,  and  of  all  streams 
which  flow  across  the  boundary."  Principles  Nos.  4  and  5  apply  only 
to  streams  crossing  the  boundary  and  have  no  bearing  on  questions 
relating  to  the  Great  Lakes.     The  other  four  form  so  crood  a  state- 

27880—21 2fi  ^^^ 


402      DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

ment  of  the  proper  principles  governing  the  use  of  the  \raters  of  the 
Lakes  that  they  are  here  reproduced : 

1.  In  all  navigable  waters  the  use  for  navigation  purposes  is  of  primary  ami 
paramount  right.  The  Great  Lakes  system  on  the  boundary  between  the  Unite;l 
States  and  Canada,  and  finding  its  outlet  by  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  sea,  should 
be  maintained  in  its  integrity. 

2.  rennanent  or  complete  diversions  of  navigable  waters  or  their  tributary 
streams  should  only  be  permitted  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  the  use  of  locks 
In  navigation  canals. 

3.  Diversions  can  be  permitted  of  a  temporary  character,  where  the  water  is 
taken  and  returned,  when  such  diversions  do  not  interfere  in  any  way  with  the 
interests  of  navigation.  In  such  cases  each  country  is  to  have  a  right  to  diver- 
sion in  efiual  quantities. 

*****  *  if 

6.  A  permanent  .ioint  commission  can  deal  much  more  satisfactorily  with  the 
settlement  of  all  disputes  arising  as  to  the  application  of  these  principles,  and 
should  be  appointed. 

In  the  above  the  term  "  permanent  diversions  "  is  understood  to 
mean  diversions  of  Avater  from  the  Great  Lakes  system  to  some  other 
watershed  (e.  g.,  the  diA-ersion  at  Chicago),  wliile  "diversions 
of  a  temporary  character"  is  taken  to  mean  diversions  of  water 
■which  is  returned  to  the  Great  Lakes  system  (e.  g.,  the  diversions  at 
Niagara  Falls).  The  term  "domestic  purposes"  is  understood  to 
cover  all  ordinary  sanitary  uses. 

One  more  principle  is  needed  to  make  a  complete  system  for  deal- 
ing with  diversions  from  the  Great  Lakes.  This  might  be  worded 
thus:  "Diversions  of  water  from  tributaries  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
unless  the  water  is  returned  to  the  same  tributary,  shall  be  considered 
as  diversions  from  the  Lakes." 

About  principle  1  there  has  been  no  real  dispute.  Even  where  the 
value  of  a  stream  as  a  water  power  is  much  greater  than  its  value  as 
a  highway  it  has  been  recognized  that  the  paramount  right  is  that 
of  navigation  and  that  water  power  developments  must  be  so  made 
as  not  to  hinder  navigation. 

Principle  2  declares  that  each  country  can  take  what  water  it  needs 
for  sanitary  and  navigation  purposes.  As  a  usual  thing  the  quantity 
required  for  such  uses  is  comparatively  small  and  the  effect  of  the 
diversion  upon  lakel  levels  is  nearly  or' quite  negligible.  In  case  the 
diversion  is  large,  as  at  Chicago,  the  proper  compensating  works 
should  be  provided.  The  most  important  diversions  now  made  for 
sanitarv  or  navigation  purposes  are  those  of  the  Chicago  Sanitary 
Canal,  \he  AVelland  Canal,  and  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal. 
The  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitary  Canal  is  a  proposed  instance  of  this 
tvpe,  and  the  time  may  come  when  similar  diversions  by  the  Canadian 
towns  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Niagara  Peninsula  may  deserve 
consideration. 

The  validity  of  principle  3  has  been  substantially  recognized  in 
the  settlement  of  the  question  of  power  diversion  at  Sault  Ste.  ;Marie. 
Wlien  the  matter  of  large  scale  development  of  the  \\i\ter  power  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  Kiver  is  taken  up,  this  principle  will  no  doubt  be 
applied  there. 

I'he  present  treaty  with  Great  Britain  does  not  apply  this  pnn- 
cipk'  to  diversions  from  the  upper  Niagara  Kiver.  but  allows  a  diver- 
sion of  30.000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  Canada  and  only  20,000  cubic 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAG/VRA  RIVER.     403 


3.     This  report  I'oniicil  the  n;nMm(l  work  fortli*'  Niagani  pro- 
of the  treat}'.     The  amount  to  he  divcrte"!  on  tin*  Canadian 


feet  per  second  in  the  United  States.  The  reu.son  for  this  ineijuulity 
becomes  fully  apparent  upon  study  of  the  report  of  tli.-  American 
members  of  the  International  AVaterwavs  Commission,  ihitt-d  .NIanl» 
19.  1906. 
visions 

side  was  fixed  at  ;M),(K)0  cubic  feet  per  second  w  ith  a  \  lew  t(t  all<»\\  in;; 
the  companies  on  that  side  the  amounts  of  water  for  which  they  then 
had  works  under  construction.  Similarly  tlie  amount  all«»wcd  (»n  the. 
American  side  Avas  limited  to  20,000.  Tlie  inequality  of  the  diversion 
was  recognized,  but  it  was  considered  better  to  preserve  the  Falls  by 
keeping  the  total  quantity  as  low  as  possible  without  «-ausing  losses 
to  investors,  than  to  preserve  the  e<jualily  of  diversions  at  the  expense 
of  the  Falls.  The  International  Waterways  Commission,  in  com- 
menting on  this  matter,  said  : 

The  advantage  is  more  apparent  than  real,  sinco  the  power  pi-nemtoil  on  tlu» 
Canadian  side  will,  to  a  large  extent,  be  transanitted  to  aiul  used  in  tlit-  Uuitetl 
States.    In  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty,  however,  the  point  .slionld  he  cuniiideretl. 

When  the  treaty  came  to  be  negotiated.  howe\er.  thi<  matter  was 
not  included.  The  quantitj^  of  electric  energy  ti"ansmittc<|  into  the 
United  States  has  been  reduced  from  time  to  time  as  the  market  for 
power  was  built  up  in  Canada,  and  it  now  appears  to  be  a  matter  of 
comparatively  few  v^ears  before  all  such  importation  will  be  cut  olf. 
In  this  connection  the  commission  classed  the  Chicago  diversion  and 
a  portion  of  the  Welland  diversion  with  the  Niagara  diversions.  The 
treaty  did  not  thus  group  these,  but  treated  the  Niagara  Kiver  altove 
the  Falls  as  a  separate  entity. 

Diversions  for  sanitary  purposes,  like  that  at  Chicago,  w-ere  not 
limited  nor  were  existing  diversions,  such  as  this  sanitary  diversion 
at  Chicago  or  the  power  diversion  of  the  Welland  Canal,  as  exi.st- 
ing  at  the  time  of  the  ratification  of  the  treaty— to  be  considered 
when  making  further  equal  divisions  of  diversions.  It  is  also  to  be 
noted  that  the  diversions  at  Niagara,  which  were  recommended  to 
protect  investors,  were  all  planned  to  be  returned  to  the  river  at 
the  Maid  of  the  Mist  Pool,  just  l)elow  the  Falls.  In  the  treaty, 
however,  the  point  of  return  was  not  limited.  Canada  thtis  gained 
a  further  advantage  over  the  United  States,  ai)parently  not  ont em- 
plated  by  the  International  Waterways  Commission,  of  ir..(i(t()  cubic 
feet  per  second  over  the  90-foot  head  of  the  ^^h^•l|.ool  and  I..»wer 

Rapids. 

If  the  remedial  works,  described  in  Appendix  C  of  this  rejiort.  are 
built  the  situation  will  be  completely  altered,  and  there  will  no 
longer  be  any  reason  for  an  unequal  division  of  diversions  for  power. 
Principle  3 'should  then  be  applied  and  the  water  divided  equally 
between  the  two  countries. 


The  only  place  where  the  application  of  principle  3  leads  to  sen- 
!«  diffir.n'ltv  is  in  the  Niagara  Peninsula.     Here  more  than  3.000 


ous  difficulty  is  in  the 


near  Hamilton.  While  a  diversion  of  the  same  nature  from  Uikc 
Erie  to  Lake  Ontario  on  the  American  side  is  possible,  am  has  l>een 
urged  by  certain  parties,  it  is  not  an  economically  desirable  scheme. 
The  objections  to  it  have  been  treated  in  Section  C-8  of  this  report. 


404      DIVERSION   OF  "WATER   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

An  equal  division  of  the  diversion  here  would  give  the  United 
States  rights  which  it  could  not  properly  use. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a  diversion  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Ontario  will  not  develop  quite  as  much  poAver  as  an  equal  diversion 
from  the  upper  to  the  lower  Niagara  luver,  because  of  the  larger 
losses  in  canals  and  tunnels.  Furthermore,  the  adverse  effect  upon 
navigation  of  the  diversion  from  Lake  Erie  is  much  the  greater. 
For  this  reason  it  is  believed  that  power  diversion  from  Lake  Erie 
should  be  limited  strictl}"  to  that  now  existing  and  that  the  Grand 
Kiver  and  the  Erie  and  Ontario  Sanitarj'  Canal  schemes  should  not 
be  permitted.  This  will  leave  to  Canada  a  small  advantage  over  the 
strictly  equal  division  called  for  by  principle  3,  but  it  is  felt  that 
this  is  better  than  to  encourage  further  diversions  of  this  character 
or.  on  the  other  hand,  to  attempt  to  shut  off  long-existing  diversions 
where  much  capital  has  been  invested. 

Principle  6  has  been  accepted  by  both  countries,  and  the  Inter- 
national Joint  Commission  has  been  in  existence  for  several  years. 

The  principle  that  diversions  from  tributaries  are  to  be  considered 
diversions  from  the  lakes  is  needed  in  the  interest  of  clearness.  This 
has  always  been  accepted  in  the  case  of  the  diversions  at  Chicago. 
Both  the  Federal  Government  and  the  sanitary  district  speak  of  the 
flow  measured  at  Lockport  as  being  the  diversion  from  Lake  Michi- 
gan. As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  flow  so  measured,  is  partly  diverted 
from  Lake  Michigan  and  partly  from  the  various  branches  of  the 
Chicago  River — tributaries  of  the  lake.  Tlie  effect  upon  lake  levels 
of  a  diversion  from  the  river  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  effect  of  a 
diversion  from  the  lake.  In  this  case  the  diversion  from  the  lake 
itself  is  a  diversion  from  a  tributary  of  the  boundary  waters  for  the 
waters  of  Lake  Michigan  are  not  held  to  be  boundary  waters. 

The  same  condition  exists  in  the  diversion  of  the  iSTew  York  State 
Barge  Canal,  wliere  the  diversion  is  taken  partly  from  the  Niagara 
River  and  partly  from  Tonawanda  and  Ellicott  Creeks.  Here  the 
Niagara  River  is  a  boundar}^  stream,  and  Tonawanda  and  Ellicott 
Creeks  are  tributaries.  The  works  now  being  built  to  divert  water 
from  the  Calumet  River  and  from  Chippawa  Creek  will  bring  about 
similar  conditions  as  would  also  the  proposed  diversion  of  water 
from  the  Grand  River.  In  all  thasc  cases  it  is  believed  that  the 
adoption  of  the  new  principle  would  simplify  rather  than  compli- 
cate the  control  and  regulation  of  these  dTversions,  whether  by  the 
Joint  Commission  or  by  the  Federal,  State,  or  Provisional  Govern- 
ments. 

Lal-e  levels. — Anything  affecting  lake  levels  is  obviously  nn  inter- 
national affair,  for  in  no  case  can  the  levels  of  one  of  the  Lakes  be 
lowered  without  affecting  both  countries.  Tliis  is  true  even  of  Lake 
Michigan,  whose  waters  are  not  boundary  waters,  but  which  unites 
with  Lake  Huron  to  fonii  what  is  hydraulically  one  lake.  Tlie  di- 
version of  water  by  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  has  decreased 
the  availabk'  draft  of  tlie  Canadian  ship  canals  and  locks  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  River.  The  diversion  of  the  Ontario  Power  Co.  has  re- 
duced the  navigaljle  depth  of  the  channels  approaching  the  Ameri- 
can ports  of  Tonawanda  and  Niagara  Falls.  Many  other  instances 
could  be  adduced  where  diversions  made  in  one  country  have  in- 
flicted damage  upon  the  other  country. 


DIVERSION    OF   WATKU   FKO.M   UIIEAT  L.UvL.S  AM'    M\>.\i:\    i.i\i:.-      Ut.'. 

Compeiuating  irorliS. — The  construction  nini  niainitiiMiii  .•  .,i  (dm 
pensatino'  works  is  anotlicr  matter  whidi  rccpiircs  iiittMiiMtiunal  ac- 
tion. In  almost  any  case  wliorc  works  on  a  lar<;«»  scale  are  to  l»e  Iniilt 
the  works  themselves  will  lie  on  both  sjfles  of  the  lionn<lary.  Tlic 
undesirable  conditions  which  they  are  intended  to  correct  exist  on 
botii  sides  of  the  boundary.  Many  paits  <»f  the  (neat  T^akes  system 
have  been  lowered  by  a  numbei-  of  dill'ei-ent  diversions,  some  made 
in  the  United  States  and  some  in  Canada.  It  tnif/bt  be  possil)h'  to 
compensate  separately  with  works  in  each  country  for  each  separate 
etfect.  but  it  will  be  far  more  economical  and  satisfactory  if  as  few 
structures  as  practicable  be  used,  and  if  these  are  constructed  jointly 
by  the  two  Nations.  The  expense  involved  in  thes(»  works  would 
equitably  be  apportioned  between  tliem  according'  to  the  extent  of 
the  lowering  caused  by  each  party. 

Preservation  of  Xlagnm  Fnlh. — Anotlicr  inattci-  which  is  en- 
tirely of  an  international  character  is  the  preservation  of  the  scenic 
beauty  of  Nia<rara  Falls.  This  is  a  matter  of  e(|ual  interest  to  the 
citizens  of  both  countries.  The  remedial  works  desci-ibed  in  Ajipen- 
dix  C  lie  on  both  sides  of  the  boundary,  and  international  coopera- 
tion is  necessary  for  their  construction.  If  the  plan  outline*!  in 
Appendix  C  of  increasinof  the  diversion  ai-ound  the  Falls  to  40.000 
cubic  feet  per  second  on  each  side  and  ])uildini:  a  remedial  weir  is 
adopted,  it  is  believed  that  the  cost  should  be  equally  <livided  be- 
tween the  two  Nations.  Further  discussion  of  this  matter  is  found 
in  Appendix  C. 

2.    TREATY  PROVISIONS. 

The  'present  treaty.— In  its  report  of  ^Fay  3.  1900.  the  Tnt«M-na- 
tional  Waterwavs  Commission  recommended  that  a  treaty  be  nego- 
tiated between  "the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  limitin-  the 
diversion  of  water  at  Niagara  Falls.  On  June  iiO  lOOG  the  BuHon 
Act  was  approved.  Section  4  of  this  act  requested  the  1  resident  to 
open  negotiations  with  Great  Britain  for  obtainm£r  such  a  treaty 
After  some  delav  the  treaty  was  prepared.  an<  it  was  sijmed  at 
Washincrton  Januarv  U.  1909.  Havin-  been  duly  ratified  on  May 
5.  1910,  it  was  proclaimed  by  the  President  on  ^fay  n  of  the  same 

year. 

^    The  text  of  the  treaty  is  as  follows : 

Treaty  Series  No.  54S.  Treaty  Between  the  T'nUe*!  States  an<l  Orent  Brlt- 
ai^-B^ndary  waters  between   th-  rnite.l   States  and  Canada. 

Signed  at  Wasliinprton  .Tannnry  ".  J^'*!'- 

Ratification  advised  hy  tlie  Senaie  i>iaroli  3.  1909. 

Ratified  by  tlie  President  April  1- 19i0.    ., 

Ratified  by  Great  Britain  ^J^''^' \-^l ;  ^-'^J  t.^^.  -   .nm 

Ratifications  exchanged  at  Washington  May  ..,  lOin. 

Proclaimed  May  13,  1910. 

By  the  President  of  the  United  St.^tes  of  Amehic.v. 
A  PROCLAMATION. 

*.,r  K«f,vor.n   Hip  TTnltcd   Statps  of  .\nierloa   and   His   Majesty 

Whereas  a  treaty  benAeqtJe^^  Britain   and   Irolnn.l  and  of  the 

the  King  of  the  Ujiited  K  ngcioni  ^^    .  prevent  disputes  r^ 

British  dominions  beyond      es^^^^^^^^  questions  which  are  n-.w 

SS  fS^^^e  UnU^  Sir^^nd  ule  Dom.nlon^f  Canada  Involving  the 


406      DR'ERSIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

risrhts.  (»l)ligarions.  or  interests  of  either  in  relation  to  the  otlier,  or  to  inhabi- 
tants of  the  other  alon;;  their  connuon  frontier,  and  to  make  iirovision  for  the 
ndjustnient  and  settlement  of  all  such  questions  as  may  hereafter  arise,  was 
<onclude«i  and  sijrned  by  their  respective  plenipotentiaries  at  Washington  on 
the  eleventh  day  of  January,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  nine,  the  original 
of  which  treaty  is.  word  for  word,  as  follows : 

Tiie  I'nited  States  of  America  and  His  Majesty  the  King  of  the  United  King- 
dom of  (Jreat  Britain  and  Ireland  ami  of  the  British  dominions  beyond  the  seas. 
Emperor  of  India.  l>ein.i,'  eciually  desirous  to  i)revent  disputes  rei^ardini:  the  use 
of  boiUHlary  waters  and  to  settle  all  questions  which  arc  now  pending  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  involving  the  rights,  obligations, 
or  interests  of  either  in  relation  to  the  other  or  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  other 
along  their  connnon  frontier,  and  to  make  provision  for  the  ad.iustment  and 
settlement  of  all  such  questions  as  may  hereafter  arise,  have  resolved  to  con- 
clude a  treaty  in  furtherance  of  these  ends,  and  for  that  purpose  have  appointed 
as  their  respective  plenipotentiaries  : 

The  Bresident  of  the  United  States  of  America,  Elihu  Root,  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  Unitefl  States;  and 

His  Britannic  Majesty,  the  Right  Honorable  James  Bryce,  O.  M.,  his  am- 
bassador extraordinary  and  plenipotentiary  at  Washington. 

Who,  after  having  communicated  to  one  another  their  full  powers,  found  in 
good  and  due  form,  have  agreed  upon  the  following  articles : 

Pkeliminary  Akticles. 

For  the  punioses  of  this  treaty  homidary  waters  are  defined  as  the  waters 
from  main  shore  to  main  shore  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  and  comiecting  water- 
ways or  the  portions  thereof,  along  which  the  international  boundary  between 
the'  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  passes,  including  all  bays,  arms, 
and  inlets  thereof,  but  not  including  tributary  waters  which  in  their  natural 
channels  would  flow  into  such  lakes,  rivers,  and  waterways,  or  waters  llowing 
from  such  lakes,  rivers,  and  waterways,  or  the  waters  of  rivers  flowing  across 
the  boundary. 

Akticle  I. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  that  the  navigation  of  all  navigable 
boundary  waters  shall  forever  continue  free  and  ojten  for  the  purposes  of  com- 
merce to  the  inhabitants  and  to  the  ships,  vessels,  and  boats  of  both  countries 
equally,  subject,  however,  to  any  laws  and  regulations  of  either  country,  within 
its  own  territory,  not  inconsistent  with  such  privilege  of  free  navigation  and 
applying  equally  and  without  discrimination  to  the  inhabitants,  ships,  vessels, 
and  boats  of  both  countries. 

It  is  further  agreeil  that  so  long  as  this  treaty  shall  remain  in  force  this 
same  right  of  navigation  shall  extend  to  the  waters  of  Lake  ]\Iichigan  and  to  all 
canals  connecting  boundary  waters  and  now  existing  or  which  may  hereafter 
be  constructtMl  on  either  side  of  the  line.  Either  of  the  High  Contracting 
Parties  may  adopt  rules  and  regulations  governing  the  use  of  such  canals 
within  its  own  territory  and  may  charge  tolls  for  the  use  thereof,  but  all  such 
rules  and  regulations  and  all  tolls  charged  shall  apply  alike  to  the  subjects  or 
citizens  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  and  the  ships,  vessels,  and  boats  of 
both  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties,  and  they  shall  be  placed  on  terms  of 
equality  in  the  use  thereof. 

Article  II. 

Ea<h  of  the  Iligli  Coiilracting  Parties  reserves  to  itself  oi-  to  the  several 
State  governments  on  the  one  side  and  the  Dominion  or  Provincial  (lovernments 
on  the  other,  .-is  the  case  may  be.  subject  to  any  treaty  provisions  now  existing 
with  respect  thereto,  tlie  exclusive  jurisdiction  and  control  over  the  use  and 
diversion,  wiiether  teiiiiiorary  or  peniiaiient.  of  all  waters  on  its  own  side  of 
tJK'  line  which  in  their  natural  channels  would  flow  a<-ross  the  boundary  or  into 
boitiidary  waters;  but  it  is  iigreed  that  any  interfi-rence  n'ith  or  diveision 
from  their  natural  cliamiel  of  such  watei-s  on  either  side  <»f  the  boundary,  re- 
suUiiii.'  in  any  injury  on  the  f»ther  side  of  the  boundary,  shall  give  rise  to  the 
KJinie  rights  ami  entitle  the  injiu'ed  parties  to  the  same  legal  remedies  as  if 
such   injury   took  place  in   the  country   where  such   diversion  or  interference 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM   (.KI.Al     I   \Ki,>    wn    .M.\i.\i;.\    Kl\ir..      I(»T 

occurs :  but  this  provisicm  sliall  iKit  iipply  to  ciiscs  nln-iuly  cxlstiir,.'  <»r  to  ciihcs 
expressly  covered  l)y  sj)eci!il  !i;rreemeiit  Ix-tWfeii  tiie  I'lirtles  liorelo. 

It  is  understood,  however,  thsit  neither  ol'  the  llluli  Coiilraeilhk'  Parties  In- 
tends  by  the  loretroin.i,'  jn-ovision  to  .sui-rcu<ler  any  ri^iit  whlcli  li  may  liave  in 
object  to  any  interferes  e  with  or  diversion  «>!'  waters  on  tin-  «»ilier  hUW  of 
the  boundary,  the  effect  of  which  would  be  produeiive  of  nniterlnl  lnjur>'  to  tlie 
navigation  interests  on  its  own  side  of  the  boundary, 

AiiTtci.i':  III. 

It  is  agreed  that,  in  addiiion  to  tlu'  uses,  obstructions,  and  dlversloim  here- 
tofore permitted  or  hereafter  jtrovided  for  by  sp(H-lal  a>:reem(>nt  betwe<'n  fhi- 
Parties  hereto,  no  further  or  other  uses  or  ob>t ructions  or  divtrsjons,  whetlier 
temporary  or  permanent,  of  l)oun(hiry  waters  on  either  side  of  the  line,  alT(H-tlinj 
the  Uiitural  level  or  tiow  of  bouiKhiry  waters  on  (he  otiier  side  of  the  line, 
shall  be  made  except  by  authority  of  the  Puited  States  or  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  within  their  resjiectlve  .iurisiliction  and  with  the  a|iproval.  as  herein- 
after provided,  of  a  .joint  connuission.  to  be  known  as  the  Intrrnatloinil  Joint 
Commission. 

The  foregoing  provisions  are  not  intended  to  limit  or  interfere  with  the  ex- 
isting rights  of  the  Government  of  the  I'nited  Stalt's  <ai  tla*  one  side  and  the 
Government  of  the  Dominion  of  ('aiia<la  on  the  other,  to  imdi-rtaUe  and  carry 
on  governm(>ntal  works  in  boundary  waters  for  the  deepeidng  of  channels,  tlie 
construction  of  breakwaters,  the  imi>rovement  of  harbors,  and  other  govern- 
mental works  for  the  benelit  of  commerce  and  navigation,  provided  that  sticli 
works  are  wholly  on  its  own  side  of  the  line  and  do  not  materially  jirre<-t  llu» 
level  or  flow  of  the  boundary  waters  on  the  other,  nor  are  surb  provlsl«ins  in- 
tended to  interfere  with  the  ordinary  use  of  sui-h  waters  for  domestic  and 
sanitary  purposes. 

Artki.k  IV. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  that,  except  in  cases  provldetl  for  by 
special  agreement  between  them,  they  will  not  permit  tlie  construction  or 
maintenance  on  tbelr  respective  sides  of  the  boundary  of  any  rcm«'<lial  or  pro- 
tective works  or  anv  dams  or  other  obstructions  in  waters  llowing  from 
boundary  waters  or  in  waters  at  a  lower  level  than  the  l)oundary  in  rivers 
flowing  across  tlie  boundary,  the  effect  of  whicli  Is  to  rais.-  the  natural  level 
of  waters  on  the  other  side  of  the  boundary  unless  the  construction  or  mainte- 
nance thereof  is  approved  by  the  aforesaid  International  .Toint  Commission. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  the  waters  herein  defined  as  bound.-iry  waters  and 
waters  flowing  across  the  boundary  shall  not  be  polluted  on  either  side  to  tlie 
injury  of  health  or  property  on  the  other. 

Aktici.e  V. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  that  it  is  expedieiit  to  limit  the  diversion 
of  waters  from  the  Niagara  River  so  that  the  level  of  Lake  Krie  and  the  How 
of  he  strea  n  sluiu  not  be  appreciably  alTected.  It  is  the  desire  of  botl.  PartU^ 
?o  accoiSsh  til  s  object  with  the  least  possible  injury  to  investn.et.ts  wh  clj 
have  Xadv  heen  made  in  the  construction  <.f  power  plants  on  the  Init.Hi 
Stites  side  of  the  river  under  granls  of  auth.,rity  from  tlu>  State  of  N;^«  J"rk; 
and    on    the  Vixnadian    side    of    the    river    under    licenses    atuhori/.ed    by    the 

^"ZtSt  t  Stirlhl;^  ^;^:^- n.r;:?"":rdiversio..  of  ...e  w^ers  or  ,,. 
''^rZ^nSia^^m^^uZvl^^.ua  perndt  the  dlversb.n  within  the  State 

^^i^l^s^rsthis^^^^^^ 

tarlo,  i-ay  authorize  atuetmh  ^^^^  ^^,^^.^^^  ^^^ 

t^:^^VX^  al^^tvgale   a   daily    diversion    at   the   rate   of   thirty-slx 
thousand  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second. 


408      DIVERSION   OF   WATER  IROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD   NIAGARA  RIVER, 

The  pruliibitions  of  thiis  article  .shall  not  apply  to  the  diversion  of  water  for 
sanitary  or  domestic  purposes,  or  for  the  service  of  canals  for  the  purposes  of 
navijjatiou. 

Aktki.k  VI. 

The  llif-'h  ('(inrractin.:::  I'arties  a^ive  that  the  Saim  .Mary  and  :Milk  Rivers 
and  their  tributaries  (in  the  State  of  :\I()ntaua  and  the  Provinces  of  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan)  are  to  be  treated  as  one  stream  for  the  purpo.ses  of  irriga- 
tion and  power,  and  the  waters  thereof  shall  be  a])portione(l  equally  between 
the  two  countries,  but  in  making  such  equal  apportionment,  more  than  half 
may  be  taken  from  one  river  and  less  than  half  from  the  other  by  either 
country  so  as  to  afford  a  more  benelicial  use  to  each.  It  is  further  agreed  that 
in  the  division  of  such  waters  during  the  irrigation  season,  between  the  1st  of 
April  and  31st  of  October,  inclusive,  annually,  the  United  States  is  entitled 
to  a  prior  appropriation  of  five  huudre<l  cubic  feet  per  second  of  the  waters 
of  the  Milk  River,  or  so  nuich  of  such  amount  as  constitutes  three-fourths  of 
its  natural  flow,  and  that  Canada  is  entitled  to  a  prior  appropriation  of  five 
hundred  cubic  feet  per  second  of  the  flow  of  Saint  INIary  River,  or  so  much  of 
such  amount  as  constitutes  three-fourths  of  its  natural  How. 

The  channel  of  the  Milk  River  in  Canada  may  be  used  at  the  convenience 
of  the  United  States  for  the  conveyance,  while  passing  through  Canadian  terri- 
tory, of  waters  diverted  from  the  Saint  Mary  River.  The  provisions  of  Article 
II  of  this  treaty  shall  apply  to  any  injury  resulting  to  property  in  Canada 
from  the  conveyance  of  such  waters  through  the  j\Iilk  River. 

The  measurement  and  apportionment  of  the  water  to  be  used  by  each 
country  shall  from  time  to  time  be  made  jointly  by  the  properly  constituted 
reclamation  officers  of  the  United  States  and  the  properly  constituted  irriga- 
tion officers  of  His  Majesty  under  the  direction  of  the  International  Joint 
Commission. 

Article  VII. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  to  establish  and  maintain  an  Interna- 
tional Joint  Commission  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  composed  of  six 
commissioners,  three  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent thereof,  and  three  on  the  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  appointed  by  His 
Majesty  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Governor  in  Council  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. 

Article  VIII. 

This  International  Joint  Commission  shall  have  jurisdiction  over  and  shall 
pass  upon  all  cases  involving  the  use  or  obstruclion  or  diversion  of  the  waters 
with  respect  to  which,  under  Articles  III  and  IV  of  this  treaty,  the  approval 
of  this  commission  is  required,  and  in  passing  upon  such  cases  the  commission 
shall  be  governed  by  the  following  rules  or  principles  which  are  adopted  by  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  for  this  purpose : 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  shall  have,  each  on  its  own  side  of  the  boun- 
dary. e<-iual  and  similar  rights  in  the  use  of  the  waters  hereinbefore  defined 
as  boundary  waters. 

The  following  order  of  precedence  shall  be  observed  among  the  various  uses 
enumerated  hereinafter  for  these  waters,  and  no  use  shall  be  permitte<l  which 
tends  materially  to  conflict  Mith  or  restrain  any  other  use  which  is  given 
preference  over  it  in  this  order  of  precedence : 

PMrst.  U.ses  for  domestic  and  sanitary  purposes. 

Second.  Uses  for  navigation,  including  the  service  of  canals  for  the  purposes 
of  navigation. 

Third.  Uses  for  power  and  for  irrigation  purposes. 

The  foregoing  provisions  shall  not  apply  to  or  disturb  any  existing  uses  of 
boundary  waters  on  either  side  of  the  boundary. 

The  requirement  for  an  equal  division  may,  in  the  discretion  of  the  commis- 
sion, be  suspended  in  cases  of  temporary  diversions  along  boundary  waters  at 
points  where  such  equal  division  can  not  be  made  advantageously  on  account 
of  local  conditions  and  where  such  diversion  does  not  diminish  elsewhere  the 
amount  available  for  use  on  the  other  side. 

The  commission  in  its  discretion  may  make  its  approval  in  any  case  condi- 
tional upon  the  construction  of  remedial  or  protective  works  to  compensate  so  far 


DIVERSION    OF    WATER    IHO.M    (MIKAI    l.AKl..-    a.m.    :m.\.,\i..\    i.iSii:.      4Uy 

as  possible  for  the  particular  use  or  liivi-rsion  iiroposnl.  ami  in  kui-Ii  • 
require  that  suitable  aud  adeiiuatf  i)ri)visioii,  appnivinl  by  the  enmiii 
made   for    the  protection   and    indeuinity    jipilnsi    injury   of   miy    inii-i.-is   ..n 
either  side  of  the  boundary. 

In  cases  involving  the  elevation  of  tiie  ualurai  hnel  of  waUTs  on  cHImt  Hi<lo 
of  the  line  as  a  result  of  the  conslructitm  or  niainlfiuinci'  on  tlie  oiIht  hI«Io  of 
remedial  or  protective  works  or  dams  or  other  obstructions  in  bonndnry  wiitopM 
or  in  waters  flowinjx  therefrom  or  in  waters  below  tlie  Ixtunday  In  rlv»T«  llow- 
ing  across  the  boundary,  the  conunission  shall  require,  as  a  condition  of  Hm 
approval  thereof,  that  suitable  and  adefpiate  iirovision,  aiqirovrd  by  it.  Imj 
made  for  the  protection  and  indemiuty  of  all  interests  on  the  otiier  hide  of  tlie 
line  which  may  be  injured  therel)y. 

The  majority  of  rhe  commissioners  shall  have  power  to  render  a  de<'ls|on.  In 
case  the  conunission  is  evenly  divided  upon  any  question  or  matter  j»res«'nl»il 
to  it  lor  decision,  separate  reports  shall  be  made  by  the  commissioners  on  i-iicli 
side  to  their  own  Government.  The  Hi,s;li  Contracting;  Parties  sludl  tliereuiHjn 
endeavor  to  agree  upon  an  adjustment  of  the  question  or  matter  of  dlfTen-nce, 
and  if  an  agreement  is  reached  lietween  them  it  shall  be  re<luced  to  writing; 
in  the  form  of  a  protocol,  and  shall  be  connnunicated  to  liie  conunlssloners.  who 
shall  take  such  further  proceedings  as  may  ne  necessary  to  carry  out  sndi 
agreement. 

Article  IX. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  further  agree  thai  any  otlier  <pn'>.tii.ns  .-r 
matters  of  difference  arising  between  them  involvinir  the  rii.'bts,  oldiuations.  or 
interests  of  either  in  relation  (o  the  other  or  to  the  iidialdtants  of  the  otlicr. 
along  the  common  frontier  between  the  Unite<l  States  and  the  Poniinlon  of 
Canada,  shall  be  referred  from  time  to  time  to  the  International  Joint  Com- 
mission for  examination  and  report,  whenever  either  the  CovtM-nment  of  the 
United  States  or  the  Government  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  shall  request  that 
such  questions  or  matters  of  difference  be  so  referred. 

The  International  Joint  Commission  is  authorized  in  each  case  so  referrod 
to  examine  into  and  report  upon  the  facts  and  circumstances  of  the  partlnilar 
questions  and  matters  referred,  touctlier  willi  •^urli  .(.ncin^ions  and  rtvommcnila- 
tions  as  may  be  appi-opriate,  subject,  however,  to  any  restrictions  or  exceptions 
which  mav  "be  imposed  with  respect  thereto  by  the  terms  of  the  referonc*-. 

Such  reports  of  the  connnissions  shall  not  he  regarded  ns  decisions  <if  the 
questions  or  matters  so  submitted  either  on  the  facts  or  the  law.  and  shall 
in  no  way  have  the  character  of  an  arbitral  award. 

The  commission  shall  make  a  joint  report  to  both  fJovcrmucnts  in  al  rr-,  -■ 
in  which  all  or  a  majority  of  the  connnissioners  agree,  and  in  <-asp  of  dis;i 
ment  the  minority  may  make  a  joint  report  to  both  Govermnents  or  sep:':-  > 
reports  to  their   respective  Governments. 

In  cise  the  commission  is  evenly  divided  upon  any  quest i«mi  or  matter  n- 
ferred'to  it  for  report,  separate  reports  shall  be  made  by  tlie  connnissioners  on 
each  side  to  their  ovm  Government. 

Article  X. 

\nv  questions  or  matter^  of  difference  arising  between  the  High  <"f>ntrri. 
Parties  involving  the  rights,  obligations,  or  interests  of  the  I  nlfed  St.r. 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  either  in  relation  to  each  otlu-r  or    •';'>•;''[*•;'';■ 
tive  inhabitants,  may  be  referred  for  decisimj  to  the  T''^-;"''  '^^    .ul": 
mission  bv  the  consent  of  the  two  parties,  it  being  undorstood  that  on  tli- 
of  the  United  States  anv  such  action  will  be  by  and  with  the  adv  ce  and  <- 
of  the  Senate,  and  on  the  part  of  His  Majesty's  Government  with  the  o,  - 
of  the  Goveri  or  General  in  Council.     In  each  case  so  referred  the  said  .H.m- 
misln  is  authorized  to  examine  into  and  report  j;"J'-.  '^?;';;"'V '•''•''"•'^; 
stances  of  the  particular  questions  and  matters  referre,!.  togetl  ei 
conclusions  and  recommendations  as  may  be  »PPi-'»l";'-''t«;-  ^"''•'f*;'-  '  ; 
anv  restrictions  or  exceptions  which  may  be  Imposed  with  restart  ..,.,. 

'^I'n™  ifv'<!'f^"e'S'commission  shall  have  power  to  render  a  decision  or 
finriino-'  iinnnnnv  of  the  questions  or  matters  so  referre<I. 


410      DIVERSION    or   WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

arrived  at  with  rosanl  to  the  matters  or  qtiesti<ins  so  referri'd.  wliich  questions 
or  matters  shall  thereupon  i)e  referred  for  decision  by  the  High  Contracting 
Parties  to  an  umpire  chosen  in  accordance  with  the  procedure  prescribed  in 
the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  paragraphs  of  Article  XI.V  of  The  Hague  Convent  ion 
for  the  pacific  settlement  of  international  disputes,  dated  October  eighteenth. 
nineteen  lunidred  and  seven.  Such  umpire  shall  have  power  to  render  a  final 
decision  with  resi)ect  to  those  matters  ami  questions  so  referred  on  which  the 
commission  failed. 

Aktici.e  XI. 

V  duplicate  original  of  all  decisions  rendered  and  joint  reports  made  by  the 
commission  shall  be  transmitted  to  and  filed  with  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the 
United  States  and  the  Governor  General  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  to 
them  shall  be  addri^ssed  all  communications  of  the  conunissions. 

Article  XII. 

The  International  .Joint  Commission  shall  meet  and  organize  at  Washington 
promptly  after  the  members  thereof  are  appcnnted,  and  when  organized  the 
■commission  may  fix  such  times  and  places  for  its  meetings  as  may  be  necessary, 
subject  at  all  times  to  special  call  or  direction  by  the  two  Governments.  Each 
commissioner,  upon  the  first  joint  meeting  of  the  commission  after  his  appoint- 
ment, shall,  before  proceeding  with  the  work  of  the  coinmission,  make  and 
subscribe  a  solemn  declaration  in  writing  that  he  will  faithfully  and  impartially 
perform  the  duties  imposed  upon  him  under  this  treaty,  and  such  declaration 
shall  be  entered  on  the  records  of  the  procee<lings  of  the  commission. 

The  United  States  and  Canadian  sections  of  the  commission  may  each  appoint 
a  secretary,  and  these  shall  act  as  joint  secretaries  of  the  connnission  at  Its 
ioint  session,  and  the  connnission  may  employ  engineers  and  clerical  assistants 
ifrom  time  to  time  as  it  may  deem  advisable.  The  salaries  and  personal  expenses 
of  the  commission  and  of  the  secretaries  shall  be  paid  by  their  respective  Gov- 
ernments, and  all  reasonable  and  necessary  joint  expenses  of  the  commission 
incurred  by  it  shall  be  paid  in  equal  moieties  by  the  High  Contracting  Parties. 

The  commission  shall  have  power  to  administer  oaths  to  witnesses,  and  to 
take  evidence  on  oath  whenever  deemed  necessary  in  any  proceeding,  or  in- 
quiry, or  matter  within  its  jurisdiction  under  this  treaty,  and  all  parties  in- 
lerested  therein  shall  be  given  (  onvenient  opportunity  to  be  heard,  and  the  High 
Contracting  Parties  agree  to  adopt  such  legislation  as  may  be  appropriate  and 
necessarv  to  give  the  commission  the  powers  above  mentioned  on  each  side  of 
the  boundary,  and  to  provide  for  the  issue  of  subpoenas  and  for  compelling  the 
attendance  of  witnesses  in  proceedings  before  the  commission.  The  commission 
m:iy  ado|(l  such,  rules  of  pi-ociMlure  as  shnll  be  in  acrordance  with  justice  and 
eqiiity  and  may  make  such  examination  in  person  and  through  agents  or  em- 
ployees as  may  be  deemed  advisable. 

Article  XIII. 

In  all  cases  where  special  agreements  between  the  High  Contracting  Parties 
hi-H'to  are  referred  to  in  the  foregf>ing  articles,  such  agn^'inents  ai-e  understood 
and  intended  to  include  not  only  direct  agreements  between  the  High  Con- 
tracting Parties,  but  also  any  mutual  arrangement  between  the  United  States 
and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  expressed  by  concurrent  or  reciprocal  legislation 
on  the  part  of  Congress  and  the  Parliament  of  the  Dominion. 

Abticle  XIV. 

The  present  treaty  shall  be  ratified  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the-  Senate  thereof,  and  by 
His  Britannic  Majesty.  The  ratificalions  shall  be  exchanged  at  Washington  as 
soon  as  possible  and  the  treaty  shall  take  elTect  on  the  date  of  the  exchange  of 
its  ratifications.  It  shall  remain  in  force  f(jr  five  years,  dating  from  the  day  of 
exeliange  of  rai  ifical  ions,  and  ihereiifter  mitil  terniinaiod  by  twelve  months' 
written  notice  given  by  either  High  Contracting  Party  to  the  other. 

In  faith  whereof  the  respective  plenipotentiaries  have  signed  this  treaty  in 
duplicate  and  have  hereunto  aflixed  their  seals. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER  FROM  GRKAT  J.AKI..-   As..    .ma.,m.x    >,.m  ,         Ml 

Done  at  AVashinston  tlio  elcveiilli  day  of  .Tanuiity.  In  tli«'  yenr  of  mir  I^ird 
nineteen  hundred  and  nine. 

(Sij,'nedl  Ki.iiii:  IlooT.        (hKAI.) 

(Slfjnod)  .Iamks  HuYiK.     Ihk.vl.] 

And  wliorens  llic  Senate  of  tlie  I'liili'd  States  Ity  their  resolution  of  Mun-h 
third,  nineteen  hundred  and  nine  (t\v<i-thirds  of  ihc  Senators  |nvs«'nt  eoururrlng 
therein),  did  advise  and  consent  to  the  i-ati(iialion  of  the  said  Ireitty  with 
the  following  understanding,  to  wit: 

Resolved  further  {(t.s  a  ixirt  of  lliis  rdti/icdtioii).  'I'iiat  llie  rnlli-d  S' 
proves  this  treaty  with  the  umlerstandinj,'  tl;at  nothing'  in  this  ireni 
construed  as  affecting  or  (•iianjiin;,'  i.ny  existing:  territorial  or  rlparn.,,  ,,.;,.^ 
in  the  water,  or  rights  of  the  owners  o;'  iand.<  under  water,  on  either  .side  of 
the  international  l)oiuidary  at  the  rapids  of  tlie  Saint  Marys  lti\fr  al  Saull 
Sainte  IMarle,  in  the  use  of  the  waters  Howing  over  such  lands.  siilije<-t  to  the 
requirements  of  navigation  in  Ixmndary  waters,  and  of  navlpatlon  <'aniils,  and 
without  prejudice  to  the  existing  i-ight  of  the  T'nited  States  and  Canatla.  each 
to  use  the  waters  of  the  Saint  Marys  River  within  its  own  territory;  and  fur- 
ther, tliat  nothing  in  this  treaty  .sliall  he  construed  to  interfi're  with  the  drain- 
age of  wet,  swamp,  and  overflowed  lands  into  streams  Howing  Into  houndary 
waters,  and  that  this  interpretation  will  he  mentioned  in  the  ratitlcation  <tf 
this  treaty  as  conveying  the  true  meaning  td"  the  irenty,  and  will,  in  effect,  form 
part  of  the  treaty. 

And  whereas  the  said  understanding  has  Ik^u  accepted  hy  tlie  Government 
of  Great  Britain,  and  the  i-atilications  of  the  two  Governments  of  the  said  tn-aty 
were  exclianged  in  the  city  of  Wa.shington  on  the  fifth  day  of  May,  one  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  ten  ; 

Now,  therefore,  he  it  known  that  I.  William  Howard  Taft.  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  have  caused  the  .said  treaty  and  the  said  under- 
.standing,  as  forming  a  i)art  thereof,  to  he  made  publie,  to  the  en<l  that  the  same 
and  every  article  and  clause  thereof  n)ay  Ite  observed  and  fullilhMl  with  good 
faith  by  the  United  States  and  the  citizens  thereof. 

In  testimony  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  liand  and  cau.s»^l  the  seal  of 
the  United  States  to  he  affixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington  this  thirteenth  day  of  May.  in  the  year  <»f  uur 
Lord  nineteen  hundred  and  ten,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  Uidted  States  of 
America  the  one  hundred  and  thirty-fourth. 

[SEAL.]  \Vm.  H.  Tavt. 

Bv  the  President : 
P.  C.  Knox, 

Secretary  of  State. 

Protoc:oi,  ov  Exchaxgk. 

On  proceeduig  to  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  the  treaty  signed  at 
Washington  on  .January  eleventh,  luneteen  l)undred  and  nine,  helween  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  relating  to  houndary  waters  and  questions 
arising  along  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  the  undersigned  plenipotentiailes,  duly  authorized  thereto  by  tlieir  r**- 
spective  Governments,  hereliy  declare  that  notlnng  in  this  treaty  shiiU  b.- 
construed  as  affecting,  or  changing,  any  existing  territorial  or  riparian  • 
in  the  water  or  rights  of  the  owners  of  lands  umler  water,  on  either  -. 
the  international  boundary  at  the  rapids  of  the  Saint  Marys  Hlver  at  S  Mm 
Sainte  Marie,  in  the  use  of  the  waters  flowing  over  such  lands.  subJ.M-t  to  the 

requirements  of  navigation  in  boundary  waters  ami  of  navigation  < ' 

without  prejudice  to  the  existing  right  of  the  United  States  and  ("  ■ 

to  use  the  waters  of  the  Saint  Marys  Hiver.  within  its  own  territory  :  ai 

tliat  nothing  in  this  treaty  shall  be  construed  to  int.>rfere  with  tin-  dranm^e  oi 

wet    swamp    and  overflowed  lands  into  streams  ih.wing  into  bound.ary  waters. 

and' also  that  this  declaration  shall  be  deemed  to  have  niual  for.v  and  elTe<-t 

as  the  treaty  itself  and  to  form  an  int<'gral  part  thereto. 

The  exchange  of  ratifications  then  took  place  m  tlie  usual  form. 

In  witness  whereof  they  haxe  signed  the  present  protocol  of  exchange  and 
have  affixed  their  seals  thereto. 

Done  at  Washington  this  fifth  day  ..f  May.  nineteiMi  hundred  and  ten. 

Philandek  C.   Knox.     [8K.\l.1 
James  Bryce.  [seal.] 


412      DIVERSIO^'    OF   WATKR   FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AXD   NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Desirable  altemtians. — Although  the  operation  of  the  treaty  has 
been  successful  and  satisfactory  to  date,  and  no  difficulty  has  arisen 
because  of  the  distinction  between  diversions  from  boundary  waters 
and  diversions  from  waters  tributary  to  boundary  waters,  it  is 
deemed  advisable  in  the  interest  of  clearness  and  to  avoid  possible 
future  complicatons,  to  modify  Articles  II  and  III  of  the  treaty  so 
as  to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  International  Joint  Commission 
to  sucli  tributary  waters. 

Article  V  of  the  treaty  deals  with  the  matter  of  the  diversion  of  the 
waters  of  Xiairara  Eiver  for  poAver  production.  "When  the  article 
was  agreed  upon  it  covered  the  existing  situation.  Now,  however,  it 
is  felt  to  be  outgrown.  Power  installations  now  under  construction 
will  give  sufficient  capacity  to  divert  water  in  excess  of  the  limits 
defined  in  this  article  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  There  is  a  steadily 
increasing  demand  for  power,  and  whatever  diversions  may  be 
allowed  in  the  future,  it  is  certain  that  a  market  will  soon  be  found 
for  all  the  power  that  can  be  developed.  Under  the  plans  outlined 
in  Appendices  C  and  D  of  this  report  a  greater  diversion  than  that 
authorized  in  Article  V  can  safely  be  allowed,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  scenic  preservation  is  cared  for  in  w^hat  is  believed  to  be  the  best 
possible  manner. 

The  amount  of  water  that  can  be  diverted  from  the  Niagara  River 
without  serious  damage  to  the  scenic  beauty  of  the  Falls  and  rapids 
has  been  fully  discussed  in  Appendix  C  of  this  report.  It  was  there 
stated  that  a  total  diversion  of  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second  might 
safely  be  allowed  if  half  of  it  were  returned  to  the  Maid-of-the-^Iist 
Pool  and  if  suitable  remedial  works  were  constructed.  This  figure 
was  considered  to  be  a  minimum.  It  is  quite  possible  that  when  this 
amount  has  been  diverted,  observation  will  show  that  a  further  di- 
version is  allowable. 

The  reasons  for  the  unequal  division  of  diversions  from  the  upper 
Niagara  River  stipulated  in  the  treaty  have  been  given  in  Section 
I-l.  and  it  has  there  been  explained  that  these  reasons  no  longer  hold. 
However  correct  and  just  these  provisions  of  diversion  limits  in 
Article  V  may  have  been  in  1910,  it  appears  evident  that  they  are  not 
now  satisfactory  or  just,  and  that  the  increases  granted  should  be  so 
apportioned  as  to  make  the  total  diversions  from  Niagara  River  for 
power  development  equal  on  both  sides  of  the  boundary. 

In  section  F  of  this  report  the  methods  of  utilizing  the  diversion  to 
the  best  advantage  have  been  considered  at  some  length.  The  proj- 
ects in  which  water  is  diverted  from  the  Upper  River,  discharged 
into  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  and  then  drawn  again  from  that  pool 
for  utilization  at  a  loAver  stage,  were  not  thought  to  be  desirable.  In 
the  case  of  tlie  two-stage  propositions  descrilied  in  Section  F  it  may  at 
times  be  advisable  to  draw  a  certain  amount  of  water  from  the  Maid- 
of-the-Mist  Pool.  For  this  reason  it  is  thought  that  the  treaty  should 
permit  the  use  of  water  in  tliis  manner.  lender  the  present  treaty  the 
diversion  of  water  from  the  Maid-of-the-Mist  Pool  and  around  the 
Wliirlpool  and  Lower  Rapids  is  left  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
International  Joint  Commission  without  any  specific  limitation.  The 
use  of  such  diversion  is  so  intimately  allied  with  the  use  of  diversions 
from  the  Upper  River  that  it  seems  advisable  to  include  it  in  Arti- 
cle V. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER   FKOM  CHKAT   KAKKS   AXH  NIAC.ARA   I'.IVKH,     413 

The  introductory  sentence  of  Article  V  states  that  '*  it  is  exi>e<lient 
to  Lmit  the  diversion  of  -waters  from  the  \in«rara  Kiver  so  tiiat  tho 
level  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  flow  of  tli«'  strcuins  shall  not  1m'  appre- 
ciably affected."  Diversions  from  the  Mui<l-()f-tlu'-Mist  l*(n>l  d(»  not 
affect  the  level  of  Lake  Erie,  hut  they  do  affect  tlie  "  Wow  of  the 
stream."  The}'  also  affect  the  scenic  beauty  of  tlw  l^iwrr  Kapids. 
That  the  preservation  of  the  scenic  beauty  of  tlie  I-'alls  aud  i-apids 
was  one  of  the  underlyino;  motives  which  led  lo  the  adoption  of  the 
treaty  is  a  well-knoAvn  historical  fact  which  is  amply  conlirined  by 
the  language  of  the  Burton  Act,  section  4  of  which  reads  as  follows: 

Sec.  4.  That  the  President  of  the  I'nilcil  States  is  n^si>ectfuny  n-iiuest.fl  to 
open  negotiations  with  the  Government  of  Great  Britain  for  the  j»iir|x>H«*  of 
effectually  providing  l),v  suitable  treaty  with  said  (;overnini'nt  f<»r  stidi  regu- 
lation and  control  of  the  waters  of  Niagara  llivcr  and  its  trihtituries  iis  will 
preserve  the  scenic  grandeur  of  Niagara  Falls  and  nf  the  ruitlds  la  said  rl\ur. 

For  these  reasons  it  would  be  well  if  this  motive  were  ad<led  in 
the  introduction  to  Article  V  of  the  treaty. 

In  the  operation  of  large  hydroelectric  plants  the  amount  of  wa- 
ter used  is  not  completely  inidcr  the  control  of  the  ()i)eiators.  Tlie 
action  of  some  consumer.  possil)ly  miles  away,  may  throw  an  in- 
creased load  upon  the  generators.'  The  governors  will  at  once  open 
the  gates  of  the  turbines,  and  more  water  will  be  passed  through 
them.  It  thus  happens  that  a  company  trying  to  obtain  the  full 
henefit  of  the  diversion  allotted  it  will,  from  time  to  time,  violate 
the  provisions  of  its  permit  through  no  faidt  of  its  own.  If  the 
limitations  of  the  permit  are  rigidly  enforced,  this  condition  coin- 
i.els  the  company  to  leave  a  constant  margin  of  safety,  and  habitti- 
a11}  develop  less*^  power  than  it  is  lawfully  entitled  to,  thus  sustain- 
ing a  financial  loss  which  ultimately  falls  on  the  community. 

These  accidental  peak  loads  occur  so  seldom  and  are  of  such  brief 
duration  that  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  all  concerned  that  the  com- 
inmies  should  not  be  penalized  because  of  them.  Tt  is  desirable 
therefore,  that  all  permits  should  be  so  worded  that  such  accidental 
temporary  peaks  will  not  be  deemed  a  violation  of  the  permit.  I  he 
treatv  also  should  preferably  be  so  framed  as  to  allow  small  acci- 
dental diversion  in  excess  of  its  limitations.      .    ,      .         . 

There  is  a  question  as  to  the  advisability  of  altering  I  lie  treaty  so 
as  to  deal  more  in  detail  with  those  matters  concerning  the  construc- 
tion of  compensating  works  other  than  the  "  remedial  works  at 
the  Horseshoe  Falls.  It  is  believed  that  the  treatv  is  satisfactory 
now  in  this  respect.  Such  works  are  essentia  .  but  th.'iv  has  been  no 
difficultv  in  providing  them  at  Sault  Ste.  Mane  under  the  present 
treatv,  and  there  appears  no  reason  why  equal  satisfaction  migli 
not  be  experienced  elsewhere.  Joint  legislative  action  of  the  1  ni  yd 
States  and  Canada  is  necessary,  and  approval  of  the  projects  b>  the 
International  Joint  Commission.  Suggestion  is  made  of  the  advisa- 
bilitv  of  establishinir  in  this  connection  a  permanent  commission 
of  advisorv  engineers,  well  informed  on  matters  pertaining  to  the 
hydraulics  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

3.    INTERESTS    OF    VARIOUS    STATES. 

The  states  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michi-an.  Illinois.  In.liana 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  N^w  York,  and  the  Canadian  Provinces  of 


414      MVEESIOX   OF  WATER  FROM  GREAT  LAKES  AND  NIAGARA  RIVER. 

Ontario  and  Quebec  abut  upon  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  are  affected  by  diversions  of  these 
waters.  The  character  of  these  effects  have  been  discussed  in  Sec- 
tion G.  The  State  of  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Arkansas, 
Mississippi,  and  Louisiana  are  situated  on  the  Mississippi  River 
below  the  point  where  the  diversion  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal 
is  received,  and  have  at  least  a  theoretical  interest  in  that  diver- 
sion. These  14  States  and  2  Provinces  have  a  total  population  of 
about  61,000,000,  containing  53  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the 
continental  United  States  and  63  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  State  of  Missouri  has  claimed  a  vital  interest  in  the  Chicago 
diversion  on  the  ground  that  it  causes  a  dangerous  pollution  of  the 
Mississippi  River  from  which  St.  Louis  and  other  cities  of  that 
State  draw  their  water  supply.  When  they  brought  suit  to  restrain 
the  Sanitaiy  District  from  creating  this  diversion  they  were  un- 
able to  prove  that  any  such  pollution  occurred,  and  the  Supreme 
Court  dismissed  the  case  without  prejudice.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  in  the  future  the  discovery  of  further  evidence  may  lead  to 
the  reopening  of  the  case.  A  more  detailed  account  of  this  case  is 
presented  in  Section  B. 

The  other  States  on  the  Mississippi  have  but  a  very  small  interest 
in  this  diversion.  It  increases  the  river  flow  by  about  8,800  cubic 
feet  per  second  and  increases  the  volume  and  height  of  floods.  As 
the  flood  flow  amounts  to  from  500,000  to  2,000,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  the  increase  due  to  the  addition  of  the  Chicago  diversion 
must  be  inappreciable.  At  extreme  low  water  the  navigation  of 
the  Mississippi  suffers  from  insufficient  draft.  On  the  25-mile 
stretch,  between  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  River  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Missouri,  extreme  low-water  flows  as  small  as  25,000  cubic  feet 
per  second  have  been  reported.  Under  such  conditions  the  addition 
of  the  Chicago  diversion  would  be  a  real  assistance  to  navigation. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  diversion  actually  increases  the  low-water 
depths  by  about  four-tenths  of  a  foot.  The  actual  assistance  to  navi- 
gation is  very  small,  as  the  volume  of  navigation  is  not  great,  and 
the  assistance  is  only  needed  during  a  very  few  weeks  of  low  water 
in  eacli  year.  At  other  times  the  available  depths  are  ample.  Far- 
ther down  the  river,  and  especially  below  Cairo,  the  increase  in 
low-water  depths  is  much  less  than  four-tenths  of  a  foot. 

The  State  of  Minnesota  is  affected  by  the  diversions  at  the  Soo. 
As  the  effect  of  these  has  been,  or  soon  will  be,  completely  com- 
pensated, this  State  is  not  directly  interested  in  the  question  of  diver- 
sion as  far  as  water  levels  in  its" harbors,  rivers,  and  canals  are  con- 
cerned. It  has,  however,  a  vital  interest  in  the  lowering  of  the 
other  hikes  as  its  ports  handk'  a  very  large  ])art  of  the  total  lake 
commerce  in  ore,  coal,  and  grain. 

'i'lie  other  seven  States  which  abut  upon  tlio  Oreat  Lakes  all  have 
their  problems  of  harbors  and  canals,  which  are  directly  affected  by 
the  diversions  at  Chicago,  Niagara  Falls,  and  other  places.  The 
benefit  of  these  diversions  is  chiefly  confined  to  Illinois  and  to  New 
York,  and  each  of  these  two  States  suffers  somewhat  from  the 
diversions  of  the  other. 


DIVERSION   OF  WATER   ERO.\r   (iRKAT  T.AKKS   AND   XlAHAItA   HIVKK.     415 

It  is  not  intended  tn  attempt  to  discuss  the  |)niici])l('s  (»f  constitu- 
tional law  involved.  It  appears  from  an  cn«riiicerin;r  point  «»f  view, 
however,  that  the  adjustment  of  the  conflictinfr  and  widely  vurvini; 
interests  of  such  a  lar^e  number  of  States  is  a  matter  with  which 
only  the  Federal  Govermnent  can  justly  and  cnVct ivcly  deal.  This 
A'iew  has  not  always  been  acceptt'd.  It  has  bci-n  clainie(l  on  behalf 
of  the  States  of  Illinois  and  New  York  that  use  liy  them  of  tin-  wati-rs 
adjacent  to  their  shores  is  a  purely  domestic  matter  with  which 
neither  the  Federal  (iovernment  nor  any  other  State  could  intei-fen*. 
The  claim  of  Illinois  is  noAv  beinp:  considered  by  a  Fc<leral  court  in 
the  case  of  the  United  States  r.  The  Sanitary  District  of  C"hica;ro. 
and  it  is  hoped  that  the  decision  in  this  case  will  settle  that  point. 
This  case  is  described  in  Section  B. 

The  contention  of  the  State  of  New  York  is  somewhat  dilTerent. 
The  attorney  general  of  that  State  appeared  before  the  House  of 
Eepresentatives  Committee  on  Foreign  Aifairs  in  1012  to  object  to 
the  passage  of  certain  bills  concerning  the  diversion  at  Niagara.  He 
admitted  that  the  Federal  Government  had  the  right  to  limit  diver- 
sions and  grant  permits  for  diversions,  but  claimed  that  it-  rights 
ended  there,  and  that  the  permits  could  not  be  conditional.  It  was 
desired  that  the  Government  should  fix  a  delinite  limit  on  the  diver- 
sion and  then  leave  to  the  State  the  allotment  of  the  diversion  to  dif- 
ferent companies,  and  the  regulation  of  its  use.  The  contrary  view  i.s 
that  the  Government  may  grant  permits  for  certain  i)arts  of  the  di- 
version and  make  them  conditional  upon  the  attainment  of  certain 
efficiencies,  the  maintaining  of  certain  rates,  or  the  observance  of  any 
other  conditions  it  sees  fit  to  impose.  The  latter  view  would  appear 
to  be  more  in  accordance  with  the  tend  of  recent  legislation,  and 
recent  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

"W.    S.    Kl(   MMoNI). 

o 


